Article(id=1198652611185439388, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0315, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1678809600000, receivedDateStr=2023-03-15, revisedDate=1682265600000, revisedDateStr=2023-04-24, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763710652394, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1691769600000, pubDateStr=2023-08-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763710652394, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763710652394, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763710652394, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198652605778985059, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='8', pageStart='0', pageEnd='2540', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1691769600000', pubDateStr='2023-08-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763710651106, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1763710739504, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596347, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596348, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=2059, endPage=2069, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198652612179489456, articleId=1198652611185439388, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Methods of apoptosis detection: advances and applications, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a common phenomenon which involved in a variety of physiological and pathological conditions in humans, such as neurodegenerative diseases, ischemic injury, autoimmune diseases and cancers. Apoptosis can be detected in vitro by morphology, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, and other techniques. Probes for cell apoptosis detection in vivo are still under research and various reagents and methods are constantly emerging. However, none of apoptosis detection methods or reagents are perfect and they all have advantages and disadvantages, as well as suitable scope of application. With the increasing application of apoptosis detection techniques, researchers will be confused about how to choose a suitable method to detect apoptosis and define the application range of each apoptosis detection method. Therefore, it is necessary to compare the benefits and drawbacks of existing apoptosis detection techniques as well as their applicable conditions. This article reviews morphological characteristics, molecular mechanism and specific biochemical changes in apoptotic cells. We summarized various apoptosis-detection methods based on these characteristics that can be used in vitro and in vivo, the advantages and disadvantages of each method and the scope of application. Also, we highlighted the existing tracers that have been used in apoptosis detection in vivo, their potentialities and limitations as well as the clinical applications of apoptosis imaging in multiple disease fields.

, authors=null, authorsList=Meng-yue GAO, Zi-chun HUA, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Zi-chun HUA, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198652616478651225, articleId=1198652611185439388, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=细胞凋亡检测技术: 进展及应用, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

细胞凋亡或程序性细胞死亡是一个涉及人类多种生理病理状况的普遍现象, 它可能会导致神经系统功能衰退、缺血性损伤、自身免疫性疾病及癌症等疾病的发生。细胞的凋亡状态可以通过形态学、生物化学、分子生物学及免疫学等技术手段进行体外检测。体内细胞凋亡检测探针也在不断发展, 出现了多种新型的试剂和方法。但是, 每一种检测方法或试剂都不是完美的, 它们都有各自的优缺点及适用条件。随着细胞凋亡检测技术的应用日益广泛, 如何选择一种合适的方法来检测细胞凋亡以及如何界定每种凋亡检测方法的适用范围常常使研究者感到困惑。因此, 对现有的细胞凋亡检测方法的优缺点和适用条件进行比较是必要的。本文综述了凋亡细胞的形态特征、分子机制和特异性的生化变化, 并且总结了基于这些特征变化而建立的体内外凋亡检测方法及其优缺点和适用范围。本综述还强调了现有的用于体内凋亡检测的示踪剂及其潜力和局限性, 以及细胞凋亡成像在多种疾病领域的临床应用。

, authors=null, authorsList=高梦月, 华子春, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=华子春, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*华子春, Tel: 86-25-83324605, E-mail:
