Article(id=1198624471214031747, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624466902287155, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1182, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1667664000000, receivedDateStr=2022-11-06, revisedDate=1669910400000, revisedDateStr=2022-12-02, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763703943302, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1681228800000, pubDateStr=2023-04-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763703943302, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763703943302, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763703943302, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198624466902287155, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='4', pageStart='1', pageEnd='1092', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763703942275, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763704125380, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198625234971619912, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624466902287155, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198625234971619913, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624466902287155, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=891, endPage=898, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198624471469884316, articleId=1198624471214031747, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=The bactericidal mechanisms of carbon monoxide and the feasibility of carbon monoxide-releasing molecules as anti-infective drugs, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The bactericidal mechanism of carbon monoxide (CO) and the feasibility of CO-releasing molecules as anti-infective drugs were summarized by consulting scientific literature, combined with our own research work. Anaerobic bacteria are usually tolerant to high concentration of CO, and some can even grow with CO as sole carbon or energy source, but most pathogenic bacteria are sensitive to CO. In view of the difficulty of gaseous CO in controlling the applying dose and the action site, CO release molecules were synthesized. CO release molecules not only have higher bactericidal activities against common pathogenic bacteria than gaseous CO, but also have the ability to kill antibiotics-resistant bacteria and destroy their biofilms. CO mainly binds with heme-Fe2+ in cells, interrupting the electron transfer of respiration chains, which would result in the generation of reactive oxygen species. CO can also disturb intracellular ion balance, which further triggers free radical reactions. Due to its diverse acting targets, uneasy to induce drug resistance, and synergistic effect with other antibiotics, CO is expected to be the next generation of anti-infection drugs.

, correspAuthors=Gen-fu WU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Gen-fu WU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198624471838983096, articleId=1198624471214031747, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=一氧化碳的抗菌机制及其释放分子作为抗感染药物的可行性, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

介绍一氧化碳(CO) 和CO释放分子的杀菌机制及其作为抗感染药物的可行性, 为相关教学和研究工作提供参考。通过查阅文献, 结合自身科研工作, 对CO的杀菌机制及其作为抗感染药物的可行性进行综述。厌氧细菌通常能耐受高浓度CO, 有些甚至能以CO为唯一的碳源或能源生长, 但一些常见的致病菌对CO敏感。鉴于CO气体的剂量和施加部位不易控制, 一批CO释放分子被合成出来。CO释放分子不但安全易控, 杀菌效率比气态CO更高, 对耐药菌株及其生物膜也具有很好的杀灭和抑制作用。CO主要与细胞内的血红素-Fe2+结合, 阻断呼吸链电子传递, 进而产生活性氧; CO还通过与金属元素的结合影响胞内离子平衡, 进而触发自由基反应, 破坏DNA等大分子。CO具有作用靶标多样, 不易产生耐药性, 与现有抗生素存在协同效应等优点, 有望成为下一代抗感染药物。

, correspAuthors=吴根福, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*吴根福, Tel: 86-571-88206636, E-mail:
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Mycobacteria tolerate carbon monoxide by remodeling their respiratory chain[J]. mSystems, 2021, 6: e01292-20., articleTitle=Mycobacteria tolerate carbon monoxide by remodeling their respiratory chain, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1198702051216683030, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2013, volume=4, issue=null, pageStart=e00721, pageEnd=13, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[55], rfOrder=54, authorNames=null, journalName=mBio, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Zacharia VM, Manzanillo PS, Nair VR, et al. cor, a novel carbon monoxide resistance gene, is essential for Mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenesis[J]. mBio, 2013, 4: e00721-13., articleTitle=cor, a novel carbon monoxide resistance gene, is essential for Mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenesis, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1198702051413815337, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, doi=10.1021/acsbiomedchemau.2c00007, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2022, volume=2, issue=null, pageStart=419, pageEnd=436, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[56], rfOrder=55, authorNames=null, journalName=ACS Bio Med Chem Au, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Mendes SS, Marques J, Mesterhazy E, et al. Synergetic antimicrobial activity and mechanism of clotrimazole-linked CO-releasing molecules[J]. ACS Bio Med Chem Au, 2022, 2: 419-436., articleTitle=Synergetic antimicrobial activity and mechanism of clotrimazole-linked CO-releasing molecules, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1198702051594170424, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, doi=10.3390/pharmaceutics13060874, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2021, volume=13, issue=null, pageStart=874, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[57], rfOrder=56, authorNames=null, journalName=Pharmaceutics, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Munteanu AC, Uivarosi V. Ruthenium complexes in the fight against pathogenic microorganisms[J]. Pharmaceutics, 2021, 13: 874., articleTitle=Ruthenium complexes in the fight against pathogenic microorganisms, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1198702042492530940, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, awardId=LY21C010003, language=CN, fundingSource=浙江省自然科学基金资助项目(LY21C010003), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1198702038256284543, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198702038264673153, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, companyId=1198702038256284543, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198702038273061762, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, companyId=1198702038256284543, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=浙江大学生命科学学院, 浙江 杭州 310058)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1198702041389428867, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Bacteria Group Typical bacterium Ref.
