Article(id=1198652614050152730, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1400, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1671552000000, receivedDateStr=2022-12-21, revisedDate=1679328000000, revisedDateStr=2023-03-21, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763710653078, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1691769600000, pubDateStr=2023-08-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763710653078, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763710653078, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763710653078, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198652605778985059, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='8', pageStart='0', pageEnd='2540', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1691769600000', pubDateStr='2023-08-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763710651106, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1763710739504, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596347, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596348, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=2098, endPage=2110, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198652615199392111, articleId=1198652614050152730, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Alternative splicing events in tumors and targeted therapy, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Alternative splicing is the key to human gene expression regulation and plays a decisive role in enlarging the diversity of functional proteins. Alternative splicing is an important biomarker in tumor progression, which is closely related to the development of tumors. Tumor cells tend to produce alternative spliceosome that are conducive to their progression. Therefore, targeting regulation of tumor-specific alternative spliceosomes is a potential strategy for tumor therapy. Herein, we provide a brief review of the complex relationship between alternative splicing and tumors. Alternative splicing works by removing non-coding sequences of pre-mRNA and assembling protein-coding fragments in different combinations, ultimately producing proteins with different or even opposite functions. Alternative splicing events can promote the transformation of tumor cells through apoptosis, invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, and metabolism; they can also influence the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapy by affecting genes that play a key role in the immune pathway. We proposed that direct or indirect targeting of alternative splicing factors and oligonucleotide-based therapies are the main strategies to reverse tumor alternative splicing events. These findings will help us to better understand tumor-related alternative splicing and to develop new strategies for tumor treatment.

, authors=null, authorsList=Hai-yang YU, Zi-xiang LI, Bo LIU, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Bo LIU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198652621033669510, articleId=1198652614050152730, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=肿瘤中可变剪接事件与靶向治疗, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

可变剪接(alternative splicing) 是人类基因表达调节的关键途径, 它在扩大功能蛋白的多样性方面起着决定性作用。可变剪接事件是肿瘤进展中的一个重要生物标志物, 它与肿瘤的发展密切相关。肿瘤细胞倾向于产生有利于其进展的可变剪接体, 因此, 针对肿瘤特异性可变剪接体进行靶向调控是肿瘤治疗的一个潜在策略。在此, 本文对可变剪接和肿瘤之间的复杂关系做了一个简要回顾。可变剪接通过去除前体mRNA (pre-mRNA) 的非编码序列, 并将蛋白质编码片段以不同的组合方式进行组装, 最终产生具有不同甚至相反功能的蛋白质。可变剪接事件可以通过凋亡、侵袭和转移、血管生成和代谢, 促进正常细胞向肿瘤细胞的转变; 也可通过影响免疫通路中起关键作用的基因, 从而影响癌症治疗的有效性。通过直接或间接靶向可变剪接因子以及基于寡核苷酸的疗法是目前逆转肿瘤可变剪接事件的主要策略。这些发现将有助于研究者更好地了解与肿瘤相关的可变剪接, 并为肿瘤的治疗开发新的策略。

, authors=null, authorsList=于海洋, 李自祥, 刘博, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=刘博, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*刘博, Tel: 15708469925, E-mail:
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Cancer Res, 2015, 75: 1949-1958., articleTitle=A chemical genetics approach for the functional assessment of novel cancer genes, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1198960111642313371, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, awardId=2021YFE0203100, language=CN, fundingSource=国家重点研发计划(2021YFE0203100), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1198960111784919717, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, awardId=HH2022X1008, language=CN, fundingSource=现代中医药海河实验室科技项目(HH2022X1008), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1198960105942253729, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960105950642338, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, companyId=1198960105942253729, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1. State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960105992585379, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, companyId=1198960105942253729, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.天津中医药大学中医药研究院, 组分中药国家重点实验室, 天津 301617)]), AuthorCompany(id=1198960106172940467, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960106189717686, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, companyId=1198960106172940467, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2. State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960106193911992, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, companyId=1198960106172940467, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.四川大学生物治疗国家重点实验室, 四川 成都 610041)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1198960109612270071, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=wm6I359UvXNSPvg7xOzYEw==, figureFileBig=TPAgyXjW9AsFtMrK88C7ZQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960109771653639, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, language=CN, label=Figure 1, caption= A general schematic of pre-mRNA splicing by the major spliceosome. Stepwise assembly of spliceosomal complexes on a pre-mRNA molecule and catalysis of the splicing reaction to generate mature spliced mRNA. The array of spliceosome components assembles in distinct manners throughout the splicing process; termed complexes E, A, B, C, P, and intron-lariat spliceosome (ILS). BPS: Branch point sequences; SS: Splice site , figureFileSmall=wm6I359UvXNSPvg7xOzYEw==, figureFileBig=TPAgyXjW9AsFtMrK88C7ZQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960109939425814, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=BGlZOzj4pTCFk31GU9RhNw==, figureFileBig=cyliLSLyIiVsWJAACo6c8Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960110065254946, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= According to the different types of alternative splicing transcripts, alternative splicing can be divided into: exon skip, alternative 5' splice site, alternative 3' splice site, intron retention, and mutually exclusive exons , figureFileSmall=BGlZOzj4pTCFk31GU9RhNw==, figureFileBig=cyliLSLyIiVsWJAACo6c8Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960110237221422, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=jxdgsgvZ0JSjJXAw+L3PVw==, figureFileBig=lKYRajIhJL+kr9UW6/aycA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960110413382202, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= Alternative splicing events can affect the effectiveness of cancer therapy by promoting the transition from normal cells to tumor cells through apoptosis, invasion and metastasis, angiogenesis, metabolism, and avoiding immune destruction. A: Alternative splicing event of Bcl-2. Bcl-2 pre-mRNA is spliced into two mRNA isoforms, an anti-apoptotic subtype called Bcl-xL and a pro-apoptotic subtype called Bcl-xS. In tumors, anti-apoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family inhibit cell death by binding to BH3-only proteins and activating BAX and BAK in endogenous pathways; B: Alternative splicing event of TAK1. TAK1 pre-mRNA can be spliced into TAK1<i>Δ</i>E12 and the full-length