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2. Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Research Institute of Industrial Technology Research Institute of Jiangsu Province, High-tech Research Institute of Nanjing University at Changzhou, Changzhou 213164, China
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3.南京吉芮康生物科技研究院, 江苏 南京 210044
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Red: Targets for DNA fragmentation assay; Green: Targets for detecting expression levels of apoptosis-related proteins; Black: Targets for mitochondrial membrane potential assay; Orange: Detection for cytochrome C release; Blue: Targets for morphological detection, eg. apoptotic bodies formation; Violet: Detection for caspases activation; Yellow: Detection for altered cell membrane, like exposed PS or PE and altered membrane permeability. DISC: Death-inducing signaling complex; SMAC: Second mitochondrial-derived activator of caspase; IAPS: Inhibitors of apoptosis protein; PS: Phosphatidylserine; PE: Phosphatidylethanolamine; Bcl-2: B cell lymphoma 2; Proapoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins: Bid, Bax, Bak; Antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins: Bcl-2, Bcl-xL; tBid: Truncated Bid; TRAIL: Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis inducing ligand; Apaf-1: Apoptotic protease activating factor-1 , figureFileSmall=FsKLIj+5YyYO8Vr8KGBd8A==, figureFileBig=3w1jd/T0qhU/YXVDw6EIZw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960095833981245, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=4E+mxXehwzYfvIaLkRITcg==, figureFileBig=l8pxo8ALa5dxKim574ADmw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960095943033162, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption=  Summary of features of apoptotic cells and detection methods based on different characteristics , figureFileSmall=4E+mxXehwzYfvIaLkRITcg==, figureFileBig=l8pxo8ALa5dxKim574ADmw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960096064667988, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Target Advantage Disadvantage Scope of application
Morphological features Simplicity; convenience; intuition in the observation Can not recognize apoptosis in a small area; easy to confuse apoptosis and necrosis; qualitative but not quantitative Light microscope and fluorescence microscopy: mainly suitable for observing late apoptosis; EM: suitable for detecting apoptosis in different stages
DNA fragmentation DNA gel electrophoresis: simplicity, qualitatively accurate; TUNEL: sensitive, specific, quantitative DNA gel electrophoresis: poor specificity and sensitivity, semi-quantitative; TUNEL assay: yielding false-positive results DNA fragmentation assay: suitable for late apoptosis; TUNEL: detecting apoptosis in situ
Biochemical features High sensitivity and specificity; commonly used and well-accepted assay Expensive; requires complicated processing Mitochondrial membrane potential assay and phosphatidylserine assay: suitable for early stage of apoposis
Expression level of apoptosis-related proteins Sensitive and specific; qualitative and quantitative; can be used to reveal the mechanism of apoptosis Can not absolutely quantify and localize apoptotic cells Being suitable for detecting apoptosis in different stages
), ArticleFig(id=1198960096182108510, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Comparison of different apoptosis detection methods in vitro. EM: Electron microscope; WB: Western blot

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Target Advantage Disadvantage Scope of application
Morphological features Simplicity; convenience; intuition in the observation Can not recognize apoptosis in a small area; easy to confuse apoptosis and necrosis; qualitative but not quantitative Light microscope and fluorescence microscopy: mainly suitable for observing late apoptosis; EM: suitable for detecting apoptosis in different stages
