Article(id=1198652611181245083, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0648, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1684339200000, receivedDateStr=2023-05-18, revisedDate=1689091200000, revisedDateStr=2023-07-12, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763710652394, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1691769600000, pubDateStr=2023-08-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763710652394, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763710652394, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763710652394, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198652605778985059, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='8', pageStart='0', pageEnd='2540', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1691769600000', pubDateStr='2023-08-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763710651106, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1763710739504, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596347, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596348, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=2000, endPage=2015, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198652611739087530, articleId=1198652611181245083, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Label-free target identification for natural products based on proteomics, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Target identification and verification of natural products is an important and challenging work in the field of chemical biology. It is also an important job for researchers to apply chemical proteomics technology to biomedicine in order to identify target proteins of natural products. Target identification is critical to understanding its mechanisms and developing natural products as molecular probes and potential therapeutic drugs. Traditional approaches of small molecule target identification based on affinity have been shown to be successful, such as click-chemical probes, radioisotope labeling or photosensitized small-molecule probes. Nevertheless, these technologies require purified candidate target proteins, and modified small molecules with probes or linkers, such as adding agarose beads, biotin labels, fluorescent labeling or photo-affinity labeling. Many structure-activity relationship studies should be performed to ensure that the addition of small molecule labels undisturbed the original biological activity of the small molecules. Unfortunately, all these modifications are likely to alter their biological activity or binding specificity. To overcome the bottleneck of "target recognition", researchers have developed a series of new techniques for unmodified drug target identification. In this article, we reviewed the target identification techniques of natural product without structural modification in order to provide reference for the development of natural products.

, authors=null, authorsList=Rui-fang DONG, Yuan-zheng XIA, Ling-yi KONG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Yuan-zheng XIA, Ling-yi KONG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198652616877110142, articleId=1198652611181245083, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=基于蛋白质组学无修饰天然产物靶点鉴定技术, columnId=1190335349206389552, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专家论坛, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

天然产物靶点鉴定是化学生物学领域的一项重要而艰巨的任务, 也是研究人员将化学蛋白质组学技术应用于生物医学的重要工作。鉴定天然产物的靶点对于理解其作用机制、开发天然产物作为分子探针和潜在的治疗药物至关重要。传统的基于亲和的小分子靶点识别方法, 如点击化学探针、放射性同位素标记或光致敏感小分子探针, 已被证明是成功的。然而, 这些技术需要纯化的候选靶蛋白, 以及使用相关探针对正在研究的小分子进行修饰, 如添加琼脂糖珠、生物素标签或进行荧光标记、光亲和标签等, 并需要进行大量的构效关系研究以确保添加的小分子标签不会损害到药物原本的生物活性。遗憾的是, 所有这些修饰很可能改变其生物活性或结合特异性。为了克服这一“靶点识别”瓶颈, 研究人员开发了一系列无修饰的药物靶点鉴定新技术。本文对无修饰天然产物靶点鉴定技术进行了归纳总结, 以期为天然药物研发提供参考。

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*夏元铮, Tel: 13913024226, E-mail: ;
孔令义, Tel: 86-25-83271405, E-mail:
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Schematic of DARTS-LC-MS/MS (A), LIP-LC-MS/MS (B) and PP (C) workflows for identification of ligand-protein interactions , figureFileSmall=hJaRU3I9EVqQgt2aCclI4A==, figureFileBig=cZHP9E4x+U9E+U4WWtRyLw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960102683276276, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611181245083, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=V6R0Hx6RI/hgROe4LXGIwQ==, figureFileBig=8Rag/9soyv8xj8+WP7+6Rw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960102809105407, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611181245083, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= Label-free target identification methods based on shifts in the thermal stability of protein targets. Schematic of TPP (A) and TS-FITGE (B) workflows for identification of ligand-protein interactions , figureFileSmall=V6R0Hx6RI/hgROe4LXGIwQ==, figureFileBig=8Rag/9soyv8xj8+WP7+6Rw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960102926544907, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611181245083, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=/6yG7pcZV3McrHdZYCNqow==, figureFileBig=newKDwYC0+sDFgLV5kRV9A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960103085928470, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611181245083, language=CN, label=Figure 4, caption= Label-free target identification methods based on methionine oxidation levels , figureFileSmall=/6yG7pcZV3McrHdZYCNqow==, figureFileBig=newKDwYC0+sDFgLV5kRV9A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960103194980382, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611181245083, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=ki+1+xMU6VrGOlQGua8sPw==, figureFileBig=QKpKoXINHu/trwz+tLqt8Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960103354363948, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611181245083, language=CN, label=Figure 5, caption= Label-free target identification methods based on protein precipitation. Schematic of organic solvent-induced (A, B) and microparticle-assisted precipitation (C) workflows for identification of ligand-protein interactions , figureFileSmall=ki+1+xMU6VrGOlQGua8sPw==, figureFileBig=QKpKoXINHu/trwz+tLqt8Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960103492775985, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611181245083, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=svKLdKXC5Whe4OSN8S+A1g==, figureFileBig=gY6hmXLDT+LBuzmrlSoBGw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960103681519677, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611181245083, language=CN, label=Figure 6, caption= General strategies for target research of natural products. DSF: Differential scanning fluorimetry; MST: Microscale thermophoresis; SPR: Surface plasmon resonance; BLI: Bio-layer interferometry; ITC: Isothermal titration calorimetry; CD: Circular dichroism , figureFileSmall=svKLdKXC5Whe4OSN8S+A1g==, figureFileBig=gY6hmXLDT+LBuzmrlSoBGw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960103845097546, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611181245083, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Name Application range Advantage Limitation
DARTS Lysates Could analyse true interactions with low affinity Limited to relatively higher abundance proteins; a few proteins are difficult to be degraded by enzymes and have low throughput
LIP-MS Lysates High throughput, applied to the whole-proteome Not suitable for detecting low abundance proteins
PP Lysates Quantitative determination of protein stability Low proteome coverage; rely on vision, low sensitivity
PePTID Lysates High throughput; high sensitivity Not suitable for detecting low abundance proteins
CETSA Living cells and tissues Ligand binding to target proteins in cells and tissues can be evaluated Low throughput; low sensitivity; difficult to detect some proteins containing unfolded biding sites
TPP Living cells and tissues High throughput; high sensitivity; estimate ligand-target engagement on a cellular proteomic scale The detection rate of low abundance membrane protein was low