Anaerobes Purple non-sulfur bacteria Rhodospirillum rubrum [12]
Acetogenic bacteria Moorella thermoacetica [13]
Ethanologenic bacteria Clostridium ljungdahlii [14]
Sulfate-reducing bacteria Desulfovibrio vulgaris [15]
Methanogenic archaea Methanosarcina acetivorans [16]
Hydrogenogenic bacteria Carboxydothermus hydrogenoformans [16]
Aerobes Carboxydotrophic bacteria Oligotropha carboxidovorans [17]
Pseudomonas bacteria Pseudomonas carboxydohydrogena [17]
), ArticleFig(id=1198702041569783958, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Bacteria being able to metabolize carbon monoxide (CO)

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Bacteria Group Typical bacterium Ref.
Anaerobes Purple non-sulfur bacteria Rhodospirillum rubrum [12]
Acetogenic bacteria Moorella thermoacetica [13]
Ethanologenic bacteria Clostridium ljungdahlii [14]
Sulfate-reducing bacteria Desulfovibrio vulgaris [15]
Methanogenic archaea Methanosarcina acetivorans [16]
Hydrogenogenic bacteria Carboxydothermus hydrogenoformans [16]
Aerobes Carboxydotrophic bacteria Oligotropha carboxidovorans [17]
Pseudomonas bacteria Pseudomonas carboxydohydrogena [17]
), ArticleFig(id=1198702041745944746, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Group Name Central element Chemical molecule Ref.
Water soluble CORM-3 Ru Ru(CO)3Cl (glycinate) [21]
ALF186 Mo [Mo(histidinate)(CO)3] [11]
CORM-A1 B Na2(H3BCO2) [22]
DMSO (ethanol) soluble CORM-2 Ru [Ru(CO)3Cl2]2 [20]
ALF153 Fe Fe(C5H5)(CH2CONH2)(CO)2 [11]
ALF021 Mn Mn(CO)5Br [23]
ALF062 Mo [Mo(CO)5Br] [N(C2H5)4] [24]
), ArticleFig(id=1198702041951465663, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, language=CN, label=Table 2, caption=

CO releasing molecules (CORMs) frequently used in scientific studies

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Group Name Central element Chemical molecule Ref.
Water soluble CORM-3 Ru Ru(CO)3Cl (glycinate) [21]
ALF186 Mo [Mo(histidinate)(CO)3] [11]
CORM-A1 B Na2(H3BCO2) [22]
DMSO (ethanol) soluble CORM-2 Ru [Ru(CO)3Cl2]2 [20]
ALF153 Fe Fe(C5H5)(CH2CONH2)(CO)2 [11]
ALF021 Mn Mn(CO)5Br [23]
ALF062 Mo [Mo(CO)5Br] [N(C2H5)4] [24]
), ArticleFig(id=1198702042060517579, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Group Activation Name Chemical molecule Ref.
Light triggered 365 nm light CORM-C1 Mo[(((1, 10-phenanthrolin-5-yl)imino)methyl)-6-methoxyphenol](CO)4 [25]
405 nm light CORM-1 [Mn2(CO)10]-polylactide [26]
410 nm light HF-D-Ala 3-Hydroxyflavone-D-Ala [27]
650 nm light TPP-HF Tetraphenylporphyrin 3-hydroxyflavone [28]
808 nm light CO-MPDA Fe3(CO)12-mesoporous polydopamine [29]
Enzyme triggered Lipase CORM-Ac 3-Methoxy-2-phenyl-4H-benzo[h]chromen-4-one [30]
Dioxygenase HF 3-Hydrooxyflavone [31]
HOQ 3-Hydro-4-oxoquinoline
), ArticleFig(id=1198702042173763801, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624471214031747, language=CN, label=Table 3, caption=

The second generation of CORMs triggered by light or enzymes

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Group Activation Name Chemical molecule Ref.