DNA fragmentation DNA gel electrophoresis: simplicity, qualitatively accurate; TUNEL: sensitive, specific, quantitative DNA gel electrophoresis: poor specificity and sensitivity, semi-quantitative; TUNEL assay: yielding false-positive results DNA fragmentation assay: suitable for late apoptosis; TUNEL: detecting apoptosis in situ
Biochemical features High sensitivity and specificity; commonly used and well-accepted assay Expensive; requires complicated processing Mitochondrial membrane potential assay and phosphatidylserine assay: suitable for early stage of apoposis
Expression level of apoptosis-related proteins Sensitive and specific; qualitative and quantitative; can be used to reveal the mechanism of apoptosis Can not absolutely quantify and localize apoptotic cells Being suitable for detecting apoptosis in different stages
), ArticleFig(id=1198960096471515503, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Target Probe/Label Class Definition Human study
Exposed PE Duramycin-99mTc Peptide Kd: 4 to 11 nmol·L-1 None
Duramycin-18F Kd: 11 to 21 nmol·L-1 None
Cinnamycin-125 Kd: 10 to 200 nmol·L-1 None
Exposed PS AnxA5-111In Protein Kd: 1 to 7 nmol·L-1 None
99mTc-BTAP-AnxA5 Unknown In phase Ⅰ trial
AnxA5-99mTc (HYNIC) Kd: 1 to 7 nmol·L-1 In phase Ⅱ/Ⅲ trial
AnxA5-123Ⅰ, AnxA5-131 Kd: 7 nmol·L-1 None
AnxA5-18F Kd: 2 to 10 nmol·L-1 None
AnxB1-99mTc Kd: 50 nmol·L-1 None
AnxB1-18F Kd: 10 nmol·L-1 None
C2A-GST-99mTc IC50: 90 nmol·L-1 None
C2A-GST-18F Unknown None
99mTc-lactadherin[34] Unknown None
Radiolabeled ZnDPA[34] Low-molecular-weight
compound
AnxA5 mimic; be independent of Ca2+,
but requiring Zn2+
None
Altered membrane DDC (fluorescent) Aposense family Uptake is specific for apoptotic cells None
permeability NST-732 (fluorescent)-18F None
NST-729 (fluorescent) None
ML-9-3H None
ML-10-3H, ML-10-18F,
ML-10-123
ML-10-18F is used in
phase Ⅰ/Ⅱ trial
Activated caspases WC-Ⅱ-89-18F Isatin family Caspase inhibitors; detecting activated caspases, such as caspase-3 and caspase-7 None
WC-98-11C None
WC-Ⅳ-3-18F None
ICMT-11-18F In phase Ⅰ trial[59]
CP18-18F Peptide Caspase-3 substrate In phase Ⅱ trial[60]
DNA damage and repair PJ34-11C Olaparib derivatives PARP-1 inhibitors; being specific for None
BO-18F PARP-1 None
PARPi-18F None
), ArticleFig(id=1198960096643481979, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, language=CN, label=Table 2, caption=

 Tracers of apoptosis detection in vivo

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Target Probe/Label Class Definition Human study
Exposed PE Duramycin-99mTc Peptide Kd: 4 to 11 nmol·L-1 None
Duramycin-18F Kd: 11 to 21 nmol·L-1 None
Cinnamycin-125 Kd: 10 to 200 nmol·L-1 None
Exposed PS AnxA5-111In Protein Kd: 1 to 7 nmol·L-1 None
99mTc-BTAP-AnxA5 Unknown In phase Ⅰ trial
AnxA5-99mTc (HYNIC) Kd: 1 to 7 nmol·L-1 In phase Ⅱ/Ⅲ trial
AnxA5-123Ⅰ, AnxA5-131 Kd: 7 nmol·L-1 None
AnxA5-18F Kd: 2 to 10 nmol·L-1 None
AnxB1-99mTc Kd: 50 nmol·L-1 None
AnxB1-18F Kd: 10 nmol·L-1 None
C2A-GST-99mTc IC50: 90 nmol·L-1 None
C2A-GST-18F Unknown None
99mTc-lactadherin[34] Unknown None
Radiolabeled ZnDPA[34] Low-molecular-weight
compound
AnxA5 mimic; be independent of Ca2+,
but requiring Zn2+
None
Altered membrane DDC (fluorescent) Aposense family Uptake is specific for apoptotic cells None
permeability NST-732 (fluorescent)-18F None
NST-729 (fluorescent) None
ML-9-3H None
ML-10-3H, ML-10-18F,
ML-10-123
ML-10-18F is used in
phase Ⅰ/Ⅱ trial
Activated caspases WC-Ⅱ-89-18F Isatin family Caspase inhibitors; detecting activated caspases, such as caspase-3 and caspase-7 None
WC-98-11C None
WC-Ⅳ-3-18F None
ICMT-11-18F In phase Ⅰ trial[59]
CP18-18F Peptide Caspase-3 substrate In phase Ⅱ trial[60]
DNA damage and repair PJ34-11C Olaparib derivatives PARP-1 inhibitors; being specific for None
BO-18F PARP-1 None
PARPi-18F None