TS-FITGE Living cells and tissues Not only can identify target proteins of bioactive small molecules, but can also reveal additional information about their downstream signaling pathways Proteins need to be labeled with dyes; not applicable to proteins that do not show thermal stability changes after drug binding, such as some transmembrane protein or large protein complexes
SPROX Lysates Can detect temperature and enzyme insensitive proteins Requires a relatively large amount of purified protein
CPP Lysates The protein coverage was high and the false positive rate was low High false positive rates
DiffPOP Lysates Not rely on detecting specific amino acid-containing peptides Not suitable for high solubility proteins in organic solvents
SIP Lysates Proteome coverage is better than SPROX Stable isotope dimethyl labeled peptides are required; not suitable for proteins with high solubility in organic solvents
MSIPP Lysates Independent of temperature and enzyme Not applicable to living cells; not applicable to extremely hydrophobic proteins
MAPS Lysates The whole process is carried out on the particle, without transfer or loss Not applicable to living cells; not applicable to extremely hydrophobic proteins
I-PISA Living cells and lysates High quality data rich in proteasomes and nucleoplasmic proteins; reduced labor costs and increased screening throughput Not suitable for low abundance membrane proteins
TICC Lysates Suitable for both traditional target based drug discovery and phenotypic screening Limited to non-covalent hydrophobic protein-ligand interactions, biological samples containing soluble proteins, and protein-ligand interactions in the nanomolar to micromolar range
UPT Lysates No drug derivatization is required An affinity substrate needs to be prepared; high false-positive rates
TRAP Lysates High coverage; high throughput Protein lysine needs to be labeled
Bioinformatics Reduced time and cost Further experimental verification is required
), ArticleFig(id=1198960104079978588, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652611181245083, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Pros and cons of different target identification approaches of label‐free natural products

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Name Application range Advantage Limitation
DARTS Lysates Could analyse true interactions with low affinity Limited to relatively higher abundance proteins; a few proteins are difficult to be degraded by enzymes and have low throughput
LIP-MS Lysates High throughput, applied to the whole-proteome Not suitable for detecting low abundance proteins
PP Lysates Quantitative determination of protein stability Low proteome coverage; rely on vision, low sensitivity
PePTID Lysates High throughput; high sensitivity Not suitable for detecting low abundance proteins
CETSA Living cells and tissues Ligand binding to target proteins in cells and tissues can be evaluated Low throughput; low sensitivity; difficult to detect some proteins containing unfolded biding sites
TPP Living cells and tissues High throughput; high sensitivity; estimate ligand-target engagement on a cellular proteomic scale The detection rate of low abundance membrane protein was low
TS-FITGE Living cells and tissues Not only can identify target proteins of bioactive small molecules, but can also reveal additional information about their downstream signaling pathways Proteins need to be labeled with dyes; not applicable to proteins that do not show thermal stability changes after drug binding, such as some transmembrane protein or large protein complexes
SPROX Lysates Can detect temperature and enzyme insensitive proteins Requires a relatively large amount of purified protein
CPP Lysates The protein coverage was high and the false positive rate was low High false positive rates
DiffPOP Lysates Not rely on detecting specific amino acid-containing peptides Not suitable for high solubility proteins in organic solvents
SIP Lysates Proteome coverage is better than SPROX Stable isotope dimethyl labeled peptides are required; not suitable for proteins with high solubility in organic solvents
MSIPP Lysates Independent of temperature and enzyme Not applicable to living cells; not applicable to extremely hydrophobic proteins
MAPS Lysates The whole process is carried out on the particle, without transfer or loss Not applicable to living cells; not applicable to extremely hydrophobic proteins
I-PISA Living cells and lysates High quality data rich in proteasomes and nucleoplasmic proteins; reduced labor costs and increased screening throughput Not suitable for low abundance membrane proteins
TICC Lysates Suitable for both traditional target based drug discovery and phenotypic screening Limited to non-covalent hydrophobic protein-ligand interactions, biological samples containing soluble proteins, and protein-ligand interactions in the nanomolar to micromolar range
UPT Lysates No drug derivatization is required An affinity substrate needs to be prepared; high false-positive rates
TRAP Lysates High coverage; high throughput Protein lysine needs to be labeled
Bioinformatics Reduced time and cost Further experimental verification is required
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基于蛋白质组学无修饰天然产物靶点鉴定技术
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董睿方 , 夏元铮 * , 孔令义 *
药学学报 | 专家论坛 2023,58(8): 2000-2015
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药学学报 |专家论坛 2023 , 58 (8) : 2000 -2015
基于蛋白质组学无修饰天然产物靶点鉴定技术
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董睿方, 夏元铮* , 孔令义*
作者信息
  • 中国药科大学中药学院, 天然药物活性组分与药效国家重点实验室, 江苏省生物活性天然产物研究重点实验室, 江苏 南京 210009
通讯作者:
*夏元铮, Tel: 13913024226, E-mail: ;
孔令义, Tel: 86-25-83271405, E-mail:
Label-free target identification for natural products based on proteomics
Rui-fang DONG, Yuan-zheng XIA* , Ling-yi KONG*
Affiliations
  • Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Bioactive Natural Product Research, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
出版时间: 2023-08-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0648
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天然产物靶点鉴定是化学生物学领域的一项重要而艰巨的任务, 也是研究人员将化学蛋白质组学技术应用于生物医学的重要工作。鉴定天然产物的靶点对于理解其作用机制、开发天然产物作为分子探针和潜在的治疗药物至关重要。传统的基于亲和的小分子靶点识别方法, 如点击化学探针、放射性同位素标记或光致敏感小分子探针, 已被证明是成功的。然而, 这些技术需要纯化的候选靶蛋白, 以及使用相关探针对正在研究的小分子进行修饰, 如添加琼脂糖珠、生物素标签或进行荧光标记、光亲和标签等, 并需要进行大量的构效关系研究以确保添加的小分子标签不会损害到药物原本的生物活性。遗憾的是, 所有这些修饰很可能改变其生物活性或结合特异性。为了克服这一“靶点识别”瓶颈, 研究人员开发了一系列无修饰的药物靶点鉴定新技术。本文对无修饰天然产物靶点鉴定技术进行了归纳总结, 以期为天然药物研发提供参考。

无修饰  /  天然产物  /  靶点鉴定  /  质谱  /  蛋白质组学

Target identification and verification of natural products is an important and challenging work in the field of chemical biology. It is also an important job for researchers to apply chemical proteomics technology to biomedicine in order to identify target proteins of natural products. Target identification is critical to understanding its mechanisms and developing natural products as molecular probes and potential therapeutic drugs. Traditional approaches of small molecule target identification based on affinity have been shown to be successful, such as click-chemical probes, radioisotope labeling or photosensitized small-molecule probes. Nevertheless, these technologies require purified candidate target proteins, and modified small molecules with probes or linkers, such as adding agarose beads, biotin labels, fluorescent labeling or photo-affinity labeling. Many structure-activity relationship studies should be performed to ensure that the addition of small molecule labels undisturbed the original biological activity of the small molecules. Unfortunately, all these modifications are likely to alter their biological activity or binding specificity. To overcome the bottleneck of "target recognition", researchers have developed a series of new techniques for unmodified drug target identification. In this article, we reviewed the target identification techniques of natural product without structural modification in order to provide reference for the development of natural products.