isoform TAK1FL. TAK1<i>Δ</i>E12 is constitutively active and supports TGF-<i>β</i>-induced EMT and NF-<i>κ</i>B signaling, whereas the full-length isoform TAK1FL promotes TGF-<i>β</i>-induced apoptosis; C: Alternative splicing event of VEGF-A 165. USP39 acts as a tumor promoter by activating malignant biological processes by inhibiting VEGF-A 165b alternative splicing and regulating SRSF1 and SRPK1. SRPK1 mediated hyperphosphorylation of SRSF1 leads to a shift from anti-angiogenesis VEGF-A165b to pro-angiogenesis VEGF-A165a isoform; D: Pyruvate kinase muscle isozyme PKM produces PKM1 and PKM2 splice isoforms. PKM1 is expressed in most normal cells and promotes oxidative phosphorylation, while PKM2 is up-regulated in tumor cells and promotes aerobic glycolysis. Fructose metabolism begins when it is phosphorylated by KHK, which exists as two alternative splicing isoforms KHK-A and KHK-C. KHK-C is tissue specific and mainly expressed in the liver, intestine and kidney, while the KHK-A isoform is associated with the development of cancer; E: Alternative splicing event of MyD88. MyD88s isoform is a mechanism for blocking TLR signaling. MyD88 can produce a positive regulator of TLR signaling. However, the MyD88 gene also encodes MyD88s that bind TLR and IRAK1 but not IRAK4 kinase, thereby inhibiting IRAK1 phosphorylation and NF-<i>κ</i>B signaling , figureFileSmall=jxdgsgvZ0JSjJXAw+L3PVw==, figureFileBig=lKYRajIhJL+kr9UW6/aycA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960110564377160, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=jdXlf9o0+/Zz3il6K8C9Ww==, figureFileBig=H4qluin5TZhWuoJkuVPXbw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960110698594900, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, language=CN, label=Figure 4, caption= Targeted therapies for alternative splicing. Small molecule inhibitors (SPHINX, ZINC02154892, SM08502, Cpd-1, Cpd-2, and Cpd-3) can block the activity of splicing factor kinases (CLKs and SRPKs), thereby reversing aberrant mRNA splicing. Small-molecule inhibitors of splicing factors (FR901464, pladienolide B, H3B-8800, 4bHWE, indacaterol) can reverse abnormal splicing by blocking spliceosomal assembly or directly targeting splicing factors. ASO can affect mRNA maturation by entering the nucleus and acting on the precursor mRNA, inhibiting the formation of the 5′ end cap or blocking the polyadenylation of the 3′ end , figureFileSmall=jdXlf9o0+/Zz3il6K8C9Ww==, figureFileBig=H4qluin5TZhWuoJkuVPXbw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960110874755680, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Compound Structure Target Mechanism IC50 Ref.
FR901464 SF3B1 Targeting SF3B1 to exert the antiproliferative effect IC50 values of 0.05 μmol·L-1 for SF3B1 [76, 77]
Pladienolide B SF3B1 Targeting SF3B1 to induce apoptosis The average IC50 in 6 gastric cancer cell lines was 1.6 ± 1.2 nmol·L-1 [79]
H3B-8800 SF3B1 Inhibiting expression of the aberrant splice variant MAP3K7 - [80]
4bHWE SRSF1, SRSF6, SRSF3 Reducing phosphorylation of the SRSF1, and increasing the levels of H3K36me3 The IC50 in Huh-7 cells and human fibroblasts were 8.32 and
26.42 μmol·L-1, respectively
[82]
Indacaterol SRSF6 Targeting SRSF6 to inhibit CRC progression - [83]
SPHINX SRPK1 Promoting the splicing switch of VEGFA165 to VEGFA165b to inhibit tumor growth in vivo - [84]
ZINC02154892 SRPK1 Inhibiting ASF/SF2 phosphorylation and cell survival in leukemia cell lines The IC50 in Jurkat, A549, K562, HeLa cell lines were 9.51, 29.76, 25.81,
34.53 μmol·L-1, respectively
[85]
SM08502 CLKs Reducing SRSF phosphorylation and Wnt pathway gene expression to inhibit tumor growth IC50 values of 0.002 μmol·L-1 for CLK2 and 0.022 μmol·L-1 for CLK3 [86]
Cpd-1 CLKs Reducing the phosphorylation of SRSF1, SRSF4 and SRSF6 to inhibit cell proliferation and promote apoptosis IC50 values of 16 nmol·L-1 for CLK1 and 45 nmol·L-1 for CLK2 [87]
Cpd-2 IC50 values of 1.1 nmol·L-1 for CLK1 and 2.4 nmol·L-1 for CLK2