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细胞凋亡检测技术: 进展及应用
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2.江苏省产业技术研究院医药生物技术研究所, 常州南京大学高新技术研究院, 江苏 常州 213164
3.南京吉芮康生物科技研究院, 江苏 南京 210044
4.南京大学深圳研究院, 广东 深圳 518057, bio=null, bioImg=null, bioContent=null, aboutCorrespAuthor=null)}, companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1198960092298183676, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960092314960894, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, companyId=1198960092298183676, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1. School of Life Sciences, the State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960092323349503, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, companyId=1198960092298183676, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.南京大学生命科学学院, 医药生物技术国家重点实验室, 江苏 南京 210023)]), AuthorCompany(id=1198960092482732039, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960092545646603, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, companyId=1198960092482732039, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2. Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Research Institute of Industrial Technology Research Institute of Jiangsu Province, High-tech Research Institute of Nanjing University at Changzhou, Changzhou 213164, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960092562423821, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, companyId=1198960092482732039, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.江苏省产业技术研究院医药生物技术研究所, 常州南京大学高新技术研究院, 江苏 常州 213164)]), AuthorCompany(id=1198960092721807388, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960092746973218, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, companyId=1198960092721807388, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=3. Nanjing Genrecom Biotechnology Research Institute, Nanjing 210044, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960092755361827, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, companyId=1198960092721807388, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=3.南京吉芮康生物科技研究院, 江苏 南京 210044)]), AuthorCompany(id=1198960092864413743, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960092872802352, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, companyId=1198960092864413743, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=4. Shenzhen Research Institute of Nanjing University, Shenzhen 518057, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198960092881190961, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611185439388, companyId=1198960092864413743, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=4.南京大学深圳研究院, 广东 深圳 518057)])])]
高梦月1, 2, 3, 华子春1, 2, 3, 4, *
作者信息
  • 1.南京大学生命科学学院, 医药生物技术国家重点实验室, 江苏 南京 210023
  • 2.江苏省产业技术研究院医药生物技术研究所, 常州南京大学高新技术研究院, 江苏 常州 213164
  • 3.南京吉芮康生物科技研究院, 江苏 南京 210044
  • 4.南京大学深圳研究院, 广东 深圳 518057
通讯作者:
*华子春, Tel: 86-25-83324605, E-mail:
Methods of apoptosis detection: advances and applications
Meng-yue GAO1, 2, 3, Zi-chun HUA1, 2, 3, 4, *
Affiliations
  • 1. School of Life Sciences, the State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
  • 2. Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Research Institute of Industrial Technology Research Institute of Jiangsu Province, High-tech Research Institute of Nanjing University at Changzhou, Changzhou 213164, China
  • 3. Nanjing Genrecom Biotechnology Research Institute, Nanjing 210044, China
  • 4. Shenzhen Research Institute of Nanjing University, Shenzhen 518057, China
出版时间: 2023-08-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0315
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细胞凋亡或程序性细胞死亡是一个涉及人类多种生理病理状况的普遍现象, 它可能会导致神经系统功能衰退、缺血性损伤、自身免疫性疾病及癌症等疾病的发生。细胞的凋亡状态可以通过形态学、生物化学、分子生物学及免疫学等技术手段进行体外检测。体内细胞凋亡检测探针也在不断发展, 出现了多种新型的试剂和方法。但是, 每一种检测方法或试剂都不是完美的, 它们都有各自的优缺点及适用条件。随着细胞凋亡检测技术的应用日益广泛, 如何选择一种合适的方法来检测细胞凋亡以及如何界定每种凋亡检测方法的适用范围常常使研究者感到困惑。因此, 对现有的细胞凋亡检测方法的优缺点和适用条件进行比较是必要的。本文综述了凋亡细胞的形态特征、分子机制和特异性的生化变化, 并且总结了基于这些特征变化而建立的体内外凋亡检测方法及其优缺点和适用范围。本综述还强调了现有的用于体内凋亡检测的示踪剂及其潜力和局限性, 以及细胞凋亡成像在多种疾病领域的临床应用。