label-free  /  natural product  /  target identification  /  mass spectrum  /  proteomics
董睿方, 夏元铮, 孔令义. 基于蛋白质组学无修饰天然产物靶点鉴定技术. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2000 -2015 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0648
Rui-fang DONG, Yuan-zheng XIA, Ling-yi KONG. Label-free target identification for natural products based on proteomics[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2000 -2015 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0648
天然产物在新药研发中扮演着越来越重要的角色, 如目前临床广泛应用的药物紫杉醇、青蒿素和奎宁等均是天然产物。从1981~2019年批准的1 881种新药中有1/3以上直接或间接来源于天然产物; 在合成药物中, 约有一半的药物借用了天然产物的骨架结构或药效团[1]。天然产物因其结构的复杂性而表现出独特的生物活性, 复杂的结构往往意味着这些天然产物具有多靶点特性。因此, 识别多个靶蛋白对于理解天然产物的作用机制及潜在的脱靶作用是必要的。靶点的鉴定是中药天然产物研究中一个具有挑战性的步骤, 通过化学修饰天然产物进行靶点“垂钓”的各种尝试已经取得成功。然而, 缺乏可用的修饰位点或合适的功能基团, 是天然产物修饰及靶点鉴定的主要障碍。因此, 无需化学修饰的靶蛋白识别替代策略需求很高[2]
本文将介绍几种“无修饰”天然产物靶点鉴定方法的基本原理和实验基础, 依据不同的原理, 研究者将其分为5大类。第1类是基于蛋白水解技术, 该技术依据小分子与靶蛋白结合可改变其结构, 使其对蛋白酶的降解敏感性发生改变。该类技术包括药物亲和反应靶点稳定性(drug affinity responsive target stability, DARTS)、有限蛋白水解-质谱(limited proteolysis-mass spectrum, LiP-MS) 和脉冲蛋白水解(pulse proteolysis, PP)。第2类是基于蛋白热稳定性, 小分子与靶蛋白结合可改变其结构, 使其对温度降解蛋白敏感性发生改变。该类技术包括细胞热转移分析(cellular thermal shift assay, CETSA) 及其衍生的热蛋白质组学分析(thermal proteome profiling, TPP)。第3类是依据小分子与靶点结合后可以增加靶蛋白的抗氧化能力, 该技术被称为氧化速率蛋白稳定性(stability of proteins from rates of oxidation, SPROX)。第4类是基于蛋白沉淀技术, 有机溶剂、机械应力等均会导致蛋白沉淀, 小分子与靶点结合后可以稳定蛋白, 减少有机溶剂、机械应力等诱导的蛋白沉淀。该类技术包括化学变性和蛋白质沉淀(chemical denaturant and protein precipitation, CPP)、蛋白质差异沉淀(differential precipitation of proteins, DiffPOP) 和溶剂诱导蛋白沉淀(solvent-induced protein precipitation, SIP) 等。第5类是基于亲和性的靶点鉴定技术, 该类技术包括色谱共洗脱(target identification by chromatographic co-elution, TICC)、独特的聚合物技术(unique polymer technology, UPT) 及亲和色谱(pulldown)-化合物偶联琼脂糖珠(图 1)。这些方法利用配体-蛋白质相互作用的天然形式带来的能量或生物物理特性的变化来达到靶点鉴定的目的, 包括通过结构重组或空间位阻增加蛋白质水解的抗性, 增强热或变性剂诱导的蛋白质展开, 以及蛋白质在有机溶剂中的不同溶解度等。
蛋白质在水解酶的作用下可被降解, 小分子药物与靶蛋白结合可改变靶蛋白结构, 使其变得更稳定, 对水解酶的降解变得不敏感。研究人员基于此开发了一系列靶点鉴定技术, 并将其逐渐发展到蛋白质组水平靶点鉴定, 实现了高通量、高灵敏性。
DARTS (图 2A) 的原理是小分子药物与靶蛋白结合后可稳定靶蛋白结构, 使其对蛋白酶酶解敏感性降低[3]。该方法的优点是不需要对小分子化合物修饰, 因此不受化学的限制, 可以用来识别任何小分子的结合靶点[4]。DARTS实验需要用特定的方法对酶降解蛋白效果进行检测, 常用的检测方法是对SDS-PAGE电泳后凝胶染色(银染或考马斯亮蓝染色), 也可以运用蛋白二维电泳(2D-PAGE)、凝胶或非凝胶质谱等方法进行检测[5]。通过比对药物组与对照组酶降解条带的差异, 进而找到药物的候选靶蛋白条带, 后续进行胶内酶解和质谱鉴定。采用该方法已识别出多个天然产物的靶点, 如白桦脂酸直接靶向GRP78 (glucose regulated protein 78) 触发内质网应激介导的乳腺癌细胞凋亡[6]; 冬凌草甲素靶向nucleolin抗肿瘤[7]; 薯蓣皂苷元靶向1, 25D₃-MARRS/Pdia3/ERp57改善阿尔茨海默症[8]等。
DARTS的一个潜在的基本限制是蛋白质对酶解的敏感性是由其构象能量景观(蛋白聚集、折叠时的能量水平) 决定的, 而且已经证明, 少数蛋白质是相当难被蛋白酶消化的。此外, 药物结合可能改变非靶点蛋白对蛋白酶的敏感性, 如那些与靶蛋白相互作用的蛋白和包含靶蛋白的复合物中的蛋白。但这一结果也可能是DARTS方法的一个优点, 因为它可以提供关于药物结合、解离时(或形成) 的蛋白质复合物信息[3]
LiP-MS (图 2B) 是最近发展起来的一种蛋白质组学方法, 能够在蛋白质组范围内直接识别复杂生物环境中的蛋白质结构变化。通过监测与蛋白质水解速率和性质有关的稳定/不稳定效应来鉴定化合物对靶蛋白结构的影响。结合事件可以改变目标蛋白的结构性质, 从而改变LiP模式。该技术已被应用于蛋白质聚集分析和蛋白质-小分子相互作用的鉴定。在小分子处理后, 蛋白质组提取物在自然条件下用非特异性蛋白酶(proteinase K) 进行消化, 然后在变性条件下用序列特异性胰蛋白酶进行完全消化, 这种顺序处理产生结构特异性肽, 可进行自下向上的质谱分析[9, 10]。蛋白质-小分子相互作用是通过比较添加和不添加化合物的蛋白质组的LiP模式来确定的。通过比较水解肽段质谱指纹结构加上和减去小分子的分子量, 可以识别小分子结合的靶点蛋白, 并能精确定位结合位点。利用小分子的浓度梯度可以进一步区分具有不同结合亲和力的靶蛋白[11]
LiP-MS优点: ①直接适用于复杂的生物样品。LiP-MS可用于直接研究细胞提取物中的蛋白质结构变化, 而无需处理(标记) 目的蛋白; ② LiP-MS可以应用于整个蛋白质组, 以无偏的方式识别在给定处理下改变结构特征的蛋白质; ③可实现高通量筛选, LiP-MS实验所需的时间与经典定量蛋白质组学实验所需的时间相当, 并且可以并行处理多个样本; ④适用于各种类型的样本, 可以使用LiP-MS工作流程处理范围广泛的样品, 包括微生物、哺乳动物细胞提取物、人体组织或体液提取物等[10]