Light triggered 365 nm light CORM-C1 Mo[(((1, 10-phenanthrolin-5-yl)imino)methyl)-6-methoxyphenol](CO)4 [25]
405 nm light CORM-1 [Mn2(CO)10]-polylactide [26]
410 nm light HF-D-Ala 3-Hydroxyflavone-D-Ala [27]
650 nm light TPP-HF Tetraphenylporphyrin 3-hydroxyflavone [28]
808 nm light CO-MPDA Fe3(CO)12-mesoporous polydopamine [29]
Enzyme triggered Lipase CORM-Ac 3-Methoxy-2-phenyl-4H-benzo[h]chromen-4-one [30]
Dioxygenase HF 3-Hydrooxyflavone [31]
HOQ 3-Hydro-4-oxoquinoline
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一氧化碳的抗菌机制及其释放分子作为抗感染药物的可行性
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吴根福 *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(4): 891-898
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药学学报 | 综述 2023, 58(4): 891-898
一氧化碳的抗菌机制及其释放分子作为抗感染药物的可行性
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吴根福*
作者信息
  • 浙江大学生命科学学院, 浙江 杭州 310058

通讯作者:

*吴根福, Tel: 86-571-88206636, E-mail:
The bactericidal mechanisms of carbon monoxide and the feasibility of carbon monoxide-releasing molecules as anti-infective drugs
Gen-fu WU*
Affiliations
  • College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
出版时间: 2023-04-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1182
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介绍一氧化碳(CO) 和CO释放分子的杀菌机制及其作为抗感染药物的可行性, 为相关教学和研究工作提供参考。通过查阅文献, 结合自身科研工作, 对CO的杀菌机制及其作为抗感染药物的可行性进行综述。厌氧细菌通常能耐受高浓度CO, 有些甚至能以CO为唯一的碳源或能源生长, 但一些常见的致病菌对CO敏感。鉴于CO气体的剂量和施加部位不易控制, 一批CO释放分子被合成出来。CO释放分子不但安全易控, 杀菌效率比气态CO更高, 对耐药菌株及其生物膜也具有很好的杀灭和抑制作用。CO主要与细胞内的血红素-Fe2+结合, 阻断呼吸链电子传递, 进而产生活性氧; CO还通过与金属元素的结合影响胞内离子平衡, 进而触发自由基反应, 破坏DNA等大分子。CO具有作用靶标多样, 不易产生耐药性, 与现有抗生素存在协同效应等优点, 有望成为下一代抗感染药物。

一氧化碳  /  一氧化碳释放分子  /  血红素  /  活性氧  /  抗感染药

The bactericidal mechanism of carbon monoxide (CO) and the feasibility of CO-releasing molecules as anti-infective drugs were summarized by consulting scientific literature, combined with our own research work. Anaerobic bacteria are usually tolerant to high concentration of CO, and some can even grow with CO as sole carbon or energy source, but most pathogenic bacteria are sensitive to CO. In view of the difficulty of gaseous CO in controlling the applying dose and the action site, CO release