Cpd-3 IC50 values of 1.1 nmol·L-1 for CLK1 and 2.1 nmol·L-1 for CLK2
), ArticleFig(id=1198960111105442421, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652614050152730, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Small molecule compounds that regulate alternative splicing

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Compound Structure Target Mechanism IC50 Ref.
FR901464 SF3B1 Targeting SF3B1 to exert the antiproliferative effect IC50 values of 0.05 μmol·L-1 for SF3B1 [76, 77]
Pladienolide B SF3B1 Targeting SF3B1 to induce apoptosis The average IC50 in 6 gastric cancer cell lines was 1.6 ± 1.2 nmol·L-1 [79]
H3B-8800 SF3B1 Inhibiting expression of the aberrant splice variant MAP3K7 - [80]
4bHWE SRSF1, SRSF6, SRSF3 Reducing phosphorylation of the SRSF1, and increasing the levels of H3K36me3 The IC50 in Huh-7 cells and human fibroblasts were 8.32 and
26.42 μmol·L-1, respectively
[82]
Indacaterol SRSF6 Targeting SRSF6 to inhibit CRC progression - [83]
SPHINX SRPK1 Promoting the splicing switch of VEGFA165 to VEGFA165b to inhibit tumor growth in vivo - [84]
ZINC02154892 SRPK1 Inhibiting ASF/SF2 phosphorylation and cell survival in leukemia cell lines The IC50 in Jurkat, A549, K562, HeLa cell lines were 9.51, 29.76, 25.81,
34.53 μmol·L-1, respectively
[85]
SM08502 CLKs Reducing SRSF phosphorylation and Wnt pathway gene expression to inhibit tumor growth IC50 values of 0.002 μmol·L-1 for CLK2 and 0.022 μmol·L-1 for CLK3 [86]
Cpd-1 CLKs Reducing the phosphorylation of SRSF1, SRSF4 and SRSF6 to inhibit cell proliferation and promote apoptosis IC50 values of 16 nmol·L-1 for CLK1 and 45 nmol·L-1 for CLK2 [87]
Cpd-2 IC50 values of 1.1 nmol·L-1 for CLK1 and 2.4 nmol·L-1 for CLK2
Cpd-3 IC50 values of 1.1 nmol·L-1 for CLK1 and 2.1 nmol·L-1 for CLK2
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肿瘤中可变剪接事件与靶向治疗
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于海洋 1 , 李自祥 2 , 刘博 2, *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(8): 2098-2110
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药学学报 |综述 2023 , 58 (8) : 2098 -2110
肿瘤中可变剪接事件与靶向治疗
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于海洋1, 李自祥2, 刘博2, *
作者信息
  • 1.天津中医药大学中医药研究院, 组分中药国家重点实验室, 天津 301617
  • 2.四川大学生物治疗国家重点实验室, 四川 成都 610041
通讯作者:
*刘博, Tel: 15708469925, E-mail:
Alternative splicing events in tumors and targeted therapy
Hai-yang YU1, Zi-xiang LI2, Bo LIU2, *
Affiliations
  • 1. State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
  • 2. State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
出版时间: 2023-08-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1400
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可变剪接(alternative splicing) 是人类基因表达调节的关键途径, 它在扩大功能蛋白的多样性方面起着决定性作用。可变剪接事件是肿瘤进展中的一个重要生物标志物, 它与肿瘤的发展密切相关。肿瘤细胞倾向于产生有利于其进展的可变剪接体, 因此, 针对肿瘤特异性可变剪接体进行靶向调控是肿瘤治疗的一个潜在策略。在此, 本文对可变剪接和肿瘤之间的复杂关系做了一个简要回顾。可变剪接通过去除前体mRNA (pre-mRNA) 的非编码序列, 并将蛋白质编码片段以不同的组合方式进行组装, 最终产生具有不同甚至相反功能的蛋白质。可变剪接事件可以通过凋亡、侵袭和转移、血管生成和代谢, 促进正常细胞向肿瘤细胞的转变; 也可通过影响免疫通路中起关键作用的基因, 从而影响癌症治疗的有效性。通过直接或间接靶向可变剪接因子以及基于寡核苷酸的疗法是目前逆转肿瘤可变剪接事件的主要策略。这些发现将有助于研究者更好地了解与肿瘤相关的可变剪接, 并为肿瘤的治疗开发新的策略。

可变剪接  /  前体mRNA  /  剪接因子  /  肿瘤治疗  /  靶向治疗

Alternative splicing is the key to human gene expression regulation and plays a decisive role in enlarging the diversity of functional proteins. Alternative splicing is an important biomarker in tumor progression, which is closely related to the development of tumors. Tumor cells tend to produce alternative spliceosome that are conducive to their progression. Therefore, targeting regulation of tumor-specific alternative spliceosomes is a potential strategy for tumor therapy. Herein, we provide a brief review of the complex relationship between alternative splicing and tumors. Alternative splicing works by removing non-coding sequences of pre-mRNA and assembling protein-coding fragments in different combinations, ultimately producing proteins with different or even opposite