然而, 该方法目前对鉴别中高丰度的蛋白质最为成功。检测低丰度蛋白的结构变化仍具有挑战性, 相应的肽段可能无法在复杂的细胞提取物中检测到。Feng等[9]采用该方法在酿酒酵母中获得了约1/3表达的蛋白质组的结构数据, 经后续的改进, 酵母蛋白组的覆盖率现已扩大到60%~70%。为了进一步扩大覆盖范围, 可以将不同的分离技术(如尺寸排阻色谱法) 与LiP-MS相结合。为了方便检测在LiP实验中产生的有限的蛋白质水解裂解位点, Ma等[12]采用化学选择性富集策略semitryptic peptide enrichment for proteolysis procedures (STEPP) 结合LiP或PP使检测到的半胰蛋白酶肽段数增加了5~10倍。该方法不仅增加了蛋白质组学的覆盖率, 还增加了从LiP实验中收集到的结构信息的数量。该策略是将赖氨酸侧链的ε-氨基组和在LiP反应中产生的N-端进行等压质量标记(tandem mass tag, TMT) 反应。随后用胰蛋白酶消化样品, 用N-羟基琥珀酰亚胺(N-hydroxysuccinimide, NHS) 活化的琼脂糖树脂对新暴露的N-末端的胰蛋白酶肽进行化学选择反应; 将胰蛋白酶肽从溶液中去除, 只留下在LiP反应中产生的具有非胰蛋白酶切割位点的半胰蛋白酶肽, 用于随后的LC-MS/MS分析。此外, 构象变化可能阻碍结合位点的识别, 如果小分子诱导了超出结合区域的结构变化, 可以检测到相互作用, 但不能准确地确定结合位点。靶点识别是基于小分子结合改变目标蛋白的蛋白酶可及性的原则。如果没有出现这种情况, 则无法识别靶点[11]
Piazza等[13]采用了基于机器学习的框架(LiP-Quant), 利用药物剂量滴定, 可鉴别小分子化合物的靶点并可以提供其他信息, 包括结合位点预测和靶点结合亲和力。并进一步展示了跨化合物类别的药物靶点识别, 包括针对激酶、磷酸酶和膜蛋白的药物, 同时鉴定出了一种杀菌剂(BAYE-004) 的激酶靶点及其结合位点。Chen等[14]采用LiP-SMap (limited proteolysis-mass spectrometry) 鉴定出贯叶金丝桃素(hyperforin) 的直接作用靶蛋白是二氢脂酰胺S-乙酰基转移酶(dihydrolipoamide S-acetyltransferase, Dlat), 并且揭示Dlat对hyperforin介导的脂肪细胞产热至关重要。L-Arginine是决定T细胞命运过程中的一个重要的代谢物, L-arginine的增加可以限制T细胞的分化, 使T细胞可以保持在记忆性T细胞状态。Geiger等[15]采用LiP-MS证明T细胞中需要3种核蛋白(BAZ1B、PSIP1和TSN) 来介导L-arginine对细胞存活的影响。此外, LiP-SMap不仅能够识别真实的药物靶向蛋白, 而且还能够识别药物结合基序, 这是由于在多肽水平上可以获得标准化的丰度数据。
PP (图 2C) 是利用折叠蛋白和未折叠蛋白对蛋白水解酶敏感性的差异, 定量测定蛋白质的稳定性。该方法可以通过监测配体结合后蛋白质稳定性的变化来确定配体对其蛋白质靶点的亲和性。PP的目的是在折叠和未折叠蛋白的平衡混合物中只消化未折叠的蛋白。PP实验包括将蛋白样品用不同浓度的化学变性剂如尿素或盐酸胍(GdmCl, 化学变性剂) 对样品进行处理, 从而形成折叠和未折叠蛋白质的平衡混合溶液, 然后用过量非特异性蛋白酶(如thermolysin) 处理样品(较短时间, 一般1 min), 以选择性地消化混合溶液中的未折叠蛋白。快速的蛋白水解率、过量的蛋白酶和较短的消化时间确保了对未折叠蛋白的选择性裂解。因此, 可以将蛋白质的折叠形式与含有变性剂的样品中的展开形式区分开来。在平衡样品中折叠蛋白的比例可以确定为变性剂浓度的函数。蛋白质展开一半时变性剂浓度(即中点变性浓度Cm) 可作为衡量蛋白质稳定性的指标[16, 17]。该方法成功用于监测麦芽糖和麦芽糖结合蛋白(maltose‐binding protein, MBP) 的相互作用, 得到的Kd值与经典生物物理分析确定的值一致[16, 18]
利用PP可以进行高通量靶点识别, 为了降低细胞裂解液的蛋白质组复杂性, Chang等[19]利用离子交换色谱法对样品进行分离, 然后用不同浓度的变性剂(尿素) 处理每个分离组分, 在存在或不存在配体的情况下诱导蛋白质展开, 使用thermolysin进行脉冲蛋白水解。最后, 用SDS-PAGE和质谱技术对配体结合后显示不同蛋白水解敏感性的蛋白进行鉴定, 并与对照样品进行比较。另一种方法是利用细胞培养中氨基酸的稳定同位素标记结合脉冲蛋白水解(stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture-pulse proteolysis, SILAC-PP) 方法, 避免了依赖于视觉检查的问题。虽然该方法仍依赖于SDS-PAGE, 但结合代谢标记和SILAC-PP的定量质谱分析, 可以在蛋白质组水平上鉴定和定量蛋白质-配体相互作用[20]。由于SILAC-PP方法仍涉及到样品在SDS-PAGE凝胶上的分离, 实际上只能切除和分析凝胶的有限区域(差异条带), 仍然存在蛋白质组覆盖偏差的问题。因此, 它更适合作为一种靶点验证而不是发现策略。
虽然PP适合于靶向和定量分析, 但在PP工作流程中对SDS-PAGE的依赖性使其成为一个相对低通量技术; 依靠视觉目测差异敏感蛋白的分析方法使其灵敏度较低。为了克服这一局限性, Trindade等[21]开发了pulse proteolysis and precipitation for target identification (PePTID) 技术。与PP不同的是, PePTID方法侧重于检测上清液中生成的多肽部分, 通过添加三氯乙酸将蛋白水解后剩余的(完整的和部分降解的) 蛋白质沉淀。采用无标记半定量方法直接检测对照和处理样品中肽含量的差异, 避免了视觉上的误差。采用PePTID检测了Mycobacterium smegmatis蛋白组中的ATP‐结合蛋白, 在检测到的32个蛋白中有29个ATP稳定蛋白和3个ATP不稳定蛋白, 90%以上确实与ATP有关, 这证明了PePTID方法在报道配体结合引起的蛋白水解敏感性变化方面的可靠性。
PP是定量分析蛋白质折叠稳定性和蛋白质配体结合亲和力的一种有效技术。随着技术的改进, 特别是在不依赖凝胶电泳步骤方面的不同改进, 使其更加适用于高通量筛选。
天然产物与靶蛋白结合后, 靶蛋白热力学稳定性发生变化, 通过加热诱导靶点蛋白去折叠变性的过程会延迟发生, 进而可以检测到与天然产物结合的靶蛋白。该类技术可实现检测细胞内或组织中小分子与靶点蛋白的结合。
CETSA被用于评估细胞和组织样本中配体小分子与靶蛋白的结合, 该方法是基于配体诱导的靶蛋白热力学稳定性[22, 23]。随温度提高, 蛋白会解折叠并在细胞中迅速沉淀, 通过监测加热后可溶性蛋白含量, 分析其熔解曲线, 可用于表征蛋白热稳定性。而药物分子与靶蛋白的结合会改变其热稳定性, 热熔曲线会发生偏移。CETSA实验依赖于两个关键步骤: 第一, 加热步骤, 靶蛋白变性和沉淀; 第二, 将加热过程中保持稳定的蛋白与变性和沉淀的蛋白区别开来, 可以通过离心分离出可溶性蛋白。值得注意的是, 在检测细胞内靶蛋白结合时, 药物孵育时间尽量在30~60 min内, 如果孵育时间延长到数小时, 化合物也可以通过改变转录和翻译活动影响蛋白质水平[24]
将CETSA技术与质谱联合, 可对CETSA中发现的差异蛋白进行鉴定, 进而确定药物具体靶点。Dziekan等[25]采用CETSA-MS对人类疟疾的主要病原体恶性疟原虫进行药物靶点鉴定, 发现恶性疟原虫嘌呤核苷磷酸化酶(P. falciparum purine nucleoside phosphorylase, PfPNP) 是奎宁和甲氟喹共同作用靶点。这两种化合物结合在PfPNP的酶活性位点, 其中, 奎宁以低纳摩尔的亲和力与PfPNP结合, 这表明靶向PfPNP对其治疗效果有很大贡献。然而, 该方法具有低通量的缺陷, 难以用于高通量筛选。