细胞凋亡检测  /  生物化学  /  免疫学  /  适用范围  /  体内示踪剂

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a common phenomenon which involved in a variety of physiological and pathological conditions in humans, such as neurodegenerative diseases, ischemic injury, autoimmune diseases and cancers. Apoptosis can be detected in vitro by morphology, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, and other techniques. Probes for cell apoptosis detection in vivo are still under research and various reagents and methods are constantly emerging. However, none of apoptosis detection methods or reagents are perfect and they all have advantages and disadvantages, as well as suitable scope of application. With the increasing application of apoptosis detection techniques, researchers will be confused about how to choose a suitable method to detect apoptosis and define the application range of each apoptosis detection method. Therefore, it is necessary to compare the benefits and drawbacks of existing apoptosis detection techniques as well as their applicable conditions. This article reviews morphological characteristics, molecular mechanism and specific biochemical changes in apoptotic cells. We summarized various apoptosis-detection methods based on these characteristics that can be used in vitro and in vivo, the advantages and disadvantages of each method and the scope of application. Also, we highlighted the existing tracers that have been used in apoptosis detection in vivo, their potentialities and limitations as well as the clinical applications of apoptosis imaging in multiple disease fields.

cell apoptosis detection  /  biochemistry  /  immunology  /  scope of application  /  tracers used in vivo
高梦月, 华子春. 细胞凋亡检测技术: 进展及应用. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2059 -2069 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0315
Meng-yue GAO, Zi-chun HUA. Methods of apoptosis detection: advances and applications[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2059 -2069 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0315
细胞死亡通常被分为两种类型: 意外的细胞死亡(accidental cell death, ACD) 和受调控的细胞死亡(regulated cell death, RCD)。RCD被认为是一种可逆的过程[1], 其死亡形式包括凋亡、调节性坏死、自噬依赖的细胞死亡、焦亡、铁死亡等[2]。无论是在技术研究还是机制挖掘方面, 这些细胞死亡形式的研究都取得了很大的进步[3]。随着RCD研究的不断发展, 检测方法也在不断完善和多样化, 以便能达到准确识别和系统分析这些死亡形式的目的[3]。每种RCD都有各自独特的分子机制, 具有特殊的形态学特征, 充分了解各种检测方法的优缺点对于提高检测效率和准确性是必要的[3, 4]。细胞凋亡是RCD的一种表现形式, 是细胞自身为了能够更好地适应周围的生存环境而被迫采取的一种有效策略, 是一种自然的、非炎症的、需要能量的、程序性的细胞死亡形式。细胞凋亡失调与多种疾病密切相关, 如自身免疫疾病、神经退行性疾病、脑和心肌缺血和肿瘤等[5]。对疾病进程和治疗过程中凋亡异常细胞进行检测和调节是疾病诊断和治疗极具潜力的新靶点。研究细胞凋亡可以为基础研究和临床实践带来巨大的收益, 而对细胞凋亡进行有效的检测是该研究的前提。体外凋亡检测方法多种多样, 它在临床实践中可以对组织样本进行检测, 但是无法直接检测患者体内的细胞凋亡水平。而细胞凋亡的体内成像是一种非侵入性的过程, 能够在疾病发生、发展或缓解期间监测体内细胞凋亡水平, 因此体内细胞凋亡检测技术在临床实践中的重要性日益凸显[6]。由于细胞凋亡的检测方法和技术多种多样, 如何选择合适的检测方法就显得尤为重要。本文从凋亡特征、技术原理、各种方法的优缺点及应用范围等方面, 综述了近年来体内外细胞凋亡检测技术的新进展及其在生命科学领域的应用情况。本文为研究人员更好地筛选和确定合适的细胞凋亡检测方法提供了参考。
一系列形态学特征的变化常发生在细胞凋亡反应的整个过程中, 如细胞的收缩、染色质的固缩、细胞膜出泡和线粒体肿胀等。基于细胞核的形态特征, 细胞凋亡可以被分为Ⅰ、Ⅱa、Ⅱb 3个不同的阶段[7]。在细胞凋亡Ⅰ期, 凋亡细胞发生萎缩, 细胞质变致密, 含水量下降, 嗜酸性粒细胞增多, 细胞表面微绒毛消失, 凋亡细胞与周围正常细胞群分离。在细胞凋亡Ⅱa期, 染色质发生凝结, 变成致密团块或者在核膜内侧聚集(染色质边缘化), 随后细胞核发生碎裂。在细胞凋亡Ⅱb期, 细胞骨架降解, 导致细胞膜发生内陷, 或发芽和移位, 形成膜包裹的、包含有细胞质膜、核碎片和细胞器成分的凋亡小体[8]
光学显微镜可以显示凋亡细胞的形态学特征, 苏木精/伊红染色、吉姆萨染色和瑞氏染色是3种不同的细胞染色方法, 染色后的细胞通过光学显微镜可以清楚地观察到凋亡细胞的形态特征。细胞经乙酸铀酰柠檬酸铅染色后, 形态特征可以通过电子显微镜观察, 可见凋亡细胞体积缩小、胞浆浓缩、细胞表面形成突起。透射电子显微镜可以显示细胞在凋亡不同阶段的超微形态变化[9]。采用荧光标记技术, 用Hoechst 33342、吖啶橙(AO) 或4′, 6-二氨基-2-苯基吲哚(DAPI) 将细胞进行染色后, 通过荧光显微镜或共聚焦显微镜可以观察到凋亡细胞的形态变化。荧光信号的强度和分布间接反映了细胞核和染色质的状况, 据此可以判断凋亡是否发生[10, 11]