functions. Alternative splicing events can promote the transformation of tumor cells through apoptosis, invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, and metabolism; they can also influence the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapy by affecting genes that play a key role in the immune pathway. We proposed that direct or indirect targeting of alternative splicing factors and oligonucleotide-based therapies are the main strategies to reverse tumor alternative splicing events. These findings will help us to better understand tumor-related alternative splicing and to develop new strategies for tumor treatment.

alternative splicing  /  pre-mRNA  /  splicing factor  /  tumor therapy  /  targeted therapy
于海洋, 李自祥, 刘博. 肿瘤中可变剪接事件与靶向治疗. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2098 -2110 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1400
Hai-yang YU, Zi-xiang LI, Bo LIU. Alternative splicing events in tumors and targeted therapy[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2098 -2110 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1400
在真核生物中, mRNA是指导蛋白质生物合成的分子模板, 主要的基因转录物前体mRNA (pre-mRNA) 通常不具有蛋白质合成的功能, 直到非编码序列(内含子) 被移除, 编码序列(外显子) 被拼接在一起生成成熟的mRNA[1]。可变剪接(alternative splicing) 是通过去除pre-mRNA的非编码序列, 并将蛋白质编码片段以不同的组合方式组装, 最终产生具有不同甚至相反功能的蛋白质[2]。因此, 单一基因通过可变剪接可以合成功能不同的成熟mRNA, 增加了mRNA的复杂性, 以满足蛋白质功能的多样性[3]。事实上, 可变剪接是一种广泛存在的事件, 对于90%~95%的人类基因的正常表达是必不可少的[4], 这种复杂而严格调控的机制在不同的组织和发育阶段广泛存在。然而, 在剪接过程中容易发生失调, 基因组突变、调控蛋白因子的缺陷或失衡都可能引起mRNA可变剪接失调[5]。肿瘤中广泛存在异常的可变剪接事件, 其与剪接机制组成部分的突变和/或表达改变相关[6]。有研究通过对8 705名肿瘤患者的可变剪接事件分析发现肿瘤中的可变剪接事件比正常组织多出30%[7]。此外, 剪接失调的基因产物参与了肿瘤的生成和进展, 包括细胞凋亡、侵袭、肿瘤转移、血管生成和化疗/放疗抗性[8]。可变剪接事件已成为人类癌症的重要分子标志物之一, 也是开发新癌症疗法的潜在策略[9]。因此, 识别肿瘤相关的剪接异构体, 并在肿瘤背景下阐明异常可变剪接背后的机制, 对开发肿瘤全新的诊断标志物和治疗策略具有极其重要的意义[5]
因此, 本文介绍了可变剪接的机制和类型, 总结了异常的可变剪接在肿瘤发生和发展中的作用以及靶向异常可变剪接的研究进展。此外, 本文还讨论了目前基于可变剪接事件在癌症治疗中的治疗前景。
在真核生物中, 编码蛋白的基因在其最初的转录产物pre-mRNA中含有大量的内含子, 在变成蛋白质合成模板之前需要去除内含子, 并将外显子重新拼接。Pre-mRNA在核内加工时形成大小不等的中间物, 称为核内不均一RNA (heterogeneous nuclear RNA, hnRNA), 通过对其加工可产生不同的mRNA。因此, 可变剪接是改变pre-mRNA结构的一种分子机制, 这一过程是将剪接的编码序列(外显子) 排列成不同的组合而产生多种mRNA。可变剪接机制在基因表达中扮演重要角色, 因为它们具有时空特异性。具体而言, 在不同发育阶段、组织部位和细胞类型中, 在相同蛋白的表达模式下也可以得到不同的mRNA和翻译产物[10]
Pre-mRNA的剪接过程由多个RNA和RNA结合蛋白协同参与。在细胞核内存在许多大小在100~300个核苷酸的小分子RNA, 称为核内小RNA (small nuclear RNAs, snRNAs)。snRNAs与多肽和蛋白质相互结合形成核糖核蛋白(ribonucleoproteins, RNP)。一个snRNA能与多个蛋白质相结合, 称为snRNP, snRNP包含U1、U2、U4、U5和U6, 是剪接体(spliceosome) 的核心成分。剪接体是能够识别被剪接pre-mRNA上的剪接位点并催化剪接反应的核糖核蛋白复合体。它由5个snRNP和其他蛋白质组成(剪接因子和调节因子) 组成。每个snRNPs都包含自己的snRNAs, 并与一组300个相关蛋白复合, 形成复合体[11]。一旦剪接体snRNAs识别到pre-mRNA结构中的剪接位点, 这个复合体中的剪接蛋白就能相应地交替使用外显子并去除内含子[12]。U1 snRNP与5' 端剪接位点(5' splice site, 5' SS) 结合, U2与3' SS和嘧啶区(py) 结合。接下来, 招募U5、U4和U6, 并通过snRNP之间的重排形成催化活性复合物, 以完成内含子切除和外显子连接(图 1)。剪接位点受到顺式作用的剪接调节元件的调控, 这些元件通过招募反式作用的剪接因子来促进或抑制邻近剪接位点的使用[13]。根据顺式作用元件的位置和功能, 它们被分为外显子剪接增强子、内含子剪接增强子、外显子剪接沉默子和内含子剪接沉默子。增强子被反式作用因子识别, 属于富含丝氨酸/精氨酸(serine/arginine-rich, SR) 蛋白家族, 从而促进剪接位点识别[14]。而沉默子通常与其他类型的反式作用因子, 如核不均一核糖核蛋白(hnRNPs) 相互作用, 从而抑制剪接位点识别并促进外显子跳跃[13]
根据成熟转录本的差异类型可以将可变剪接分为: 外显子跳跃(exon skip)、5'剪接位点改变(alternative 5' splice site)、3'剪接位点改变(alternative 3' splice site)、内含子保留(intron retention) 和外显子互斥(mutually exclusive exons)[3] (图 2)。外显子跳跃, 即串联的3个外显子中, 居中的外显子经剪接过程后被去除; 而5'剪接位点改变和3'剪接位点改变主要是指5'剪接位点和3'剪接位点的位置发生了变化, 出现在了外显子内部; 内含子保留主要指剪接后内含子没有被去除; 而外显子互斥则是指一些外显子存在互斥效应, 无法同时存在于一个转录本内[15]。人类的主要可变剪切形式是外显子跳跃, 占所有可变剪接事件的40%, 由于功能域/位点的丢失或开放阅读框(open reading frame) 的转移, 导致了各种人类疾病, 因此被认为是重要的治疗目标[16]
越来越多的证据证明了异常的可变剪接在肿瘤发生和发展中的重要作用[17], 一方面, 有许多可变剪接事件在肿瘤组织和正常组织中发生的频率是不同的, 此前已有研究人员在32个不同癌种中发现了上千起不同的剪接事件, 它们在正常组织与肿瘤组织之间存在差异[7]; 另一方面, 一些异常的可变剪接产物, 可能在肿瘤的发生和发展中发挥重要作用, 直接影响着肿瘤的进展和治疗[18]。还有一些基因的可变剪接可以对肿瘤相关的通路起到调控作用, 从而影响到肿瘤的进展[19]。可变剪接通过控制RNA异构体的表达来提供转录可塑性, 肿瘤细胞颠覆了这一过程, 产生了有利于细胞增殖和迁移, 或可以逃脱细胞死亡的亚型。肿瘤的发生发展是渐进化、多步骤的。在正常细胞转变为肿瘤细胞的过程中, 它们会逐步获得一些标志性功能, 并最终发展成恶性病变。可变剪接事件可以通过增殖和凋亡、侵袭和转移、血管生成和代谢促进正常细胞向肿瘤细胞的转变, 也可通过影响免疫通路中起关键作用的基因, 从而影响肿瘤治疗的有效性。因此, 可变剪接事件已成为人类肿瘤的重要分子标记之一和开发新的肿瘤治疗方法的潜在靶点。