为实现高通量筛选, 研究人员开发了TPP (图 3A)。该方法能够识别在不同温度下表现出配体诱导热稳定性的蛋白, 结合多重定量质谱在蛋白质组学尺度上评估配体与靶点的结合, 克服CETSA-MS低灵敏度和低通量的缺点[26, 27]。这种方法可以在体外和体内原位进行检测, 已成功地应用于识别药物的靶点蛋白和脱靶蛋白[28, 29]、蛋白质-代谢物[30]及蛋白质-蛋白质相互作用[31, 32]。可将CETSA和等温剂量反应(isothermal dose-response, ITDR) 的概念与多重定量质谱相结合[33], 在温度范围和药物浓度范围检测Tm位移值。Azimi等[34]采用TPP技术鉴定到CDK2是BRAF和Hsp90抑制剂耐药性的驱动因子。Miettinen等[35]采用TPP对CDK4/6抑制剂palbociclib诱导细胞衰老机制研究发现, palbociclib诱导20S蛋白酶体的热稳定, 尽管不直接与之结合, 但增加了独立于泛素化途径的蛋白酶体活性。
基于该技术衍生出了许多新方法用于检测不同样品。为了全面检测小分子对靶点的剂量依赖效应, Becher等[29]描述了一种二维TPP (2D-TPP), 使用等压质量标记(TMT10) 在6种多重液相色谱-串联质谱(LC-MS/MS) 分析中测量12个温度和5种不同化合物浓度下的全蛋白质组稳定性。对于大多数蛋白质, 这种方法能够灵敏地检测剂量依赖效应。运用该方法成功检测到了苯丙氨酸羟化酶(phenylalanine hydroxylase, PAH) 是panobinostat脱靶蛋白。大量药物作用于膜受体导致下游信号级联的调节, 质膜蛋白的低丰度和生物物理特性阻碍了小分子和其他配体与细胞表面相互作用的鉴定[36], 深入分析细胞表面的动态过程具有挑战性[28]。CS-TPP[37] (cell surface thermal proteome profiling) 可全面表征配体诱导的蛋白丰度和质膜热稳定性的变化, 它结合了TPP和选择性富集细胞表面糖基化蛋白。样品在经药物、温度处理后, 细胞表面蛋白被超碘酸钠氧化, 并通过肟连接反应进行生物素化标记, 过滤去除聚集的蛋白质后, 生物素化的蛋白质在中性蛋白酶珠上富集, 经胰蛋白酶水解后进行质谱检测[37]。CS-TPP广泛适用于寻找直接药物靶点、检测靶点的参与和作用机制研究, 以及解决一些基本的生物学问题, 如热休克反应和T细胞通过表面受体激活时免疫突触的蛋白质募集。Tissue/blood-TPP[38]通过使用定量质谱检测蛋白质热稳定性的变化来测量小分子药物与药物处理过的动物组织或血液样本中的蛋白质的结合及脱靶效应。在药物发现的后期阶段, 甚至在临床环境中, tissue/blood-TPP使器官特异性药物靶点的识别研究成为可能[38, 39]
由于CETSA适用于使用指定抗体验证候选靶蛋白, 不适合用于无偏性全蛋白质组靶点鉴定。Park等[40]开发了一种胶内差异荧光的二维凝胶电泳(FITGE) 技术用于靶点鉴定, 但该技术仍需要对化合物进行修饰成光亲和探针。Park等[41]将热稳定性转移应用到FITGE技术中, 用于全蛋白质组学分析, 在一定温度范围内加热细胞或细胞裂解液以诱导蛋白热变性(图 3B)。大多数蛋白质在没有或有药物的情况下都具有相同的变性模式, 而热稳定性发生变化的靶蛋白在药物作用下可溶性组分显示出不同的含量; 离心后, 可溶性部分的所有蛋白质均与两种不同的染料结合。Cy3-NHS为空载体处理组, Cy5-NHS为药物处理组。采用2D荧光差异双向电泳(2D DIGE) 对两组染色蛋白组进行混合分离, 并对其进行比较。通过自动图像分析量化每个蛋白点的Cy5/Cy3荧光信号比值。没有结合药物进行热稳定性转移的蛋白质出现黄色斑点(Cy3和Cy5的叠加信号), 而通过药物参与热稳定和不稳定的蛋白质出现红色和绿色斑点。此外, 将未加热的蛋白组与Cy2-NHS结合, 并将等量的Cy2-conjugated蛋白组添加到每个凝胶样品中作为凝胶间定量的内标, 得到了各蛋白质点的熔化曲线。TS-FITGE中的热位移点被认为是潜在的靶蛋白, 并被切除以进行质谱鉴定。TS-FITGE法成功地揭示了甲氨蝶呤和苔藓虫素I的已知靶蛋白, 证明了该方法在膜锚定蛋白鉴定中的适用性。此外, 利用该方法鉴定出了天然产物hordenine的靶蛋白为nucleophosmin[41]
TS-FITGE方法通过凝胶内图像分析简单地区分红色或绿色斑点(即Cy3和Cy5信号之间的荧光差异) 和其他黄色斑点, 从而有效地定义了热稳定性转移的蛋白质斑点。随后, 通过自动凝胶间图像分析, 对不同温度下单个蛋白质点的相对丰度进行定量分析, 从而绘制熔化曲线, 以确定斑点是否呈现S型热变性或假阳性信号。此外, TS-FITGE方法不仅可以识别生物活性小分子的靶蛋白, 还可以揭示其下游信号通路的额外信息, 有助于理解生物活性小分子在细胞环境中的作用机制。然而, 一些跨膜蛋白或大蛋白复合物, 可能在药物作用时不会出现热稳定性变化, 这些蛋白不适用任何基于热转移的无标记靶识别方法, 包括TPP、CETSA和TS-FITGE。此外, 该方法鉴定低丰度的靶蛋白仍然是一个挑战, 凝胶荧光检测也存在一定的局限性[41]。因此, 在无标记靶点识别领域, 识别低丰度靶蛋白仍然是一个迫切需要解决的问题。
与DARTS类似, SPROX (图 4) 是另一种基于检测配体诱导的靶蛋白稳定的靶点识别方法。SPROX不是检测蛋白水解模式, 而是测量靶点蛋白的甲硫氨酸氧化水平。SPROX利用过氧化氢在化学变性剂浓度增加的情况下氧化蛋白质中甲硫氨酸侧链来测量蛋白质的折叠自由能和蛋白质配体复合体的Kd[42]。在蛋白质组范围内, SPROX利用同位素标记(TMT/isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification, iTRAQ) 或SILAC来量化化学变性剂对甲硫氨酸氧化的作用程度。这是通过标准的自下而上的蛋白质组学方法完成的, 并最终测量不同变性蛋白样品中未氧化的含甲硫氨酸肽(或氧化的含甲硫氨酸肽) 的相对数量[43]。相比蛋白折叠状态下, 在非折叠状态下, 甲硫氨酸暴露在溶剂中, 更容易发生氧化, 形成甲硫氨酸亚砜。因此可以在不同浓度的变性剂条件下, 绘制出蛋白上的甲硫氨酸的氧化比例曲线。根据这条曲线可以计算出4个重要的参数: 基线氧化(baseline oxidation)、[denaturant]1/2 (midpoint of denaturation)、m value和折叠自由能(free energy of folding, ΔG folding)[44]。利用该方法, 研究人员鉴定出了cyclosporin A的已知作用靶点cyclophilin A和UDP-glucose-4-epimerase, 同时还发现了8个潜在的蛋白质靶点, 包括一些参与糖代谢的蛋白质[45, 46]。Lu等[47]利用平行质谱法(TPP和SPROX) 确定伴侣蛋白TRiC/CCT (chaperonin containing TCP-1) 为氯马司汀抗恶性疟原虫的靶点。
但此方法的一个缺点是需要相对大量的纯化蛋白, 包括基于iTRAQ/TMT-SPROX和SILAC-SRPOX技术, 通常需要2~3 mg的总蛋白。某些样品(如从培养细胞系中提取的细胞裂解液) 中很容易获得这种量的蛋白质。然而, 这对于临床样本可能很难达到分析所需蛋白量。Jin等[46]将PAB (phenacylbromide) 标记策略纳入SPROX技术, 以便于对少量蛋白质进行针对性的SPROX分析。PAB-SPROX策略涉及蛋白质组分析中产生的胰肽混合物与PAB的反应, 以专门标记来自SPROX中非氧化的含甲硫氨酸的肽。此外, 还利用了选择性反应监测(selected reaction monitoring, SRM) 的高灵敏度, 使分析所需的总蛋白量减少为原来的1/20, 并且能够处理给定样本中的内源性蛋白, 不需要在细胞培养中使用氨基酸进行稳定同位素标记。为了进一步提高SPROX中肽和蛋白的覆盖范围, Xu等[48]把HNSB [dimethyl (2-hydroxy-5-nitrobenzyl) sulfonium bromide] 标记色氨酸(Trp) 残基的反应引入到SPROX实验中, 使多肽和蛋白质的检测覆盖率分别提高了50%和25%。