molecules were synthesized. CO release molecules not only have higher bactericidal activities against common pathogenic bacteria than gaseous CO, but also have the ability to kill antibiotics-resistant bacteria and destroy their biofilms. CO mainly binds with heme-Fe2+ in cells, interrupting the electron transfer of respiration chains, which would result in the generation of reactive oxygen species. CO can also disturb intracellular ion balance, which further triggers free radical reactions. Due to its diverse acting targets, uneasy to induce drug resistance, and synergistic effect with other antibiotics, CO is expected to be the next generation of anti-infection drugs.

carbon monoxide  /  carbon monoxide-release molecule  /  heme  /  reactive oxygen species  /  anti-infective drug
吴根福. 一氧化碳的抗菌机制及其释放分子作为抗感染药物的可行性. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (4) : 891 -898 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1182
Gen-fu WU. The bactericidal mechanisms of carbon monoxide and the feasibility of carbon monoxide-releasing molecules as anti-infective drugs[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (4) : 891 -898 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1182
感染性疾病曾经是人类的头号杀手, 抗生素的发现使细菌感染变得易被控制。随着抗生素的广泛使用, 细菌的耐药性也逐渐增强。特别是一些条件致病菌, 由于与抗生素接触机会多, 耐药性也更强[1]。时至今日, 医院内分离到的金葡菌90%以上具有β-内酰胺酶, 30%~40%属于耐甲氧西林金葡菌(MRSA), 临床分离到的大肠杆菌和ICU病房分离到的铜绿假单胞菌分别有20%和40%属于多重耐药菌株[2-4]。这些条件致病菌还具有群体感应能力, 当数量增加到一定程度时, 能通过信号分子相互聚集, 在机体组织或外植辅助装置表面形成生物膜[5]。成熟的生物膜外周有基质保护, 内部细胞处于半休眠状态, 其对抗生素的耐受性要比游离细胞强1 000倍[6]。耐药菌株的感染及其生物膜的形成已成为当今社会严重的公共卫生问题, 是仅次于心脏病和脑卒中的全球第三大死亡病因。2019年全球有近127万人直接死于这类疾病, 另有495万人死于抗生素耐药相关疾病。据估计, 到2050年全球因抗生素耐药直接死亡的病例可能超过1 000万[7]
可是, 新药的开发越来越难。1980年代, 美国FDA平均每年能批准4种新抗生素, 到了2010年代, 每年批准的新抗生素已不足1种; 对于革兰阴性菌治疗用药, 已有45年没能发现新类别的抗生素了[8]。面对耐药菌株的感染, 患者似乎走到了无药可用的窘境。
实际上, 生物在进化过程中早就发展出一系列对抗细菌侵染的机制, 气态信号分子就是其中之一。脊椎动物能产生3类气态信号分子, 一氧化氮(NO)、一氧化碳(CO) 和硫化氢(H2S)。它们不仅调节着多种生理功能, 在抗菌消炎过程中也起着非常重要的作用[9]。NO能直接攻击细菌的铁硫中心, 产生的活性氧还可引起氧化损伤; H2S可抑制细菌的过氧化氢酶, 在氧化杀菌过程中起着辅助作用[9]; CO能以极高的亲和力与亚铁血红素结合, 还可作用于多种金属蛋白[10]。由于CO来源丰富、价格低廉, 不良反应小, 再加上具有自由穿透生物膜、不容易产生耐药性、与现有抗生素具有协同效应等优点, 越来越受到药物研究者的重视[11]。本文对CO及其释放分子的抗菌机制进行分析, 对CO作为抗感染药物的可行性进行探讨。