肿瘤细胞最基本的特征是它们维持持续增殖的能力。正常组织能控制促生长信号和凋亡信号的产生和释放, 这些信号能确保细胞数量的稳态, 从而维持正常组织结构和功能。而肿瘤细胞通过解除对这些信号的管制, 进而获得持续增殖的能力[20]。可变剪接通过调节许多致癌或抑癌基因及剪接因子的选择性表达, 参与细胞的增殖、分化和凋亡过程[17, 21]
B淋巴细胞瘤-2 (B-cell lymphoma-2, Bcl-2) 蛋白家族通过形成异二聚体和同二聚体调节细胞凋亡。Bcl-2蛋白通过控制线粒体膜的通透性来调节细胞色素C (cytochrome C) 释放[22]。Bcl-2家族的抗凋亡成员也通过与BH3-only蛋白结合并在内源性途径中激活BAX和BAK来抑制细胞死亡[23]。Bcl-x是由Bcl-2样蛋白1 (BCL2L1) 基因编码的凋亡调节因子, 通过调节线粒体膜上的电压依赖性阴离子受体来控制线粒体膜电位, 从而控制细胞死亡。Bcl-2 pre-mRNA被剪接成两种mRNA亚型, 它们编码的蛋白质具有不同的生理特性。一种为抗凋亡亚型, 称为Bcl-xL, 另一种为促凋亡亚型, 称为Bcl-xS。Bcl-2剪接模式在其促凋亡亚型和抗凋亡亚型之间的变化在肺癌、乳腺癌、多发性骨髓瘤和前列腺癌等疾病的进展中起关键作用[24-28] (图 3A)。
丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase, MAPK) 相互作用丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶2 (MAPK interacting serine/threonine kinase 2, MNK2) 可以被精氨酸/丝氨酸丰富剪接因子1 (serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 1, SRSF1) 剪接产生两种亚型: MNK2a和MNK2b。MNK2a包含外显子14a, 而MNK2b缺乏外显子14a。如在结直肠癌细胞中, 两种亚型之间存在失衡, 由于SRSF1表达升高, MNK2b占主导地位, 而具有MAPK结合域的MNK2a亚型被下调, 从而通过抑制p38a-MAPK信号通路促进细胞生长并减少细胞凋亡[29]
侵袭和转移是肿瘤治疗亟待解决的难题。上皮-间质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition, EMT) 在癌症的转移和复发过程中被异常激活, 这取决于肿瘤细胞与微环境之间的相互作用[30]
可变剪接与EMT和肿瘤转移的功能联系是通过对CD44基因的研究建立起来的。CD44基因被可变剪接成两个蛋白质家族, 称为CD44v和CD44s。前期研究发现, CD44亚型转换对EMT的发生是必不可少[31], 其他研究还报道, 主要表达CD44v的上皮细胞需要亚型转换为CD44s, 以促进细胞的EMT和肿瘤细胞转移[32, 33]。在CD44可变剪接的情况下, hnRNP M通过与CD44内含子剪接基序结合来促进CD44s的产生, 从而导致转移的增强[34]
在肿瘤细胞中, 有丝分裂信号的增强使转化生长因子-β (transforming growth factor-β, TGF-β) 激活的SMAD3与多聚C结合蛋白1 [poly (rC)-binding protein 1, PCBP1] 相互作用, 并共同调节许多可变剪接事件, 从而有利于EMT、细胞骨架重排和黏附连接信号传导所必需的蛋白亚型的表达[35, 36]。有研究表明, 缺失TGF-β激活激酶1 (transforming growth factor-beta-activated kinase 1, TAK1) 的可变外显子12 (TAK1ΔE12) 具有组成型活性并支持TGF-β诱导的EMT和核因子kappa B (nuclear factor-kappa B, NF-κB) 信号, 而全长TAK1FL则促进TGF-β诱导的细胞凋亡[37]。因此, TAK1激酶经过可变剪接, 可通过TGF-β产生细胞存活和细胞凋亡的两种相反作用(图 3B)。
多聚嘧啶区结合蛋白1 (polypyrimidine tract-binding protein 1, PTBP1) 促进体外膀胱癌细胞的迁移、侵袭和增殖, 以及体内淋巴结转移和肿瘤生长。PTBP1通过可变剪接机制诱导膀胱癌淋巴结的转移和增殖。有研究报道, PTBP1通过上调Meis homeobox 2-L (MEIS2-L) 变异体促进转移, 并通过调节可变剪接增加丙酮酸激酶M2 (pyruvate kinase M 2, PKM2) 表达来诱导增殖[38]
肿瘤生长需要以营养物和氧气形式存在的营养, 以及排出代谢废物和二氧化碳的能力, 而血管生成过程产生的肿瘤相关新血管系统满足了这些需求[39]。在肿瘤进展过程中血管生成总是被激活, 许多蛋白质充当血管化激活剂, 包括血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial-derived growth factor, VEGF)、成纤维细胞生长因子(fibroblast growth factor, FGF)、血管生成素等[40, 41]。在控制血管生成的生长因子、受体、细胞因子和酶中, VEGF-A是主要的促血管生成细胞因子。外显子8中近端和远端3'剪接位点的差异使用会产生具有不同C末端结构域并具有相反特性的亚型, 分别是促血管生成(VEGF-A xxx a) 和抗血管生成(VEGF-A xxx b)[42]。泛素特异性肽酶39 (ubiquitin specific peptidase 39, USP39) 在许多肿瘤中充当促癌因子[43-46]。USP39可能通过抑制VEGF-A165b可变剪接和调节SRSF1和丝氨酸精氨酸蛋白激酶1 (serine/arginine protein kinase 1, SRPK1) 来激活肾细胞癌的恶性生物学过程, 从而作为促肿瘤因子发挥作用[47]。SRPK1介导的SRSF1过度磷酸化导致抗血管生成VEGF-A165b向促血管生成VEGF-A165a亚型转变(图 3C)。
大量临床前和临床证据表明, 特定VEGF-A亚型的表达代表了主要的促血管生成因子, 这与结直肠癌患者的转移形成和不良预后有关[48]。科学家认为最有效但也是最具挑战性的方法可能是让肿瘤中VEGF-A的转录不受阻碍地进行, 但要控制剪接, 使剪接体选择外显子8远端剪接位点代替外显子8近端剪接位点, 这将有效地促进肿瘤关闭其自身的营养供应。由于VEGF在结直肠癌中存在从抗血管生成亚型到促血管生成亚型的转换, 因此相信通过调控VEGF的促血管生成亚型与抗血管生成亚型的比率, 可能将影响肿瘤和其他血管生成相关疾病的治疗, 将是未来研究的重点[48]
为了促进细胞反应, VEGF-A二聚体与配对的酪氨酸激酶受体结合, 称为血管内皮生长因子受体(VEGFR), VEGFRs分为3种类型: VEGFR1、VEGFR2和VEGFR3, 其中VEGFR1和VEGFR2具有相似的结构[49]。VEGF-A亚型家族与VEGFR1和VEGFR2结合以促进血管生成, 而VEGF-C/D亚型与VEGFR3结合以驱动淋巴管生成以形成淋巴管[50]。尽管与VEGFR2相比, VEGFR1对VEGF-A的结合具有更高的亲和力, 然而VEGFR1的激酶活性低, 因此被认为是一种诱饵受体[51]。迄今为止, 研究发现VEGFR1有4种可变剪接亚型, 分别是sVEGFR1-i13、sVEGFR1-i14、sVEGFR1-e15a和sVEGFR1-e15b[52-54]。在这些剪接变体中, sVEGFR1-i13源于内含子13保留和提前多聚腺苷酸化[55]。在功能上, sVEGFR1-i13主要被视为一种天然的VEGF-A拮抗剂, 抑制这种生长因子的促有丝分裂作用。因此, sVEGFR1-i13被认为是新生血管生成抑制剂, 可在小鼠模型中预防肿瘤生长和转移[56]。最近在肺鳞癌细胞中进行的一项研究发现, VEGF-A165促进SOX2的表达, SOX2直接与SRSF2的启动子结合并诱导转录。SRSF2剪接因子促进VEGFR1剪接到sVEGFR1-i13亚型[52]
肿瘤的发生和发展还需要肿瘤细胞的代谢重编程。肿瘤细胞通过各种代谢途径自主改变它们的通量, 以满足增加的生物能量和生物合成需求, 并减轻肿瘤细胞增殖和存活所需的氧化应激[57]
在肿瘤细胞中, Warburg效应被证明是由可变剪接调节[58]。丙酮酸激酶(pyruvate kinase, PK) 是催化糖酵解的限速酶, 通过将磷酸基团转移给ADP生成丙酮酸和ATP[59]。此外, 缺氧诱导的可变剪接也是肿瘤发生和发展的重要因素[60]。丙酮酸激酶同工酶(pyruvate kinase muscle isozyme, PKM) 分别使用互斥的外显子9和外显子10产生PKM1和PKM2剪接异构体。PKM1在大多数正常细胞中表达并促进氧化磷酸化, 而PKM2在肿瘤细胞中表达上调并促进有氧糖酵解[61, 62]。研究证明, 用PKM1替代肿瘤细胞中的PKM2可以显著减少乳酸的产生和肿瘤的大小, 这表明肿瘤细胞中PKM1或PKM2的存在可以直接影响肿瘤的代谢表型[61]。通过调控PKM基因的表达(抑制PKM2的表达, 促进PKM1的产生) 对抑制肿瘤进展具有重要意义。研究表明, PKM的可变剪接是由剪接调控因子hnRNPA1、hnRNPA2、SRSF3等决定的。这表明剪接因子参与了可变剪接在肿瘤代谢中的作用[63] (图 3D)。