光学显微镜检测法简单易行, 但分辨率低, 难以有效检测出处于早期阶段的凋亡细胞, 主要适用于观察处于Ⅱb期的细胞凋亡。巨噬细胞识别、吞噬和清除凋亡细胞的过程非常快速, 不会留下痕迹, 因此小范围的细胞凋亡现象不容易通过一般形态学特征识别。某些特定类型的细胞坏死与细胞凋亡在形态学特征上非常接近, 容易发生混淆, 单纯地使用光学显微镜检测法很难将它们区分开来。该方法可以初步判断细胞凋亡的发生, 但其主观性较强, 很难被普遍使用。电子显微镜检测法可以清晰地观察到凋亡细胞在不同时期的变化, 主要适用于观察处于Ⅰ、Ⅱa、Ⅱb期的凋亡细胞。但是由于样品制作过程繁琐且仪器设备昂贵, 该方法没有被普遍采用。此外, 不是所有的细胞在凋亡过程中都具有典型的形态学特征, 即使没有典型的凋亡特征, 也不能排除细胞凋亡的发生, 这就需要结合其他检测方法来共同确定[9]。荧光标记技术结合荧光显微镜或激光共聚焦显微镜检测, 可以直接观察到凋亡细胞内细胞核的变化。但是, 如果细胞凋亡的范围较小, 通过荧光显微镜和共聚焦显微镜来观察也不太容易, 因此它主要适用于细胞凋亡Ⅱb期的观察[12]。以上这些不同的形态学检测方法在体外细胞凋亡的检测中具有明显的优势, 但定量准确度和定性能力都比较差, 因此它们在实际凋亡检测中很少被单独使用。
除了形态学特征的改变, 细胞凋亡还涉及一系列生化特征的变化, 如DNA的片段化、细胞凋亡蛋白酶caspase的激活及细胞膜表面磷脂酰丝氨酸(PS) 的外翻等[13]。线粒体在细胞凋亡的整个过程中是不可缺少的一部分, 它们的状态对细胞凋亡的调节至关重要。Bcl-2家族蛋白广泛存在于线粒体膜上, 它与线粒体的结合状态将会引起一系列的生化反应: 从线粒体膜电位的变化, 到细胞色素C的释放, 再到caspase通路的激活。找到细胞凋亡过程中生化指标的改变, 并基于这些变化设计对应的检测方法, 是鉴定细胞凋亡的一种有效策略。
DNA的片段化是细胞凋亡发生的一个特征性的生化指标[14], 可以作为细胞凋亡的标志。迄今为止, 人们已经开发出3种检测DNA片段化的方法: DNA阶梯法、TUNEL法和彗星法。DNA阶梯法是基于细胞凋亡过程中DNA片段的“阶梯”模式而开发的一种方法, 当细胞凋亡发生时, 核DNA被切割成大小约为180 bp的核小体单位的片段及其整倍数, 如360、540和720 bp等。这种所谓的“DNA阶梯”模式自1976年以来就一直被用于细胞凋亡的鉴定。TUNEL检测法是另一种检测凋亡细胞DNA片段断裂的方法, 其原理是将标记的核苷酸连接到断裂DNA的3′羟基末端, 然后通过酶联显色反应或荧光检测定量分析结果。彗星实验是一种可以用于检测单细胞DNA损伤程度或修复程度的快速方法[15], 也被称为“单细胞凝胶电泳实验(SCGE)”。在DNA链断裂和细胞核破碎的细胞中可以观察到彗星样的特征图像, 彗星由头部和尾部组成, 头部包含大分子和未碎片化的DNA, 尾部主要由单链DNA组成, 尾巴的大小显示了与细胞损伤相关的DNA损伤的程度。彗星的评分基于对彗核和彗尾大小的测量、对彗核和彗尾荧光信号的量化以及其他参数。
荧光染料碘化丙啶(PI) 可以在细胞膜发生损伤后透过细胞膜, 插入到DNA碱基对之间, 染色细胞核, 采用流式细胞术可以检测细胞内PI的荧光强度。PI的荧光强度反映了其与DNA的结合量, 荧光强度越高, PI与DNA的结合量越高, 细胞膜的损伤程度越高。当细胞凋亡发生时, DNA发生断裂, 细胞膜的通透性增加, 断裂的DNA片段可以透出细胞, 因此相比于正常细胞, 凋亡细胞内的DNA含量会降低, 在正常的G0/G1峰前会出现一个亚二倍体峰, 这就是所谓的“凋亡峰(AP峰)”, 根据凋亡峰的高低可以计算出凋亡细胞的比例。
线粒体膜电位的变化发生在其形态特征改变之前, 该事件发生在细胞凋亡早期, 基于此现象可以设计细胞凋亡检测方法。用荧光亲脂性阳离子染料, 如JC-1, 染色细胞和组织, 荧光信号的增强或减少可以反映线粒体的膜电位变化[16]。当细胞内的线粒体由高膜电位状态向低膜电位状态转换时, 染料会从聚集在线粒体基质内的聚合物状态转换成存在于细胞质中的单体形式, 从红色荧光转变成绿色荧光[16]。红色荧光信号和绿色荧光信号之间的转换反映了细胞内线粒体膜电位的高低变化, 两者的相对比值通常可以用于衡量线粒体去极化的比例, 绿色荧光较强说明细胞发生了基于线粒体通路的早期凋亡[16, 17]
AnxA5/PI联用法是目前最普遍使用的一种细胞凋亡检测方法。细胞膜磷脂的重要组成部分之一是PS, 在细胞凋亡的早期阶段, PS暴露于细胞膜的外表面, 这个过程是凋亡发生时最早出现的生化过程之一。它不依赖于凋亡诱导因子或细胞类型, 在凋亡过程完全完成且凋亡细胞被识别和吞噬之前, 这一过程会一直持续。因此, 该事件可以作为细胞凋亡早期监测的生化指标。AnxA5蛋白具有与PS特异性结合的特性, 经生物素、荧光素或放射性同位素标记后的AnxA5可以用来检测这种PS外翻现象。Wang等[18]将AnxA5与绿色荧光蛋白(EGFP) 融合构建了一种绿色荧光的PS结合探针, 并探究了不同Ca2+浓度下AnxA5与凋亡细胞膜的结合特性, 确定了最佳的Ca2+浓度和AnxA5-EGFP的最适工作浓度, 优化了流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡的条件。迄今为止, AnxA5蛋白已被广泛用于体外细胞凋亡的检测。
DNA阶梯法简单易行, 无须特殊设备, 定性准确, 但在准确定量方面有局限, 可以区分细胞凋亡和坏死, 但特异性和灵敏度较差。采用该方法检测时, 凋亡细胞的数量需要达到106[19], 因此它不适用于凋亡细胞数目较少的样品。因为DNA核小体裂解发生在凋亡后期, 因此该检测方法不能检测细胞凋亡早期阶段DNA链的轻微损伤, 仅适用于检测在细胞凋亡中后期产生的大规模凋亡细胞[20]。TUNEL法可用于检测和定量细胞悬液和组织中已发展到后期的凋亡细胞[21], 也是一种公认的体外原位凋亡检测方法[15]。虽然该方法具有一定的优势, 但在实践中也存在一些明显的局限性, 如组织固定和生化处理过程可能会影响检测结果, 而且该检测方法不能完全特异性地识别发生凋亡的细胞, 它也可以标记坏死的细胞, 因此它不是一种特异性针对凋亡细胞DNA片段检测的方法[15]。TUNEL法虽然存在一定的局限性, 但它在体外原位检测中表现出了卓越的能力, 从而得到了普遍的应用。在彗星实验中, 对彗星的评估大多使用特殊的软件进行可视化的彗星评分[22]。彗星实验是在晚期细胞凋亡阶段检测DNA链断裂的一种非常有效的方法[23], 既便宜又快速, 也不需要特殊的实验设备。以上3种方法中, TUNEL法是最敏感的, 因为它能够在核小体DNA断裂(DNA阶梯) 出现之前检测到细胞凋亡, 也能在彗星法检测到细胞核收缩和破坏之前检测到细胞凋亡。
由于PI只能穿过破损的细胞膜, 因而基于PI染色的DNA分析法仅适用于检测细胞凋亡晚期的细胞。该方法可以对细胞凋亡的程度进行准确地定量, 具有操作简单、检测快速、灵敏度高、特异性强等特点。但是, 在制备样品的过程中, 细胞膜的完整性可能会因为一些人为的不当操作而遭到破坏, 致使细胞内的DNA片段漏出, 导致整体DNA含量下降[24], 产生假阳性结果。
线粒体膜电位检测法可以在凋亡的早期阶段进行检测, 具有简便、快速、特异性好、灵敏度高的特点。基于线粒体膜电位的检测方法属于电化学方法, 染料溶液pH值的变化会影响线粒体的膜电位, 所以在检测过程中始终保持溶液pH值的稳定是必要的。将RT-qPCR或基因芯片技术用于细胞凋亡相关基因表达的检测时, 可以显示出细胞凋亡不同阶段相关基因和mRNA的表达水平变化[25], 可以准确定量。该方法适用于不同阶段细胞凋亡的检测。AnxA5/PI染色法操作简便, 灵敏度高, 可区分凋亡早期、中期和晚期的细胞群及坏死细胞群, 并准确定量。该方法适用于细胞凋亡各个阶段的检测。
细胞凋亡机制主要包括诱导细胞凋亡的两条核心通路(图 1): 外源性途径(死亡受体介导的途径) 和内源性途径(线粒体介导的途径), 两条通路的核心都涉及半胱氨酸-天冬氨酸特异性蛋白酶caspases的激活[26]。死亡受体介导的凋亡途径是由结合特定配体的特定死亡受体控制的, 死亡受体包括以下几种: 肿瘤坏死因子(TNF)、TRAIL (一种与肿瘤坏死因子相关的, 和DR4、DR5死亡受体结合的凋亡诱导配体) 和FasL (一种与Fas受体结合的配体)[27]。线粒体凋亡途径由Bax/Bak插入到线粒体膜上介导, 随后细胞色素C从线粒体膜间隙释放到细胞质, 与Apaf-1和procaspase-9结合产生凋亡小体(一种多蛋白复合物), 凋亡小体可触发caspase-9, 随后激活caspase-3级联反应, 最终导致细胞凋亡[26]。通常参与内在途径的蛋白包括SMAC/DIABLO (caspases的第二线粒体激活物/IAP直接结合蛋白)、caspase-9、Bcl-2 (B细胞淋巴瘤蛋白2) 家族蛋白等[26]