SPROX的局限性在于, 它需要由配体调节的甲硫氨酸残基来确定靶蛋白稳定性变化, 并不是所有甲硫氨酸残基都表现出不同的氧化速率[49]; 需要有足够高的蛋白质和配体浓度, 以产生可测量的过渡中点位移值[43, 50]。此外, 甲硫氨酸对氧化敏感性的变化并不直接反映结合位点的位置。在SPROX实验中观察到的甲硫氨酸氧化敏感性的变化可能是由于直接或间接的结合作用。因此, 使用该方法确定的靶点还需进一步运用其他方法验证。
药物结合的靶蛋白更不容易被有机溶剂变性沉淀, 有助于热稳定性变化不显著的靶蛋白的发现及鉴定。该类技术利用蛋白质变性沉淀的过程, 通过对比药物结合前后蛋白质分别在机械应力和有机溶剂耐受性方面的差异来识别靶蛋白。
CPP (图 5A) 方法是SPROX和TPP技术的交叉。它使用了类似于SPROX的化学变性剂, 但基于蛋白质沉淀策略(类似于TPP中使用的策略) 来分离含有化学变性剂的缓冲液中折叠和未折叠的蛋白质。因此, 克服了SPROX依赖甲硫氨酸的需求, 提高了检测蛋白的覆盖率。蛋白质的化学变性通常比热变性更可逆, 而且化学变性剂诱导的蛋白质展开特性与其折叠自由能之间的关系已经建立[51]。在CPP方法中, 可溶性蛋白含量随着初始缓冲液中GdmCl浓度的增加而下降; 而沉淀蛋白分数随着初始缓冲液中GdmCl浓度的增加而增加。药物与目标蛋白的直接结合将改变原含GdmCl缓冲液中目标蛋白的折叠平衡, 从而减少未折叠的蛋白质。药物改变未折叠蛋白部分的程度可以用来量化蛋白质-药物相互作用[51]
CPP技术能够识别酵母中cyclosporin A和geldanamycin的已知蛋白靶点, 并成功地用于鉴定人MCF-7细胞裂解液中sinefungin的蛋白靶点。CPP技术获得的药物-靶蛋白的解离常数(Kd), 与之前报道的Kd或IC50值基本一致。与类似的基于能量的技术(SPROX) 相比, CPP技术明显具有更高的(约高50%) 蛋白质组学覆盖率和大幅降低的假阳性率[51]
众所周知, 有机溶剂可以使蛋白质变性和沉淀, 配体结合蛋白对有机溶剂具有更强的耐受能力这一概念, 可以作为小分子配体靶点识别的工具。基于在甲醇浓度梯度存在下, 配体-蛋白复合物与自由蛋白的溶解度差异, Ryan等[52, 53]开发了DiffPOP技术用于检测小分子配体的靶蛋白。全细胞裂解液中的可溶性蛋白在含甲醇浓度增加的组分中沉淀; 然后使用标准的自下向上蛋白质组学分析来评估不同沉淀物的蛋白质组成。并使用基于皮尔逊相关系数的分析工作流程来识别在药物存在时溶解度变化的蛋白质, 以此作为潜在的靶点。通过这种方法, 鉴定出了化合物JIB-04在Jurkat 2D10 T细胞中的靶蛋白是丝氨酸羟甲基转移酶2 (serine hydroxymethyltransferase 2, SHMT2) 和BRCC36/BRISC去泛素化酶复合物, 并揭示了JIB-04选择性阻断HIV-1 Tat蛋白的机制。
Zhang等[54]提出了一种新的识别药物靶蛋白或脱靶蛋白的方法-SIP (图 5B)。与热变性引起的蛋白质沉淀不同, 有机溶剂(50%丙酮∶50%乙醇∶0.1%醋酸, A.E.A.) 通过降低介电常数和竞争蛋白质水合作用而使蛋白质沉淀。随后, 样品进行离心, 收集上清, 自下而上制备蛋白质组学样品, 并用稳定的同位素二甲基标记成轻、重多肽。SIP方法产生的蛋白质组学覆盖率与传统自下而上实验相似, 优于SPROX方法。通过SIP方法在细胞裂解液中识别出了甲氨蝶呤、SNS-032和staurosporine的已知蛋白靶点。并对格尔德霉素进行了潜在脱靶蛋白的鉴定, NDUFV1蛋白被发现是格尔德霉素潜在的脱靶蛋白, 并通过Western blot进行验证[54]。此外, SIP方法还可以评价药物的亲和力。
在机械应力作用下, 随着蛋白质构象的变化, 蛋白质会逐渐沉淀, 这也可以用于研究配体-蛋白质相互作用。机械应力是通过涡旋蛋白质溶液和微粒材料的浆液产生的。机械应力诱导的蛋白质沉淀(MSIPP) 被微粒子捕获, 这保证了MSIPP方法的可扩展性。在蛋白质溶液中, 通过对微粒的涡旋搅拌, 会产生强烈的机械应力。在机械应力作用下, 蛋白质发生变性, 导致蛋白质在微粒表面聚集。药物孵育后, 由于药物-靶点复合体的形成, 靶蛋白的聚集被阻止。该方法已成功应用于甲氨蝶呤、raltitrexed、SHP099、格尔德霉素和十字孢碱5种药物的靶点鉴定[55]。此外, DHFR (dihydrofolate reductase) 被证明是raltitrexed的靶点, 这一靶点尚未被其他任何无修饰药物靶点鉴定方法所揭示[55]。MSIPP方法利用蛋白质聚集捕获技术, 为蛋白质组水平的药物靶点筛选提供了一个标准的操作方法。该方法还可以结合96孔板和多通道移液管进行高通量分析[55]
由于该方法需要使用羧酸盐磁珠微粒, 因此不能应用于活细胞。与其他无修饰方法一样, 在MSIPP程序中应避免使用强洗涤剂, 如SDS。因此, 一些极度疏水的膜蛋白将不适用。此外, 有些蛋白质很容易被微粒捕获, 而有些蛋白质天生比较顽固, 需要更多的机械应力才能沉淀[55]
与经典的TPP方法类似, 微粒辅助沉淀筛选(MAPS, 图 5C) 方法利用的原理是药物结合的蛋白质对沉淀诱导更有抵抗力, 但蛋白质沉淀过程是由微粒辅助的。加热后, 蛋白质在羧酸盐磁珠微粒表面展开并聚集(蛋白质会聚集在任何类型的微粒表面, 而不管它们的表面化学性质是什么), 这种方法以微粒为核心, 变性的蛋白质会像线一样包裹在核心上。微粒提供了一个巨大的整体表面, 蛋白质可以在表面聚集[56]。微粒子的引入简化了整个样品制备流程, 热诱导蛋白沉淀是在微粒存在的情况下进行的, 药物结合的靶蛋白比游离蛋白更不易聚集在微粒表面。沉淀在微粒上的蛋白质被洗涤、烷基化和消化, 整个样品制备过程在微粒表面进行, 无需任何转移[57]
MAPS应用于筛选几种已被充分研究的药物的靶点, 并成功鉴定到了已知的靶蛋白, 具有很高的可信度。为了研究该方法的特异性, 应用MAPS方法筛选了staurosporine (泛蛋白酶抑制剂) 的靶点蛋白, 仅用20 μg初始蛋白即鉴定出32个蛋白激酶(特异性为80%)。在少量样品条件下, MAPS方法优于经典的TPP方法, 此外, MAPS也可通过剂量依赖性实验计算结合亲和度(IC50)[57]。该技术采用相对温和的细胞裂解液溶解蛋白, 因此, 不适用于那些不能被温和裂解液溶解的极疏水膜蛋白。
尽管基于温度的蛋白质沉淀方法具有多功能性, 但它们也有一些局限性, 并不是所有的蛋白质都随着温度的升高而降低溶解度。另一个限制是熔化曲线并不总是假定的S形, 这使Tm的测定复杂化[58]。此外, 在研究热不稳定体系时, 不能应用基于热的蛋白质沉淀方法[59, 60]。传统的基于温度的化学蛋白质组学(如TPP), 依靠拟合曲线对数据进行分析, 使其筛选通量大大降低。因此, 用蛋白质沉淀替代温度的方法是非常必要的。Zubarev课题组[61]开发了PISA方法。该方法不仅提高了筛选通量, 而且大大减少了分析时间和样品消耗。随后对该方法做了进一步优化, 采用基于Hofmeister系列的kosmotropic离子(亲水离子, 维持水的氢键网络结构) 效应的快速等温蛋白质沉淀方法来综合表征蛋白质溶解度的变化(I-PISA)[62]。该方法不仅能在细胞裂解物中识别药物的靶点, 而且也适用于完整的细胞中靶点识别。它还允许在离心前将样品汇集在一起, 以减少劳动力成本和增加通量。重要的是, I-PISA显示了对TPP分析的互补溶解度偏移(在某些情况下, 偏移方向相反)。因此, I-PISA可以成为探索蛋白质与小分子结合的化学蛋白质组学研究工具(如药物开发中的靶点和脱靶) 的一个有价值的补充。与TPP相比, I-PISA数据集富含蛋白酶体和核质蛋白的高质量数据。