除了有氧糖酵解, 增强的谷氨酰胺代谢是肿瘤细胞的另一个重要特征[64]。谷氨酰胺是生物合成反应的重要前提, 补充三羧酸循环的碳源, 并能产生谷胱甘肽调节氧化还原稳态。一些肿瘤细胞依赖谷氨酰胺, 一旦被剥夺就会发生死亡[64]。谷氨酰胺代谢的第一步, 即谷氨酰胺水解为谷氨酸, 由谷氨酰胺酶催化, 谷氨酰胺酶以两种可变剪接的亚型存在: 谷氨酰胺酶C (glutaminase C, GAC) 和肾型谷氨酰胺酶(kidney-type glutaminase, KGA)。在神经胶质瘤、结直肠癌和腺瘤以及乳腺癌细胞系中, 与正常组织相比, GAC亚型占优势[65], 且通过小分子抑制剂特异性抑制GAC亚型可抑制肿瘤进展[66, 67]
3-磷酸甘油和3-磷酸甘油醛在肿瘤细胞内被果糖代谢, 可为肿瘤细胞合成磷脂和甘油三酯提供物质基础。此外, 果糖代谢的中间产物可进入非氧化性磷酸戊糖途径, 为肿瘤细胞合成核糖提供5-磷酸核糖, 并产生大量NAPDH。果糖代谢始于其被酮己糖激酶(ketohexokinase, KHK) 磷酸化, 该酶以两种可变剪接变体存在(KHK-C和KHK-A)。KHK-C和KHK-A是分别通过特异性切除相邻外显子3A和3C产生的。其中, KHK-C具有组织特异性, 主要在肝、肠和肾中表达; 而KHK-A亚型与肿瘤等疾病的发展有关[68, 69] (图 3D)。
免疫疗法正在为一些以前无法治愈的肿瘤提供有效的治疗方法。有研究表明, 肿瘤中的可变剪接异常直接影响在免疫通路中起关键作用的基因, 从而影响肿瘤免疫治疗的有效性[15]。因此, 鉴定不同剪接异构体在特定肿瘤中的作用以及剪接因子的调控作用, 对于揭示肿瘤逃避免疫应答的机制和肿瘤的免疫机制具有重要意义。肿瘤相关巨噬细胞在肿瘤的发展、新血管生成的调节、免疫抑制和转移中发挥重要作用。巨噬细胞在肿瘤中的高度浸润也与几种癌症类型的不良预后相关[70]
先天免疫信号转导中可变剪接的一个突出例子是MyD88。典型的MyD88 mRNA可产生toll样受体(toll-like receptors, TLR) 信号的正调节因子。然而, MyD88基因还编码另一种较短的mRNA (MyD88s), 其中跳过了135-bp外显子2, 它可以结合TLR和白细胞介素受体相关激酶1 (IL-1R-associated kinase 1, IRAK1), 但不能结合IRAK4激酶, 从而导致IRAK1磷酸化和NF-κB激活相关的显性负抑制(dominant-negative inhibition)。因此, 这种负作用亚型的产生可能是终止TLR信号传导的通用机制。MyD88s的产生可由脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS) 诱导, 表明MyD88s的产生可能代表终止炎症的关键负反馈回路[71] (图 3E)。
树突状细胞的成熟是诱导适应性免疫反应的关键步骤, 树突状细胞中剪接因子PTBP1的缺失可以通过调节PKM可变剪接来增强抗肿瘤免疫力, PKM2的降低导致内源性逆转录病毒元件的表达和增强的免疫应答[72]。CD19是包括B细胞前体急性淋巴细胞白血病在内的B细胞表达的常见抗原, 并构成基于嵌合抗原受体修饰T细胞(chimeric antigen receptor-modified T, CAR-T) 的免疫疗法的靶标。然而, 接受这种疗法的患者有大约10%~20%复发, 这与细胞表面的CD19表位丢失有关。SRSF3下调诱导CD19外显子2的跳跃产生截短的蛋白质亚型, 导致其未能触发CAR-T细胞的杀伤[18]
肿瘤特异性可变剪接变异的发现为肿瘤学提供新的治疗靶点。越来越多的证据表明, 一些调控可变剪接事件的化合物可以通过恢复异常的可变剪接程序有效地控制肿瘤。可变剪接的调控可通过靶向调控剪接因子或剪接体, 直接影响肿瘤中可变剪接过程; 也可以通过寡核苷酸精准地针对肿瘤细胞内的单个剪接异构体进行调控。因此, 靶向剪接核心元件以及基于寡核苷酸的疗法是目前逆转肿瘤可变剪接事件的主要策略。这些基于肿瘤特异性可变剪接的治疗策略有望为肿瘤治疗提供新的治疗靶点(图 4)。
剪接体是由5个小核糖核蛋白(small nuclear ribonucleoproteins, snRNP) 和负责从pre-mRNA中去除内含子的其他蛋白质组成的多组分复合物。剪接体是可变剪接的核心元件, 其中pre-mRNA可以剪接形成不同的蛋白质亚型。U2 snRNP与pre-mRNA的分支点序列结合, 由多个剪接因子组成, 包括剪接因子3B (splicing factor 3B, SF3B)[73]。剪接体的小分子调节剂在许多癌症中表现出有效的抗肿瘤活性, 在MYC癌基因(myelocytomatosis oncogene, MYC) 驱动的三阴性乳腺癌中, 剪接体靶向疗法导致错误拼接的mRNA在细胞质中广泛积累, 其中许多形成双链结构。双链RNA (double-stranded RNA, dsRNA) 结合蛋白识别这些内源性dsRNA, 引发抗病毒信号和外源性凋亡。在免疫能力强的乳腺癌模型中, 剪接体靶向疗法导致肿瘤细胞内产生抗病毒信号、下游适应性免疫信号及肿瘤细胞死亡[74]。靶向剪接体元件的小分子, 通过阻止功能剪接体与pre-mRNA结合, 阻断其活性, 从而完全抑制剪接。另外, 广泛的剪接抑制可以通过靶向调节剪接调节因子活性的酶来实现, 如CDC样激酶(CDC-like kinase, CLKs) 或SRPKs的小分子抑制剂。影响剪接因子多聚泛素化和蛋白体降解的化合物(如磺胺类药物) 也能诱发剪接谱的广泛变化[75]
研究表明, 最早发现的剪接调节剂FR901464是一种有效的剪接体抑制剂, 它靶向剪接体的SF3B1, 导致剪接模式发生变化。在HeLa细胞中, FR901464抑制pre-mRNA剪接, 作用于SF3B的半数抑制浓度(half maximal inhibitory concentration, IC50) 为0.05 μmol·L-1[76]。FR901464对多种人类癌细胞系具有有效的抗增殖作用, 如乳腺癌MCF7、肺腺癌A549、结肠癌HCT116、SW480及小鼠白血病P388细胞系, 其IC50值分别为1.8、1.3、0.61、1.0和3.3 nmol·L-1[77]。Pladienolide B是一种大环内酯, 对多种细胞系具有抗增殖活性[78]。Pladienolide B及其衍生物能够直接结合SF3B并抑制肿瘤细胞中的剪接过程[73]。Pladienolide B在抑制胃癌细胞系中的细胞生长方面非常有效, 在6种胃癌细胞系中pladienolide B的平均IC50为1.6 ± 1.2 nmol·L-1, 证明其对胃癌有很强的抗肿瘤活性[79]。H3B-8800是另一种口服靶向SF3B1的剪接调节剂, 以剂量依赖性方式抑制异常剪接变异体MAP3K7的表达, 并优先杀死表达突变剪接体的上皮和血液系统恶性肿瘤, 每天口服2或4 mg·kg-1可减缓SF3B1K700E异种移植小鼠肿瘤的生长[80]
SR蛋白作为参与可变剪接的主要蛋白质之一, 主要依靠SR蛋白相关激酶来调整其在亚细胞器中的定位, 并与转录靶标和其他蛋白质伴侣相互作用, 从而显著影响可变剪接的最终结果[81]。4bHWE是一种从Physalis peruviana中分离出来的化合物, 具有作为抗癌药物的潜在作用, 它通过减少剪接因子SRSF1磷酸化, 同时增加H3K36me3的水平, 并改变染色质凝聚, 显示出对可变剪接的影响[82]。在结直肠癌中, SRSF6经常上调, 并且与预后不良相关。最近的一项研究确定了SRSF6调控的可变剪接靶标, SRSF6通过直接结合其在外显子23中的基序来调节ZO-1异常剪接以发挥癌基因的作用。此外, 研究还发现indacaterol通过靶向SRSF6具有良好的抗结直肠癌的作用[83]
SRPK1是一种磷酸化SR家族蛋白的激酶。SRPK1抑制剂SPHINX可促进VEGFA165向VEGFA165b的剪接转换, 以抑制体内肿瘤生长[84]。据报道, 化合物ZINC02154892是最有效的SRPK1抑制剂。体外分子和细胞生物学研究表明, ZINC02154892是白血病细胞系中ASF/SF2磷酸化和细胞存活的有效和特异性抑制剂。ZINC02154892通过靶向ATP结合位点, 同时抑制SRPK1对ASF/SF2的募集[85]。SM08502是一种用于实体瘤研究的新型小分子, 可通过有效抑制CLK活性来减少Wnt通路信号和基因表达。SM08502抑制SRSF磷酸化并破坏剪接体活性, 这与抑制Wnt通路相关基因和蛋白质表达有关。SM08502还可诱导Wnt通路基因剪接变体的产生, 表明其抑制基因表达的机制包括对可变剪接的影响。在异种移植小鼠模型中, 口服SM08502显著抑制胃肠道肿瘤的生长并降低SRSF磷酸化水平和Wnt通路基因表达[86]。其他CLK小分子抑制剂如Cpd-1、Cpd-2和Cpd-3可显著抑制剪接因子SRSF1、SRSF4和SRSF6的磷酸化, 从而改变S6K pre-mRNA的剪接模式, 减少细胞增殖并促进细胞凋亡[87] (表 1)[76, 77, 79, 80, 82-87]