CO是一种无色无味的气体, 其与血红蛋白的亲和力很高(K = 583 µmol·L-1, 大约是O2的200~250倍), 当血液中碳氧血红蛋白的占比超过30%时会导致机体缺氧, 严重时危及生命。但大部分细菌是兼性厌氧微生物, 即使是好氧菌, 其呼吸所需的氧气也不依赖血红蛋白传递, 而是直接与细胞色素氧化酶结合; 而细胞色素氧化酶与O2的亲和力要大大高于与CO的亲和力, 因此CO并不是传统意义上的抗菌药物[12]
实际上, 许多细菌能耐受CO, 有些甚至能以CO为生长的碳源或能源(表 1)[12-17]。细菌是地球上最早出现的生命体。原始地球并没有氧气, 除了N2和水蒸汽外, 富含CO和HCN等还原性气体。在原始生命形成过程中, 特别是乙酰辅酶A和丙酮酸合成过程中, CO起着不可或缺的作用[12]。厌氧菌通常能耐受CO, 如羧腐脱硫菌(Desulfotomaculum carboxydovorans) 能在100% CO气体中(培养液中约为1 mmol·L-1) 生存[15]。一些产甲烷古菌(如Methanosarcina acetivorans) 能将CO作为碳源, 深红红螺菌(Rhodospirillum rubrum) 在得不到光照时能以CO为能源, 生长速率可达光照时的80%[12]。少数好氧细菌也能利用CO, 如氢碳酸假单胞菌(Pseudomonas carboxydohydrogena) 和食羧寡养菌(Oligotropha carboxidovorans) 能以CO作为生长的唯一碳源和能源[17]; 杂食伯克霍尔德菌(Burkholderia xenovorans) 在缺氧时能以CO作为呼吸链的最终电子受体[18]
高浓度CO对人类是致命的, 但流行病学调查发现经常吸烟的人很少患溃疡性结肠炎, 推测烟叶不完全燃烧产生的CO可能具有抗菌消炎功效[19]。实际上人体体液中确实存在着一定浓度的CO, 这种内源CO是在机体血红素加氧酶(HO) 催化下通过分解血红素产生的。研究发现, 机体内有两类HO: 一类是组成型的, 主要分布在内皮细胞、神经细胞和睾丸组织中; 另一类是诱导型的, 存在于几乎所有细胞中, 通常在受到氧化胁迫时被诱导。机体CO的产生速率约为20 µmol·L-1·h-1, 产生的CO作为信号分子在调节血管舒张、抑制血小板聚集、减轻氧化压力、促进抗菌消炎等方面发挥着重要作用[12]
外部施加的CO具有与内源CO相似的生理功能, 可用于相关疾病的治疗。但CO是一种气态分子, 使用时易逸散, 既不安全, 施加浓度及作用部位也很难控制, 有时只得依靠其饱和水溶液来推知大致浓度(25 ℃时0.1 MPa大气压下饱和CO水溶液为1 mmol·L-1, 37 ℃时为0.8 mmol·L-1)[12]。为此, 科学家通过化学合成研制出了CORMs。CORMs呈固态, 不但可精确控制浓度, 还可根据需要定向施加, 极大地推动了CO生物学的研究[10]
根据化学结构, CORMs可分为金属羰基配合物和非金属羰基配合物两大类。前者分子中含钌、锰等金属(主要是过渡金属) 元素, 有些是脂溶性的, 有些是水溶性的(表 2); 后者分子中不含金属元素, 如硼烷碳酸盐衍生物由硼原子与羰基共价结合而成。第一批CORM由Motterlini等[20]于2002年研制成功, 他们根据CO易与过渡金属结合的特性, 模拟CO-血红素分子合成出了含有锰原子的CORM-1和含有钌原子的CORM-2。但是这两者都不溶于水, 需用DMSO溶解后施加, DMSO本身对细菌有一定毒性, 再加上贮备液在-20 ℃下就被冻结成固体, 给研究带来不便。本课题组的研究表明, 用无水乙醇配制CORM-2贮备液, -80 ℃保存不冻结, 使用时用缓冲液高倍稀释, 不但方便, 效果也很好。为了增加药物的水溶性, Desmard等[21]在分子中引入了甘氨酸基团, 研制出CORM-3。其后, 科学家又合成出了含铁、铬、钼、钨等过渡金属的CORMs, 甚至不含金属元素的CORM-A1 (表 2)[11, 20-24]
由于第一代CORMs的CO释放不易控制, 施加后不但与致病菌的血红素结合, 还能与机体的血红素分子结合, 不良反应较大。为此, 科学家们研制了能定向释放CO的第二代CORMs。根据CO释放方式, 这类CORMs可以分为光敏、酶敏、温敏、pH敏感触发型等多种类型, 其中能进行光应答、酶应答的CORMs越来越受到关注, 因为它们不但能定向投放, 而且可定时释放CO, 使CO的生物学研究更加精准, 临床毒副作用更易得到控制(表 3)[25-31]
CORMs的分子结构不同, CO的释放速率也不一样。但是CO的测定比较困难, 特别是细胞内的CO。目前的测定方法主要有4类[20, 22]。第1类是气相色谱法, 常用于评估CORMs在溶液中自发释放的CO量; 第2类是肌红蛋白分析法, 利用CO能与肌红蛋白紧密结合的特性, 采用电化学方法来测定; 第3类是生物分析法, 利用CO的生物学活性, 通过动脉血管的松弛程度或炎症的抑制程度等间接测定, 该法不但费时费力, 测定精度也不稳定, 容易受环境因素的干扰; 第4类是荧光探针法[20], 主要用于细胞内CO的测定, 荧光探针由荧光蛋白基因插入细菌CooA的调节域后构建而成(CooA是一种血红素依赖的转录因子, 对CO具有高度亲和性和选择性)。以上4类方法各有优缺点, 但都不完美, 更方便、更精准的CO测定方法值得期待。