免疫标记技术如酶联免疫吸附法、抗组蛋白抗体法和抗DNA抗体夹心免疫法, 可以根据染色反应的强度对细胞凋亡进行定性或定量分析。荧光ELISA法可以用来检测凋亡细胞中caspases和细胞色素C的活性和含量[23]。基于荧光蛋白的分子内荧光共振能量转移(FRET) 的活细胞探针可以用于caspase-3活性的监测, 探针分子内FRET的效率与caspase-3的活性呈现负相关, 因此FRET效率的变化可以反映caspase-3蛋白酶在细胞凋亡中活性的变化[28]。基于这种思路, 实时监测caspase-6、caspase-8、caspase-7活性的FRET蛋白酶探针也被设计出来[28]。Chen等[29]基于蛋白酶类FRET荧光探针原理设计了能够监测活细胞内caspase-8活性变化的荧光探针, 并在流式细胞仪上进行了检测, 证明了该caspase-8荧光探针的有效性和特异性。Western blot是另一种可以用来检测凋亡相关蛋白表达的方法。在细胞凋亡发生时, 细胞色素C从线粒体释放到细胞质, 而细胞色素C氧化酶亚基Ⅳ (COX4) 仍然被保留在线粒体内[23], 因此COX4可以作为线粒体的内参蛋白。通过检测正常细胞和凋亡细胞的分离线粒体中细胞色素C和COX4的蛋白表达水平, 可以确定细胞凋亡的发生。采用Western blot技术检测caspase-3和cleaved-caspase-3的表达水平, 以cleaved-caspase-3/caspase-3比值来间接反映细胞凋亡程度, 该方法不适用于细胞凋亡晚期的检测。TFAR19的表达水平也可以揭示细胞凋亡的程度[30]。不同的因素可以激活内质网和死亡受体介导的凋亡通路, 可以导致相关基因和蛋白的表达发生变化[23], 通过检测相关蛋白水平的变化可以确定调控细胞凋亡的信号转导途径。另外, TFAR19蛋白在细胞中的定位与细胞凋亡密切相关, 使用荧光素标记的TFAR19抗体结合荧光显微镜技术可以检测TFAR19蛋白的核转位现象, 以此说明细胞凋亡的程度[30]
荧光ELISA法是一种高灵敏度、可用于定性和定量检测细胞凋亡的方法。该方法可以测定caspases和细胞色素C的活性和含量, 但是caspases和细胞色素C的活性在凋亡后期会下降[31, 32], 因此该方法无法在凋亡后期进行检测, 也不能用于细胞和组织中凋亡位点的定位, 但适用于不同阶段细胞凋亡的检测, 也适用于大规模细胞凋亡的定性和定量检测[15]。将活化caspase-3的特定荧光底物Ac-DEVD-AFC添加到细胞中, 通过评估荧光裂解产物AFC的分解水平或荧光强度的水平来评估caspase-3的活性[23]。该方法灵敏度高、特异性强, 与已知的caspases没有交叉反应, 非常适合在体外评价由各种凋亡诱导物引起的细胞凋亡。基于FRET的caspase蛋白酶荧光探针具有高特异性和高灵敏度的特点, 能够在活细胞生理状态下实时监测caspase的活性, 也可以与流式细胞仪平台结合, 使得检测过程简单、易于操作, 使高通量检测和筛选成为可能[28, 29]。Western blot是一种通过分析内源性线粒体和内质网应激折叠蛋白反应通路的变化以及外源性死亡受体凋亡通路相关蛋白表达的变化来检测细胞凋亡的方法。无论凋亡相关信号通路如何, 该方法均不能反映凋亡细胞的形态变化, 它适用于细胞凋亡早期、中期和晚期的检测。Ca2+的免疫荧光标记适用于通过内质网通路介导的细胞凋亡的检测, 荧光显微镜技术可以用于检测细胞由内源性内质网应激引起的Ca2+浓度的显著变化[33]
检测细胞凋亡靶点的方法很多, 这些方法依赖于各种技术, 它们的特异性、灵敏度、局限性和精确度都存在差异, 因此每种体外检测方法都有其各自的优缺点和适用范围, 如表 1所示。形态学检测简单直观, 但只能作为一种定性的方法。免疫学检测方法不能准确地绝对定量和定位凋亡细胞, 但可以阐明细胞凋亡的发生机制。然而, 凋亡信号通路可以单独启动也可以同时启动, 因此信号通路之间也可能相互干扰, 所以在细胞凋亡通路中有多个靶点可以分析。此外, 昂贵的试剂可能会限制特定细胞凋亡检测方法的使用。细胞凋亡检测的复杂的操作程序也有引发实验误差的风险。因此, 在选择细胞凋亡检测方法时, 研究者必须结合样本的特点, 采取合适的方法, 并且要多种方法同时检测。研究者的目标是根据研究目的、技术原理、研究经费和现有设备选择操作简单、高效的凋亡检测方法。
在过去的20多年中, 各种微观和宏观成像模式被开发出来用于检测细胞凋亡。微观方法需要有创伤地采集组织, 并通过基于细胞的方法成像, 然而宏观成像模式可以非侵入性地在活体内观察细胞凋亡。至今, 各种分子成像技术已被用于研究体内的细胞凋亡, 包括单光子发射计算机断层扫描(SPECT)、正电子发射断层扫描(PET)、磁共振成像(MRI)、光学成像和双或多模态技术。
到目前为止, 将活体内死亡过程进行成像作为常规临床实践的一部分的目标还没有实现。能够用于临床细胞凋亡分子成像的有效探针应该具备以下几个特征: ①探针与凋亡细胞的结合应具有高特异性和选择性, 既可以用于细胞凋亡早期阶段的检测, 也可以很好地区分凋亡细胞和坏死细胞; ②探针应适合在体内使用, 如静脉给药时有充分的生物分布, 可以在全身快速分布以及从非靶点部位快速清除, 具有良好的信号背景比; ③探针应无毒, 且不产生化学和免疫反应; ④探针应具有较高的体内稳定性; ⑤探针应与常规临床实践相适应。在凋亡过程中发生的caspase-3激活、细胞膜上磷脂[PS和磷脂酰乙醇胺(PE)] 的不对称性以及细胞膜通透性改变的特征均可以作为靶点来开发体内凋亡检测探针, 用于细胞凋亡的无创成像[34]
放射性标记的AnxA5可用于凋亡的可视化检测, 该成像方法可以客观地评价活体内细胞凋亡的变化。临床评估的第一个细胞凋亡生物标志物是99mTc-AnxA5, 基于99mTc-AnxA5的SPECT成像在各种医学疾病中进行凋亡成像具有可行性[35], 是潜在的临床凋亡检测试剂。99mTc-AnxA5可用于检测心血管疾病中的细胞凋亡[36], 监测肿瘤的治疗效果, 如头颈部肿瘤[37], 以及在克罗恩氏病(CD) 患者中监测抗TNF-α抗体治疗诱导的细胞凋亡[38]。放射性标记的AnxA5也被用于PET成像。PET最广泛使用的同位素是18F, 但其半衰期短, 因此可以使用半衰期比18F更长的放射性同位素来进行替代, 如64Gu、124[39]。AnxB1与PS也具有高亲和力, 因此18F标记的AnxB1也被用于PET成像。
AnxA5蛋白与磁性纳米粒子及Gd-脂质体联用后可以进行MRI[40], 采用荧光标记的AnxA5可以进行光学成像。AnxA5的MRI可以检查急性脑卒中患者的血管病变, 其病变程度与AnxA5的摄取程度相关性很好[41]。Head等[42]开发了一种新型的、以生物发光为基础的AnxA5凋亡检测探针, 有较好的体内外细胞凋亡检测效果。这是首次报道的可用于体内检测的生物性发光的AnxA5探针。Zhang团队[43]开发了一种新型AnxA5探针, 该探针的设计原理是基于生物发光共振能量转移(BRET), 研究结果表明它可以在活体动物的深层组织中实现成像。Zhang等[44]将红色荧光蛋白(TagRFP) 标记的AnxA5用于动物活体内肠炎部位PS外翻的检测, 并且证明了PS是AnxA5治疗肠炎的靶点。
突触结合蛋白Ⅰ的C2A结构域是一种Ca2+依赖的、具有PS结合能力的神经蛋白, 它也被放射性核素标记用于细胞凋亡的成像。C2A分子探针的体内应用案例主要集中在急性心肌梗死后细胞凋亡的分布和检测方面[45]。少数报道显示用放射性标记的C2A分子探针去检测化疗后的肿瘤细胞凋亡, 如99mTc标记的C2A和18F-C2A-GST[46]。文献表明小鼠淋巴瘤和人乳腺癌细胞系经药物处理后, 使用荧光标记的C2A结构域可以检测到与类似标记的AnxA5相同水平的细胞凋亡。与AnxA5相比, C2A结构域与活细胞的结合明显减少, 因此对凋亡和坏死细胞的特异性结合增加了4倍[47]。突触结合蛋白Ⅰ-C2A为临床开发新一代特异性更强的肿瘤细胞凋亡显像探针提供了一条潜在的途径[47]
蛋白质探针的体内清除速率较慢, 而多肽探针可以避免这个问题。与PS类似, PE (占总磷脂的20%~40%) 在细胞表面的出现也是细胞凋亡的普遍指标。哺乳动物凋亡细胞中的PE远高于PS, 因此与PE结合的探针更具有研究的吸引力[48]。Duramycin是一种二硫交联肽, 由19个氨基酸组成, 能够按1∶1的比例高亲和力和高选择性结合PE[49], Kd值约为4~6 nmol·L-1[48]。Duramycin具有高稳定性、高亲和力和特异性, 经核素99mTc标记或者经Cy5.5和NIR790荧光标记后, 具有强大的结合机制和良好的药代动力学特征[50], 因此它是一种有前途的非侵入型细胞凋亡分子探针。除了有PS和PE暴露以外, 组蛋白也会暴露于凋亡细胞的表面, 它也可以作为细胞凋亡的特征之一[51]。基于此特征, Zeng等[52]开发出一种CQRPPR六肽(Apopep-1), 它针对的是暴露在凋亡细胞表面的组蛋白H1。放射性碘(124Ⅰ) 修饰的Apopep-1使肿瘤细胞凋亡的PET成像成为可能, 它可以正确地监测肿瘤对抗癌药物的早期反应。此外, 靶向caspases的放射性标记肽也被用于检测细胞凋亡, 如广泛的caspases抑制剂Z-VAD-FMK[52]。Kolb团队[53]鉴定并验证了18F-CP18可以作为凋亡细胞中caspase-3活性监测的成像示踪剂, 它是一种caspase-3底物识别模体。