此外, 基于寡核苷酸的疗法已被证明是靶向具有特异性的野生型或异常剪接变异的有效策略。反义寡核苷酸(antisense oligonucleotide, ASO) 是强大的治疗工具, 通过Watson-Crick碱基配对结合特定的RNA靶序列发挥作用。ASO靶向RNA的应用范围很广, 包括RNA降解、RNA剪接改变、翻译抑制、RNA结构修饰和RNA-蛋白质相互作用的破坏等[88]。剪接转换因子ASOs是经过化学修饰的RNA分子, 由15~30个核苷酸组成, 可以重定向特定的剪接事件, 以防止产生截短或突变的蛋白质, 或产生特定的蛋白质异构体[89]。ASO介导的肿瘤相关剪接异构体的修饰可以在体内外实现。有研究团队筛选出一种ASOs, 能在胶质母细胞瘤和HEK293细胞中将PKM剪接从PKM2切换到PKM1。这种亚型改变由ASOs的脂质修饰引起, 导致培养的胶质母细胞瘤细胞以剂量依赖的方式发生凋亡[90]。另外, 该团队最近的研究发现一种ASOs, ASO1-cEt/DNA能够诱导PKM剪接切换, 抑制肝细胞癌细胞的生长。这种PKM异构体开关增加了丙酮酸激酶活性并改变了葡萄糖代谢, 并在原位肝癌异种移植小鼠模型中, 抑制肿瘤的发生[91]。另一项研究验证ASOs可以有效地诱导外显子跳跃, 破坏非小细胞肺癌相关代谢酶GLDC转录本的ORF, 阻止A549细胞和富含TIC的非小细胞肺癌肿瘤球体细胞TS32中的集落形成[92], 这表明这些ASO在癌症治疗中具有广泛的潜力。此外, 一种名为oligoAB的剪接切换寡核苷酸(splice switching oligonucleotides, SSO) 已被设计为靶向BRCA1的剪接位点序列, 它能够通过刺激BRCA1第11外显子的跳跃, 同时减少BRCA1-FL和BRCA1-Δ11Q的表达来改变BRCA1 pre-mRNA的剪接[93]
除了小分子化合物和寡核苷酸, 还有一些生物大分子能与可变剪接元件相互作用, 从而调控可变剪接的过程。有研究表明, 长链非编码RNA (long non-coding RNA, lncRNA) CRNDE与临床样本和患者来源的异种移植(patient-derived xenograft, PDX) 模型中胃癌的化疗敏感性有关。CRNDE减少并抑制化疗耐药胃癌细胞中的自噬通量。CRNDE能直接与剪接蛋白SRSF6结合, 降低其蛋白稳定性, 从而调节可变剪接事件。研究表明, SRSF6调节PICALM外显子14跳跃剪接变体并触发S到L亚型转换, 这有助于PICALM长亚型(编码PICALML) 的表达。因此, CRNDE作为潜在的预后标志物, 是化疗耐药胃癌新的治疗靶点[94]。研究表明, 环状RNA (circular RNA, circRNA) 在人类肿瘤发生过程中对基因调控发挥重要的作用。如与胃癌癌旁样本相比, circURI1在胃癌中的表达水平显著增加, 并且circURI1可直接与hnRNPM相互作用, 调节基因的可变剪接, 参与细胞迁移过程, 从而抑制胃癌转移[95]。发生淋巴结转移的膀胱癌患者预后极差, 目前尚无有效治疗方法。有研究表明, 一种不含POU结构域(Pit-Oct-Unc) 的八聚体结合蛋白(NONO), 在膀胱癌组织中显著下调, 并与淋巴结转移状态、肿瘤分期和预后相关。在功能上, NONO显著抑制体外膀胱癌细胞迁移和侵袭以及体内淋巴结转移。NONO通过与富含脯氨酸/谷氨酰胺的剪接因子(SFPQ) 相互作用来调节Su(var)3-9/enhancer-of-zeste/trithorax domain and mariner transposase fusion gene (SETMAR) 的可变剪接, 最终导致H3K27me3的上调并诱导膀胱癌细胞的转移抑制[96]。因此, NONO通过SETMAR可变剪接抑制膀胱癌淋巴转移, 可能为淋巴结转移性膀胱癌提供新的临床标志物和治疗策略。
近年来, 随着组学技术及分析方法的进步, 肿瘤中越来越多的可变剪接的改变被发现, 这有助于研究者了解肿瘤的发生和发展机制。癌症筛查组目前包括血液恶性肿瘤中突变基因之间的剪接因子突变。剪接因子水平的改变和下游剪接靶标的失调是许多癌症共有的肿瘤特征。可变剪接改变代表了一种新颖而丰富的潜在治疗靶点来源, 基于RNA疗法的进步可能会加速剪接调节化合物作为癌症疗法的发展。
此外, 其他领域的进步可用于解决当前在基于RNA疗法的递送和功效方面的挑战。如可以通过将siRNA加载到涂有抗CD38单克隆抗体的脂质纳米颗粒上来实现对白细胞的特异性递送。这种方法被证明可有效抑制体内细胞周期蛋白D1、抑制肿瘤生长并延长移植有人类淋巴瘤细胞的小鼠的存活时间[97], 从而为血液恶性肿瘤的治疗开辟了一条新途径。类似的靶向策略可用于将剪接转换ASO递送至治疗目标细胞并提高其在肿瘤中的疗效。
肿瘤耐药性已成为肿瘤治疗的主要挑战之一, 这导致肿瘤治疗的低效或失败。可变剪接不仅可以显著影响癌症药物靶点的表达水平和功能, 还能促进肿瘤细胞对化疗药物产生耐药性[98]。因此可通过寻找可变剪接肿瘤耐药的作用, 寻找解决各类肿瘤耐药的新方法。引人注目的是, STF-080310, 一种新型IRE1α/XBP1抑制剂, 可以通过特异性破坏XBP1的剪接和降低XBP1s的表达水平, 使耐药MCF7癌细胞对他莫昔芬敏感[99]。剪接调节剂如剪接抑制素A (SSA) 或其类似物美亚霉素B (MAMB), 可以靶向SF3B1以抑制BRAF的剪接, 从而使耐药黑色素瘤对威罗非尼敏感[100]。长期暴露于吉西他滨会导致胰腺导管腺癌细胞中PTBP1的上调和PKM可变剪接的调节, 从而对该药物产生抗性[101]
成簇规则间隔短回文重复序列(CRISPR) 和CRISPR相关蛋白(Cas) 系统已成为基因编辑技术的前沿, 其临床应用已在许多疾病中得到研究[102]。CRISPR/Cas系统可以设计成使用单个向导RNA (single guide RNA, sgRNA) 来破坏或编辑特定的剪接位点, 使用一对sgRNA来去除特定的外显子或调节顺式元件, 或者使用模板介导的同源重组来纠正剪接基因突变引起的异常[103]。基于CRISPR/Cas的创新敲入系统已被用于探索SF3B1突变导致癌细胞系中可变剪接事件的功能[104]。因此, 基于CRISPR/Cas系统的基因编辑用于纠正肿瘤中异常的可变剪接事件具有重要意义。
越来越多的证据表明, 可变剪接对许多癌症的发生和发展有重大影响。因此, 靶向异常可变剪接可能为癌症治疗提供一条新的途径, 包括小分子、ASO、生物大分子、基于CRISPR/Cas编辑技术, 以及调节剪接的免疫疗法。尽管该领域取得了令人振奋的进展, 一些针对剪接的药物或抑制剂正在进行肿瘤的临床试验, 但这些基于可变剪接的抗肿瘤疗法距离临床应用还很遥远。所以, 未来的努力需要揭示现有的剪接调节, 特别是致癌或抑制肿瘤的可变剪接事件和剪接因子的研究。这将有助于研究者更好地了解与肿瘤相关的可变剪接, 并为肿瘤的治疗开发新的策略。
作者贡献: 于海洋负责综述撰写工作; 李自祥完成文献查阅工作和作图; 刘博完成文章修改、校对和审核。
利益冲突: 作者声明本文不存在任何利益冲突。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2021YFE0203100)
  • 现代中医药海河实验室科技项目(HH2022X1008)
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2023年第58卷第8期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1400
  • 接收时间:2022-12-21
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-08-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-12-21
  • 修回日期:2023-03-21
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国家重点研发计划(2021YFE0203100)
现代中医药海河实验室科技项目(HH2022X1008)
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    1.天津中医药大学中医药研究院, 组分中药国家重点实验室, 天津 301617
    2.四川大学生物治疗国家重点实验室, 四川 成都 610041

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
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Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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