与传统亲和色谱法相比, 本文介绍的基于亲和性的靶点鉴定技术无需对小分子进行修饰。该类技术是将药物或者具有活性的小分子固载到固体基质上, 然后与细胞裂解液进行孵育来捕获与药物或小分子有相互作用的蛋白质。
Chan等[63]开发了一种TICC鉴定技术, 其原理是基于化合物与靶点蛋白结合后, 化合物色谱保留时间上的特征位移。TICC是采用非变性高效液相色谱结合质谱监测小分子或其他潜在的生物活性配体与近天然细胞蛋白在复杂生物溶液中的相互作用, 然后使用高效的LC-MS/MS来分离靶蛋白。典型的TICC工作流程: 裂解药物处理或未处理细胞, 使用双离子交换色谱(ion exchange-high-performance liquid chromatography, IEX-HPLC) 分离含有配体的可溶性蛋白提取物。收集所有组分, 通过LC-MS/MS分析药物的存在, 以描述自由(未结合) 和结合(移位) 配体的特征轮廓。通过nanoflow LC-MS/MS分析结合的含药(移位) 组分中的蛋白质, 以确定候选共洗脱靶蛋白。采用TICC鉴定出了多个已知的化合物靶点(methotrexate-DHFR、radicicol-HSP90、sordarin-EIF2), 证明该程序的可用性。对于未知化合物靶点鉴定, 作者检测出了抗真菌化合物4513-0042的作用靶点为酿酒酵母固醇甲基转移酶(Erg6p), 并进一步做了表型及活性验证。此外, TICC还可以用于监测药物与多个靶点的相互作用, 检测发现多巴胺受体激动剂A77636的靶点为Asc型氨基酸转运蛋白1 (ASC1, 抑制基因表达的核心40s核糖体蛋白) 和dihydroxyacetone kinase 1 (Dak1, 参与应激适应的二羟丙酮激酶)[63]。Schäkermann等[64]对TICC应用于抗生素靶点鉴定进行了研究, 大量潜在的抗生素靶点(临床相关的抗生素靶点和必要的蛋白质) 被覆盖, 蛋白质复合物被完整地保存下来。证明这项技术是一个强大的工具, 可以帮助开发急需的抗生素。
TICC既适用于传统的基于靶点的药物发现, 也适用于由表型筛选产生的化学探针的表征, 并可能以一种系统的方式提供有关药物作用机制、选择性和脱靶效应的有用信息。但TICC的适用性目前仅限于非共价疏水蛋白-配体相互作用、含有可溶性蛋白的生物样品以及纳摩尔至微摩尔范围内的蛋白-配体相互作用。
UPT是Shantani公司的专利靶点捕获技术, 可帮助识别小分子的蛋白质靶点, 无需任何衍生化[65]。UPT在以下情况下特别有利: 无法获得构效关系信息; 诱饵分子是大环或天然产物, 不易衍生; 需要比较已建立和后续化合物进行脱靶分析; 快速靶点筛选需要识别诱饵分子特异性的靶点蛋白。该技术工作原理是基于亲和作用的靶点识别方法, 该方法依赖于一个经过验证的假设, 即药物分子的弱分子间相互作用力可以用于制备它们的亲和基质, 而不需要化合物的衍生化。虽然这些互补的亲和相互作用在本质上是弱的, 但多个弱相互作用的总和将允许分子在表面停留一段时间, 足以使其与生物样品中的亲和蛋白伴侣相互作用并结合。因此, 制备的亲和基质可用于靶蛋白的富集(http://shantani.com/upt)。在UPT中, 没有任何化学衍生的“诱饵分子”被固定在Shantani公司的专有聚合物上。Shantani公司独特的聚合物表面允许与“诱饵分子”形成互补的弱相互作用键, 以实现其瞬时固定。然后将制备的“诱饵分子”特异性亲和基质暴露于相关的生物样品(通常是细胞裂解液) 以亲和捕获目标蛋白。在适当的孵育后, 清洗聚合物基质, 并将聚合物基质溶解在有机溶剂中, 分离出基质结合的蛋白质, 然后用质谱法鉴定这些蛋白质[66]
通过该技术验证了bisindolylmaleimide-Ⅲ的已知主要靶点糖原合酶激酶3β (glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta, GSK3-β), 并且使用Western blot分析证实了GSK3-β的特异性捕获。Bathula等[65]通过该技术鉴定出了一种新型的有效抗癌化合物5-芳基烯噻唑烷酮的潜在靶点为beta actin-like protein 2、gamma-enolase和巨噬细胞迁移抑制因子。Hati等[67]利用该技术确定组蛋白去乙酰化酶2和prohibitin 2为spiro (pyrrolidine-3, 3ʹ-oxindole) 的靶点, 这是一种潜在的抗乳腺癌化合物。然而, 该技术需要制备亲和基质, 是Shantani公司专利技术, 难以推广应用。
该方法通过制备小分子与琼脂糖珠(epoxy-activated sepharose 6B beads/sepharose 4B beads) 的偶联复合物, 将细胞裂解液中与小分子结合的靶蛋白吸附到琼脂糖珠上, 沉淀琼脂糖珠即可得到与小分子结合的蛋白。小分子需要含有能与琼脂糖偶联的化学基团, 如-OH、-NH2[68]。在将小分子与琼脂糖珠偶联后, 通常添加堵塞剂(乙醇胺), 以淬灭所有激活位置, 最大限度地减少树脂的电荷。通过测定偶联前后溶液中小分子的含量来确定小分子是否偶联到琼脂糖珠上。实验过程中需要空白琼脂糖珠做对照, 另外可通过小分子和小分子偶联复合物竞争性实验进一步减少假阳性, 在这个环境中, 给定小分子的靶蛋白被过量的可溶性小分子束缚, 不能与亲和基质上的小分子相互作用, 继而在SDS-PAGE上显示变弱的条带。北京大学屠鹏飞教授团队运用该技术鉴定出了一系列天然产物的作用靶点, icariin[69] (靶向Bax抑制PC12细胞凋亡和氧化应激)、handelin[70] (选择性靶向并激活HSP70, 抗神经炎症) 和J13[71] (靶向MYH9-actin分子运动促进线粒体裂变进程, 显著抑制癌细胞的存活、增殖和迁移)、echinacoside[72] (靶向CK2α′促进线粒体融合)。该方法缺点是无法确定偶联部位是否为小分子活性部位。
与配体诱导的靶蛋白在蛋白水解、温度、有机溶剂和其他变性应力下的稳定性变化不同, TRAP是基于短暂的、低亲和的代谢产物相互作用能够显著影响结合靶蛋白组的稳定性原理。TRAP建立的前提是, 由于配体结合和伴随的空间位阻增大, 目的蛋白的配体结合区域的活性残基被共价化学探针不同程度地标记[73]。TRAP方法采用了一种简单、快速的还原性二甲基化反应, 对细胞裂解物中的蛋白质赖氨酸进行全面标记, 再通过识别活性的含赖氨酸的多肽来实现的, 这些多肽在配体孵育前后表现出显著的丰度变化。通过量化有和没有配体孵育的多肽, 定义了一个TRAP比率Rligand/control, 以反映每个检测的赖氨酸的丰度改变, 并将丰度变化显著的肽段归为靶响应多肽, 它决定配体结合的靶标蛋白。利用该方法鉴定出了雷公藤红素抗巨噬细胞介导的炎症靶点为CAP1 (adenylyl cyclase-associated protein 1)[74], 以及环黄芪醇靶向组织蛋白酶B增强抗肿瘤免疫[75]
随后, 研究人员对其进行了改进以达到在活细胞内检测靶蛋白的目的。LC-TRAP (living cell-target responsive accessibility profiling) 被用于检测配体在活细胞内与靶蛋白组相互作用。利用该技术, 研究人员发现水飞蓟宾在HepG2细胞中靶向酰基辅酶A合成酶长链家族成员4 (acyl-CoA synthetase long chain family member 4, ACSL4) 抑制铁死亡[76]。该方法需要对蛋白质组中赖氨酸进行标记, 且需要在标记之前裂解细胞。因此, 在细胞裂解过程中配体-靶标相互作用存在被破坏的风险, 并可能导致对配体靶标的错误识别。