除了血红蛋白外, CO还能与肌红蛋白结合, 使肉色变得红润。食品保鲜领域常将CO作为气调保鲜剂加以应用。2006年, Brooks等[32]发现用于气调保鲜的CO能抑制腐败微生物的生长, 由此掀起了CO杀菌抑菌研究的热潮。Nobre等[11, 23, 24]发现CO和CO释放分子(CORM-2和CORM-3等) 能有效杀灭大肠杆菌和金葡菌, 这种作用在缺氧环境下更敏感。用CO气体处理大肠杆菌, 富氧环境下可使细菌代时从1.6 h延长到2.2 h, 而缺氧环境下菌体生物量增加不明显, 说明缺氧环境下抑菌效果更好[33]。本课题组在对奥奈德希瓦氏菌的研究中也发现在缺氧环境下, 4 µmol·L-1 CORM-2就可杀死99%的细菌, 而杀死同样比例的细菌在富氧环境下需20 µmol·L-1。Desmard等[21, 22]发现10 µmol·L-1 CORM-3处理180 min可使铜绿假单胞菌的存活率下降4个数量级, 巯基化合物(如半胱氨酸、谷胱甘肽) 能拮抗这种杀菌作用, 推测杀菌可能与氧化损伤有关。除了氧气外, CO的抗菌效果还与处理液成分有关。本课题组的研究发现, 用磷酸缓冲液离心洗涤后细菌对CO非常敏感, 而在营养肉汤培养基中直接施加CO, 最低抑菌浓度要高出50~100倍。由此推测CO作为化学治疗剂对体表感染的效果会比较好, 对深层感染, 特别是菌血症、败血症等的治疗效果会相对较差。
CORMs的杀菌效果比气态CO更好。Nobre等[23, 24]以大肠杆菌为受试菌, 发现用气态CO需要1 mmol·L-1, 而用CORMs只要0.25 mmol·L-1就足够。虽然有报道说CORMs中的过渡金属元素参与了杀菌作用, 但一些不含过渡金属的CORMs也具有很好的杀菌效果, 再加上不能释放CO的过渡金属配体(如用DMSO代替CORMs中的羰基) 以及CO淬灭或逸散后的CORMs制剂(用氮气赶走释放的CO) 并没有表现出明显的杀菌活性, 推测CORMs杀菌力更强的原因是其能直接进入细胞内, 与靶标结合后释放CO, 从而提高了CO的有效浓度。
但目前进行的大多数研究都以大肠杆菌、金葡菌和铜绿假单胞菌为受试菌, 对其他致病菌的研究很少, 只发现对幽门螺杆菌、淋病奈瑟球菌、克雷伯菌和鲍曼不动杆菌等少数报道[34-37], 有必要对CO及CORMs的抗菌谱进行进一步系统研究。
CO除了可杀灭常规病原菌外, 还能杀灭临床分离到的多重耐药菌株。500 µmol·L-1 CORM-2能在4 h内杀死多重耐药大肠杆菌, 效果比呋喃坦啶好得多[38]。Betts等[39]也发现CORM-Br对多重耐药禽致病大肠杆菌具有抑制作用, 单独使用时最小抑菌浓度为2 mmol·L-1, 若与黏菌素合用则显著增加活性, 最小抑菌浓度小于62 µmol·L-1。CO释放分子还能抑制MRSA的增殖[30]。Cheng等[28]用一种红外光触发的CO释放分子处理MRSA, 100 mg·L-1浓度下经30 min红外光照射, 97%的细菌被杀死; 连续处理9天, 可使MRSA感染的创口愈合, 效果比万古霉素好得多, 但该药物对革兰阴性菌无效。Rocco等[37]合成的一种含铁环戊二烯羰基络合物, 其释放的CO不但能杀死MRSA, 还可杀灭耐万古霉素肠球菌。
CO及CORMs还能抑制生物膜的形成, 并杀死生物膜群体中的细菌。Murray等[40]发现CORM-2不但能杀死游离状态的铜绿假单胞菌, 还能抑制其生物膜的形成, 与头孢菌素合用有协同效应。Klinger等[26]合成了一种光响应的CORM, 经405 nm可见光激活后, 释放的CO使金葡菌生物膜中细菌数量减少了70%。Yuan等[29]合成了一种近红外光激活的双功能纳米粒子, 不但能在红外光触发下释放CO, 还具有DNase活性, 能有效破坏MRSA生物膜中的核酸基质, 杀死生物膜内部的细菌。
虽然CO的体外杀菌实验和创伤(表面) 治疗实验取得了理想的结果, 但其体内抑菌实验的研究相对较少。有报道说吸入含0.025% CO的空气(1 h·d-1) 对因金葡菌感染所致的小鼠败血症具有很好的治疗效果, 实验期间小鼠的成活率比对照显著提高[41]。在小鼠粪肠球菌菌血症模型和大肠杆菌菌血症模型中, 施加10 µg·kg-1 CORM-2可显著增加小鼠的细菌清除率, 这种除菌作用主要与CO作为信号分子促进巨噬细胞的吞噬作用, 增强小鼠的内源性抗菌反应有关[42]。至于CO是否能作为抗菌药物直接杀灭血液中的病原细菌, 目前还缺乏足够的证据。