低分子量的化合物开发成PET试剂比大蛋白探针更有优势[39], 一是因为放射性标记流程更加可行, 因为低分子量化合物与放射性同位素的结合更加直接、快速、牢固; 二是因为小分子PET试剂有更好的生物分布和更快的清除速率; 三是因为小分子化合物不易引起免疫学的反应; 四是因为小分子化合物更容易被修饰, 这是优化探针性能所必需的。目前, 用于细胞凋亡检测的小分子PET探针主要有3种: 针对caspase激活的探针、检测线粒体膜电位丧失的探针和靶向细胞膜酸化的探针。
尽管研究最初集中在基于肽的配体上, 但是随着新型小分子caspase抑制剂的引入, 相关研究也取得了重大进展。该类小分子化合物中有几个已被11C或18F标记用于PET检测, 包括靛红类化合物18F-ICMT-11和18F-caspase结合放射性配体—11C-WC-98和18F-WC-Ⅵ-3, 这些化合物可以用作体外和体内细胞凋亡检测探针[39]。靛红磺酰胺类似物是caspases的抑制剂, 作为一种新的非肽基靛红磺酰胺类似物—WC-Ⅱ-89[54], 它可以结合凋亡过程中激活的caspase-3, 适用于18F的放射性标记, 在凋亡的动物模型中具有良好的生物分布特性, 可以在细胞培养物或活体内作为凋亡探针进行检测。18F-WC-Ⅱ-89是一种潜在的PET示踪剂, 可用于caspase介导的细胞凋亡的体内成像。
最近探索的一种方法是使用放射性标记的电压敏感探针, 即18F放射性同位素标记的有机阳离子, 如18F-氟苯基三苯基膦阳离子(18F-FBnTP), 通过检测线粒体膜电位丧失而对细胞凋亡进行显像。在细胞凋亡被诱导之后, 跨越线粒体内膜的电化学质子梯度会消失, 这会导致示踪剂的摄取减少。因此, 与其他类别探针观察到的信号增加形成对比, 这类检测线粒体膜电位丧失的探针在细胞凋亡过程中显示出信号减弱。但是这种探针的使用存在一个问题, 就是活细胞在某种机制下会使该探针流出, 此时可见探针外排的活细胞可能会被误认为是凋亡细胞[39]
细胞膜会在细胞凋亡的早期阶段发生一系列复杂的变化, 包括在细胞膜保持完整性的前提下, 出现的质膜电位的不可逆丧失、外膜小叶和细胞质的永久性酸化以及膜磷脂酶系统的激活等, 基于这些同时发生的细胞特征变化而设计的检测方法可以区分凋亡细胞、活细胞和坏死细胞[39]。新型小分子化合物ApoSense家族由Damianovich等[55]设计, 它们的细胞摄取在很大程度上取决于细胞凋亡过程中细胞膜pH的变化。该分子已在多个动物模型中表现出了高灵敏度和强特异性。该组化合物包括丹磺酰半胱氨酸(DDC)、5-二甲氨基-1-萘-磺酰基-α-乙基氟丙氨酸(NST-732) 及其衍生物丹基腙(DFNSH) 和4-(5-二甲氨基-萘-1-磺酰基)-3-(4-碘苯基)丁酸(DSNBA), 以及丁基-2-甲基-丙二酸(ML-9) 和2-(5′-氟戊基)-2-甲基-丙二酸(ML-10)。DDC带有绿色荧光, Damianovich等[55]又利用放射性核素进行标记, 标记后的DDC被用在3种急性肾小管坏死动物模型上, 可以实时监测这3种模型中肾小管的损伤程度, 并评价其分布与强度[56]。DDC主要集中在凋亡细胞的内部, 可以放大信号, 提高信噪比[56]。NST-732已用18F进行放射标记, 其摄取在淋巴瘤啮齿动物模型辐照诱导的细胞凋亡中增加[56]。ML-9[57]和ML-10[39]的设计是基于一个新的烷基丙二酸模体[56], 它们结构稳定、特异性强, 可以作为一类细胞凋亡检测的小分子显像剂。18F-ML-10在人体中显示出良好的剂量学、生物分布、稳定性和安全性以及与凋亡细胞的结合能力[39]。由于其更小的分子尺寸和更少的功能基团, 与99mTc-AnxA5相比, 它的灵敏度更高、血液清除速率更快。凋亡细胞会选择性地摄取该探针, 然而当细胞膜发生破裂之后, 18F-ML-10的信号会消失, 因此它可以区分凋亡细胞和坏死细胞。Reshef等[39]首次将18F-ML-10用作体内脑卒中成像的PET探针, 它是首个已进入临床开发阶段的PET凋亡检测试剂, 已经在几个小规模的临床试验中取得了有希望的结果, 为临床诊断决策提供了参考, 具有非常重要的意义。研究[58]发现吡啶二胺类荧光显像剂具有与PS结合的特性, NIRF标记的PSVue系列凋亡显像剂, 如PSVue643、PSVue794, 是新发展起来的吡啶二胺类显像剂。18F标记的PSVue643经静脉注射入动物体内后, 可以同时进行PET显像和NIRF成像[58]
近年来, 对凋亡机制的深入研究和成像技术的进步为成像科学家提供了机会来制定基于明确的分子标记和/或生理特征的宏观成像策略。细胞凋亡体内示踪剂的设计原则是根据凋亡靶点寻找分子探针, 将其进行放射性标记或荧光标记, 而后与成像技术相结合, 表 2[34, 59, 60]罗列了多种细胞凋亡的体内检测试剂。
细胞凋亡涉及许多特有的形态学、生物化学和免疫抗原-抗体酶联反应的特征变化, 对细胞凋亡过程进行检测符合基础研究和临床诊断的需求, 具有重要的价值。用于细胞凋亡检测的靶点很多, 如图 1所示, 这些靶点均为细胞凋亡提供了多种有效的检测手段。细胞凋亡的检测方法众多, 但技术的核心主要集中在3个方面[23]: ①采用形态显微镜技术结合免疫荧光或免疫细胞化学/免疫组织化学染色对凋亡小体和染色质进行观察; ②通过凝胶电泳技术、TUNEL检测、流式细胞术定量分析方法来检测DNA梯状条带和DNA片段末端; ③基于分子生物学、免疫学和形态学方法结合荧光酶免疫分析检测从细胞表面到细胞核内的凋亡相关信号通路的靶点。无论是单一使用各种技术还是几种技术联用, 都需要选择最适合研究目标的检测方法。本文综述了凋亡细胞的形态学特征、特异性的生化变化和信号转导通路, 并总结了基于这些特征变化而建立的体内外凋亡检测方法及特点(图 2)。
在过去的10年中, 细胞凋亡的临床影像学经历了动态的发展。这些研发工作与成像设备、用于PET成像的放射性标记技术和PET信号定量分析的数学算法等领域的重大发展同步进行。多学科领域的整合可能是将细胞凋亡的无创成像引入常规临床实践的关键。体内细胞凋亡检测技术仍在不断发展, 检测试剂也不断增多, 但绝大多数检测方法都依赖于昂贵的检测设备, 简便、适于常规检测的凋亡检测方法仍有待研发[57]。人们深入探索细胞凋亡机制和不断完善凋亡检测技术的脚步是不会停止的, 相信特异性更强、灵敏度更高、能够满足临床实践需求的体内细胞凋亡检测试剂在不久的将来一定会面世[57]
作者贡献: 高梦月负责文章的撰写以及对综述进行修订; 华子春是本文的通讯作者, 提出并确定综述的主旨及提纲, 参与文章修改等工作。
利益冲突: 所有作者声明本文无利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(32250016)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82130106)
  • 南京市生命健康科技专项计划(202110016)
  • 常州市科技局项目(CZ20210010)
  • 常州市科技局项目(CJ20210024)
  • 常州市科技局项目(CJ20220019)
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2023年第58卷第8期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0315
  • 接收时间:2023-03-15
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-08-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-03-15
  • 修回日期:2023-04-24
基金
国家自然科学基金资助项目(32250016)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(82130106)
南京市生命健康科技专项计划(202110016)
常州市科技局项目(CZ20210010)
常州市科技局项目(CJ20210024)
常州市科技局项目(CJ20220019)
作者信息
    1.南京大学生命科学学院, 医药生物技术国家重点实验室, 江苏 南京 210023
    2.江苏省产业技术研究院医药生物技术研究所, 常州南京大学高新技术研究院, 江苏 常州 213164
    3.南京吉芮康生物科技研究院, 江苏 南京 210044
    4.南京大学深圳研究院, 广东 深圳 518057

通讯作者:

*华子春, Tel: 86-25-83324605, E-mail:
参考文献
分享链接
https://castjournals.cast.org.cn/joweb/yxxb/CN/10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0315
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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