生物信息学是计算机科学与信息处理相结合的综合性、创新性研究领域。该方法可提高结果的准确性, 减少成本和时间, 允许在分子水平上探索人类疾病, 并帮助解释疾病现象及其遗传方面的技术。基于活性小分子结构的计算机靶点预测技术为中药及天然药物靶点研究提供了另一种快捷方案。PharmMapper Server是由华东理工大学开发与维护的一个免费访问的网络服务器, 旨在使用药效基团定位方法, 为给定的探针小分子(药物、天然产物或其他新发现的结合靶点不明的化合物) 识别潜在的候选靶点。得益于高效、稳健的mapping方法, PharmMapper具有高通量能力, 可以在数小时内从数据库中识别出潜在的候选靶点。通过PharmMapper可存储和访问超过7 000个基于受体的药效团模型, 其中涵盖1 627个药物靶点信息, 459个人类蛋白靶点[77]。Wang等[78]通过PharmMapper和KEGG databXase分析发现MAPKAPK2是天然产物sophoridine的潜在靶点, 并通过DARTS和CETSA进一步验证了两者之间直接结合, 机制上通过减少丝裂原激活蛋白激酶激活蛋白激酶2 (mitogen activated protein kinase activated protein kinase 2, MAPKAPK2) 的磷酸化抑制结直肠癌。Connectivity Map (CMap)[79]是由Broad Institute公司(http://www.broadinstitute.org) 建立的。CMap描述了1 309个生物活性小分子处理的人类细胞的全基因组转录数据。通过模式匹配软件获取特征数据, CMap可以用来阐明小分子之间的联系。由于共同的暂时性特征, 这种简单的模式匹配算法可用于发现天然产物、基因和疾病之间的功能联系。Tiedemann等[80]利用CMap工具验证了pristimerin可以抑制蛋白酶体糜蛋白酶样活性和抑制NF-κB信号通路。Mukherjee等[81]使用类似的方法确定环氧化酶(cyclooxygenase, COX) 抑制剂和组蛋白去乙酰化酶(histonedeacetylases, HDAC) 抑制剂(即白藜芦醇) 调节T细胞激活依赖的转录后效应和RNA结合蛋白。Hieronymus等[82]证明雄激素受体信号抑制剂celastrol和gedunin在体外调控上游HSP90及其相关机制。此外, BATMAN-TCM[83]、STITCH[84, 85]、SwissTargetPrediction[86, 87]和ChemMapper[88]等均可用于天然产物靶点预测。但靶点信息仅为预测结果, 后期需要实验验证才能确定天然产物的作用靶点。
基于以上讨论, 本研究总结了不同靶点鉴定技术的优缺点(表 1), 以期为研究人员选择合适的技术提供便利。
在现代药物研究中, 天然产物并没有得到充分的利用, 这在一定程度上归因于其作用方式难以解释, 作用靶点未知。开发蛋白质与天然产物的相互作用对于理解天然产物的作用机制和治疗效果至关重要。天然产物靶点蛋白的鉴定首先要标记目标天然产物, 以阐明它们在蛋白质组中的结合蛋白。但对天然产物进行标记费时费力。因此, 不需要化学修饰就能识别目标蛋白的策略一直是研究的热点。使用上述方法鉴定出天然产物的直接靶蛋白后, 后续的功能分析也应进一步探索, 以验证所鉴定靶点的生物学相关性, 并探索靶点蛋白在生物系统中的新作用[89]
化学蛋白质组学的发展极大地促进了表型筛选中的靶点鉴定。靶点的识别也加深了研究者对临床药物作用模式的理解。重要的是, 靶点识别可以增加发现新的不可成药性靶蛋白的机会, 以开发一流的治疗方法。由于各种化学蛋白质组学方法各有长处, 因此需要注意的是, 它们是可以相互补充的。如果有足够的资源, 采用两种或两种以上的蛋白质靶点发现策略可以减少假阳性, 并有助于进一步验证这些方法。采用正交化学蛋白质组学方法的组合靶点鉴定方法可以提高蛋白质组的覆盖率和靶点反褶积的成功率[90]。如TS-FITGE和TPP在许多方面存在差异, 包括标记步骤(蛋白vs肽)、分离方法(液相色谱vs 2D凝胶电泳)、检测方法(质谱vs荧光成像) 和读取(Tm位移vs丰度差异)。尽管TS-FITGE只能在一个2D凝胶中看到1 000个蛋白质点, 但包括不同翻译后修饰在内的蛋白质异构体可以根据其等电点和分子量进行分离。TPP采用了最先进的定量质谱技术, 几乎可以同时识别和量化数千种蛋白质。两种技术联合使用弥补了各自的不足, 提高了无标记天然产物靶点识别的成功率。采用TPP和TS-FITGE对SB2001靶蛋白进行鉴定发现排名靠前的候选靶点是互补的, TPP和TS-FITGE之间有一定的重叠[91]。Lu等[47]利用平行的化学蛋白质组学策略, 基于TPP和SPROX分析来研究抗组胺药clemastine的作用靶点, 并发现clemastine与必需的疟原虫伴侣蛋白TRiC/CCT结合并使其不稳定。
生物活性小分子的靶点识别后, 需要通过靶蛋白的敲低/敲除、直接参与的生物物理实验、功能分析等靶点验证手段, 将候选靶点蛋白与简单结合蛋白进行区分。尽管目前需要大量繁琐的验证步骤来揭示药物分子的作用机制, 但未来的技术进步将朝着加速验证步骤的方向发展, 通过智能反褶积过程来缩小潜在靶蛋白的候选范围[92]。此外, 如何将这些技术应用于临床体内检测药物-靶点结合仍然是一项巨大的挑战。
基于以上分析, 本课题组提出了天然产物靶点研究的一般策略(图 6)。首先, 采用无修饰靶点鉴定技术寻找天然产物靶点; 随后, 进行靶点验证及结合亲和力测定; 进一步通过构效关系、质谱、核磁、共晶或分子对接确定小分子与蛋白结合位点; 最后, 通过敲低/过表达靶蛋白或突变靶蛋白结合位点对其机制进行探索。
作者贡献: 董睿方撰写正文及画图; 夏元铮和孔令义提供综述的全文思路和结构; 所有作者共同参与了文章的撰写及修改。
利益冲突: 本文作者声明没有利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(81973524)
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2023年第58卷第8期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0648
  • 接收时间:2023-05-18
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-08-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-05-18
  • 修回日期:2023-07-12
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国家自然科学基金资助项目(81973524)
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    中国药科大学中药学院, 天然药物活性组分与药效国家重点实验室, 江苏省生物活性天然产物研究重点实验室, 江苏 南京 210009

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
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Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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