CO能与过渡金属结合, 其作用靶标最有可能是含过渡金属的基团。生物体内主要的含过渡金属的基团是血红素和铁硫蛋白。根据分子的氧化还原特性, CO易与Fe2+结合, 虽然铁硫簇也是CO的可能靶标, 但CO的优先作用靶位是血红素分子, 因为施加CO后胞内的CO-血红素复合物会大幅增加[43]。细菌细胞内以血红素为辅助因子的酶蛋白有很多, 如P450依赖的单加氧酶、NO合酶、过氧化氢酶、NAD(P)H氧化酶、鸟苷酸环化酶, 甚至一些钾离子通道蛋白, 到底哪个是CO的优先作用靶标, 是阐明CO杀菌机制的关键。目前许多证据都表明, 施加CO后细菌的氧气消耗量减少, 说明终端氧化酶特别是细胞色素氧化酶, 是CO最可能的结合位点[43]。但Carvalho等[44]对大肠杆菌的研究表明, TCA循环中的相关酶是CORM-3作用的主要靶标。本课题组对奥奈德希瓦氏菌的研究也表明, CO的作用靶标并非终端氧化酶, 而是NADH脱氢酶。
Wilson等[45]构建了血红素缺失的大肠杆菌突变株, 就其对CO的敏感性进行了分析, 发现CORM-3对该突变株具有很好的杀菌作用, 说明细菌中存在着非血红素类CO靶标, 如含铁镍的氢化酶、含铜的酪氨酸酶、含镍的CO脱氢酶, 甚至一些金属离子通道蛋白。
细胞内含血红素的蛋白主要是细胞色素类蛋白, 它们在有氧呼吸过程中起着十分重要的作用, 这些蛋白被破坏后, 细菌的能量供应得不到保障, 生长受到抑制。但是细菌多为兼性厌氧微生物, 在缺氧条件下还可通过无氧呼吸或发酵产能。研究表明, 大肠杆菌、金葡菌、铜绿假单胞菌等细菌在缺氧环境下也能被CO杀死, 而且效果比富氧时更好[20, 23], 说明细胞色素氧化酶的破坏并非细菌死亡的唯一原因。为了阐明缺氧环境下CO的杀菌机制, 科学家进行了大量研究。Taraves等[46]发现将CORM-2加至无细胞溶液中能产生羟自由基, 电子顺磁共振测定表明, CORM-2使大肠杆菌细胞内的自由铁含量增加, 荧光显微观察发现细胞DNA受到损伤, 说明氧化压力介导了CORM-2的杀菌作用; 他们还构建了敲除氧化应答基因oxyRsoxS和DNA修复应答基因recA的大肠杆菌突变株, 发现这些突变株对CO的敏感性显著增强, 胞内的活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 水平明显上升[46]。用DCF荧光测定法研究铜绿假单胞菌中ROS的变化, 发现CORM-2处理后胞内ROS显著增加, 加入N-乙酰半胱氨酸等试剂, 可保护细菌免受氧化损伤, 证明ROS是引起细菌死亡的主要原因[40], Wareham等[47]用CORM-401进行的实验也得到相似的结果。对7种过渡金属CORM的抗菌活性进行比较, 发现抗菌能力与该分子引起的胞内ROS水平成正比, CORM-2的杀菌能力最强, 施加后胞内ROS也最高[11]。但CO作用于铜绿假单胞菌后, 胞内的H2O2含量及ROS水平(DCFH-DA荧光法测定) 都没上升, 研究者认为CO的杀菌作用与氧化压力无关[21, 22]
为了进一步阐明CO的抑菌机制, Davidge等[12]和Mclean等[48]分别就CORM-3作用于大肠杆菌后的转录谱进行了分析, 发现施加CO后编码细胞色素氧化酶的基因和编码琥珀酸脱氢酶的基因显著下调, 但与金属代谢或稳态有关的基因表达上调, 一些全局调节子如ArcA、Crp、Fis、FNR、Fur等的表达量变化明显。Wilson等[45]就100 µmol·L-1 CORM-3处理对大肠杆菌血红素缺失突变株的转录谱变化进行了分析, 发现与铁获得和利用相关的基因、全局压力应答基因和锌稳态相关基因表达显著上调, 说明除了血红素分子外, CO也可作用于其他金属配体, 包括与半胱氨酸-S和组氨酸-N结合的金属。Nobre等[24]就CORM-2对大肠杆菌的全基因组转录谱进行分析, 并用相关基因敲除后的突变子进行CO敏感性实验, 发现与压力反应相关的基因, 如spycpxP, 都显著上调, 说明氧化压力是CO致死大肠杆菌的主要原因。Bang等[49]就CORM-2对多重耐药大肠杆菌全局基因表达谱的影响进行了分析, 发现与能量代谢和生物合成有关的基因下调, 与SOS应答、DNA修复有关的基因表达上调。为了消除CORM中其他辅助成分对转录的影响, Wareham等[33]用CO气体处理大肠杆菌, 对基因表达谱的变化进行了研究, 发现CO通过全局调节子Fnr、ArcA和PhdR影响能量传导途径, 并造成铁代谢、硫代谢和精氨酸代谢的扰乱。该课题组还对一种水溶性含锰CO释放制剂CORM-401作用于大肠杆菌后的转录谱进行了分析, 发现编码钾离子摄入的基因、药物外排泵基因和与压力应答相关的基因显著上调, 压力应答调节子CpxR、呼吸调节子Arc和Fnr、甲硫氨酸合成调节子MetJ和铁平衡调节子Fnr被显著扰乱, 他们认为CO的主要功能并非抑制呼吸, 而是作为非偶联剂扰乱膜离子平衡, 引起胞内钾离子和锌离子的缺失, 进而使细胞膜极化, 触发多重反应[47]
综合以上结果, 可以发现大肠杆菌对CO的应答是多方面的, 虽然在富氧或缺氧环境下处理, 或用不同CORM处理会得到不同的结果, 总体来看大约有20%左右的基因表达会发生显著变化: 能量代谢和合成代谢相关基因的表达会下调, 参与氧化应答的基因和与DNA修复有关的基因表达会上调, 说明CO主要与呼吸链有关的酶蛋白结合, 阻断了电子传递, 作为解偶联剂扰乱膜离子平衡, 进而触发渗透压应答、无效呼吸应答和铁饥饿应答, 导致胞内自由基的大量产生。所以, 就目前的报道来看, CO优先作用于金属蛋白似乎是肯定的, 但由于菌株的不同和实验条件的差异, 不同学者得出的结果有所差异。在众多金属蛋白中, 哪一个才是最灵敏的CO感受器还需要进一步探讨。
作为化学治疗剂, 除了能抑制病原微生物的生长繁殖之外, 还必须具有选择毒性, 即杀菌效果好而对机体的不良反应尽可能小。CO是一种气态信号分子, 低浓度CO不但不会引起不良反应, 还是机体发挥正常生理功能所必需的。研究表明, 鼠和猪每天吸入1 h含0.025%~0.050% CO的空气可减轻术后肠梗阻而没有明显毒副作用[23, 50]。人类在含0.05% CO的空气中呼吸1 h, 或在含0.01% CO的空气中呼吸2 h, 对身体没有任何不良反应, 血液中的碳氧血红蛋白水平甚至低于重度吸烟者[26]。人体毒性试验表明, 连续10天输入3 mg·kg-1 CO, 血液中的碳氧血红蛋白比例最高为12%, 此时人体没有不良反应[51]。CO作为肺动脉高压、手术后肠梗阻、先天性肺纤维化、缺血再灌注损伤等疾病的治疗药物已进入临床Ⅱ期试验[20, 51], 其用于内毒素血症、菌血症和脓毒血症的治疗研究也取得较好进展[52, 53]。研究表明, 细菌对CO的敏感性要远大于真核生物。Desmard等[21, 22]发现, 10 µmol·L-1 CORM-3可抑制铜绿假单胞菌的生长, 而对真核细胞的抑制至少需要500 µmol·L-1以上。Nobre等[11]对7种CO释放分子进行了实验, 发现在实验浓度下都能抑制大肠杆菌的生长, 而对动物细胞无毒性。以蛾幼虫为模型, 研究CORM-Br对多重耐药大肠杆菌的抗菌活性, 发现施加CO后杀死了大肠杆菌, 增加了动物的存活率[39]。以小鼠和石斑鱼为模型的研究也发现CO可杀死细菌, 治愈由伤寒沙门氏菌感染引起的结肠炎, 说明CO对实验动物的毒性很小[19]。CO还可治愈小鼠的MRSA感染, 即使创口表面形成了生物膜, 只要给予一定浓度的CO治疗, 不但可杀死生物膜中的细菌, 还可加速小鼠创口的愈合[28, 30], 如果先用DNase破坏生物膜, 再辅以CO治疗, 效果将更好[29]
由于CO的作用是全局性的, 并非作用于某一特定的代谢酶类, 因此细菌对CO发展出药物耐受性的可能性比较小。Bang等[49]连续用CORM-2处理多重耐药大肠杆菌, 细菌繁殖90代后仍对CO敏感, 说明药物耐受性发展很慢。但经90代繁殖后, 细菌的基因表达谱发生了一定的变化, 与SOS应答有关的基因表达量增加, 与外排泵表达有关的基因表达量也有所增加[49], 说明抗性有一定的发展。有报道说, 分枝杆菌会通过重塑呼吸链来适应高浓度的CO, 细胞内对CO不敏感的细胞色素氧化酶bd会大量表达[54]。在结核分枝杆菌中已发现一个抗性基因cor, 该基因的高表达能抵御CO的杀菌作用; 另外敲除生物膜形成有关的基因tqsAbhsA, 也会表现出菌体对CO的抗性[55], 说明CO的药物耐受问题不应被忽视。好在CO靶标众多, 与目前临床所用抗生素有协同作用[56], 且作用靶标无交集, 即现有的细菌抗性质粒不会降低其疗效。因此, CO及其释放分子是一类值得大力开发的抗感染候选药物。
虽然CO及其释放分子的研究取得了很大的进展, 但离临床应用还有一定的距离。首先, 完整的抗菌谱还有待深入研究, 目前的研究主要集中在大肠杆菌、金葡菌和铜绿假单胞菌等条件致病菌上, 对其他病原菌, 特别是厌氧菌和芽孢菌的研究, 亟待加强[57]; 其次, 药物的代谢途径及代谢动力学还有待阐明, 尤其是过渡金属元素在机体内的代谢途径, 药物是否有蓄积作用和长期毒性等研究还有待进一步深入, 对菌血症、败血症等全身性感染的治疗效果还有待明确[10]。另外, 鉴于CO的抗菌消炎效果, 传统中医疗法中的艾灸、拔火罐等是否通过CO来起作用也是值得深入探究的课题。
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  • 浙江省自然科学基金资助项目(LY21C010003)
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1182
  • 接收时间:2022-11-06
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-04-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-11-06
  • 修回日期:2022-12-02
基金
浙江省自然科学基金资助项目(LY21C010003)
作者信息
    浙江大学生命科学学院, 浙江 杭州 310058

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*吴根福, Tel: 86-571-88206636, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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