Article(id=1198624404650426903, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0736, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1655308800000, receivedDateStr=2022-06-16, revisedDate=1656604800000, revisedDateStr=2022-07-01, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763703927432, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1678550400000, pubDateStr=2023-03-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763703927432, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763703927432, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763703927432, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198624396437975057, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='3', pageStart='1', pageEnd='804', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763703925474, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763704091914, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198625094596657875, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198625094596657876, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=506, endPage=515, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198624404876919332, articleId=1198624404650426903, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress of exosome delivery vehicles in tumor phototherapy, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Exosome is a self-secreted phospholipid bilayer nanovesicles, and has shown great potential in drug delivery field due to the important advantages of low immunogenicity and homologous targeting. Phototherapy, mainly includes photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), utilize light to activate photoactive drug for tumor cell killing. The advanced therapeutic strategy shows low toxic side-effect and non-invasion precise advantages, and thus has made great progress in tumor treatment over the past few years. Therefore, using exosomes as a drug delivery system to deliver phototherapeutic agents can improve therapeutic performances with a reduced side-effect, and further enhance their application potential for clinical tumor therapy. This review focus on the rising cross-subjects field involving exosomes and phototherapy, and mainly introduce the research progress and relative case of exosomes-based delivery system for cancer phototherapy. Additionally, the advantages and challenges of exosome-based phototherapy are also discussed and proposed.

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外泌体是一种生物体自身分泌的磷脂双分子层纳米级囊泡, 因具有低免疫原性和同源靶向的重要优势而近来被发展成为一种具有前景的载体系统。光疗法是一种利用光激活药物从而产生特异性细胞杀伤效应的先进疗法, 其具有不良反应小和非侵入精准治疗的优势, 因此近年来在肿瘤治疗方面取得了巨大发展。利用外泌体作为递送系统靶向性递送光疗药物, 加强纳米药物和光学治疗在肿瘤治疗的应用潜力, 可实现高效低毒的抗肿瘤应用。本文立足光学治疗与外泌体的有效联合, 重点阐述外泌体递送载体在光学治疗领域的研究进展及重点案例。此外, 就外泌体递送光疗药物的未来趋势及所面临的挑战进行了讨论与展望。

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*李盛亮,Tel: 86-512-65882090, E-mail:
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Nano Today, 2021, 41: 101333., articleTitle=Biologically excretable AIE nanoparticles wear tumor cell-derived "exosome caps" for efficient NIR-II fluorescence imaging-guided photothermal therapy, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1198702048154845249, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, awardId=52173135, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金资助项目(52173135), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1198702048297451595, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, awardId=null, language=CN, fundingSource=江苏高校优势学科建设工程资助项目, fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1198702041406210504, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198702041427182027, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, companyId=1198702041406210504, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198702041435570637, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, companyId=1198702041406210504, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=苏州大学, 江苏 苏州 215123)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1198702046074471315, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=O3R5dbg/Ch2ep9Z0xh26wg==, figureFileBig=RuW4srm9bkKGYM6P9amLxA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702046242243488, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, language=CN, label=Figure 1, caption= Applications of exosome as phototherapy carriers. PTA: Photothermal agent; PS: Photosensitiser , figureFileSmall=O3R5dbg/Ch2ep9Z0xh26wg==, figureFileBig=RuW4srm9bkKGYM6P9amLxA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702046439375792, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=jfOzX0TfNzkiuirGs6PL3Q==, figureFileBig=1O1mtWvwPo4XU5XucniqMA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702046565204924, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= Animated overview of extracellular vesicle loading strategies. (Adapted from Ref. 12 with permission. 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Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V.) , figureFileSmall=Ub/8yNNrFpoWnPyeUh6UkQ==, figureFileBig=Ceh+fI3JhTteojngHmY6jA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702047500533761, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Exosome source Photosensitizer Loading manner Targeting Cancer Therapy strategy Excitation (λex/nm) Ref.
MIA-PaCa-2 cell Ce6 Sonication - MIA-PaCa-2 Combin-PDT 671 [48]
Patients urine Ce6 Electroporation - MGC-803 PDT 633 [49]
4T1 cell DCPy Electroporation - 4T1 Combin-PDT 532 [50]
MGC803 cell TBP-2 Co-incubation - MGC803 Combin-PDT 400-700 [51]
SGC-7901 cell TBP-2 Adsorb - SGC-7901 Combin-PDT 652 [52]
Mice blood ChiP Shock NLS peptide 4T1 PDT 630 [53]
HEK293T cell RB Sonication CD47 Hepa1-6 Combin-PDT 532 [54]
), ArticleFig(id=1198702047634751505, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Applications of exosome as PDT carriers. Ce6: Chlorin e6; NLS: Nuclear localization signal

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Exosome source Photosensitizer Loading manner Targeting Cancer Therapy strategy Excitation (λex/nm) Ref.
MIA-PaCa-2 cell Ce6 Sonication - MIA-PaCa-2 Combin-PDT 671 [48]
Patients urine Ce6 Electroporation - MGC-803 PDT 633 [49]
4T1 cell DCPy Electroporation - 4T1 Combin-PDT 532 [50]
MGC803 cell TBP-2 Co-incubation - MGC803 Combin-PDT 400-700 [51]
SGC-7901 cell TBP-2 Adsorb - SGC-7901 Combin-PDT 652 [52]
Mice blood ChiP Shock NLS peptide 4T1 PDT 630 [53]
HEK293T cell RB Sonication CD47 Hepa1-6 Combin-PDT 532 [54]
), ArticleFig(id=1198702047764774940, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Exosome source Photothermal agent Loading manner Targeting Cancer Therapy strategy Excitation (λex/nm) Ref.
Delivery inorganic PTA
  BIU-87 cell BPQDs Electroporation - BIU-87 PTT 808 [55]
  Mice blood BPQDs Sonication - LLC Combin-PTT 808 [56]
  MCF-7 cell V2C QDs Electroporation RGD/TAT MCF-7 PTT 1 064 [57]
  4T1 cell Fe3O4 Extrusion - MCF-7 Combin-PTT 808 [58]
  THP-1 cell Au NR Electroporation RGD/FA HeLa/MCF-7 Combin-PTT 808 [59]
  CT26 cell Au nanostars Co-incubation - CT26 Combin-PTT 1 064 [45]
Delivery organic PTA
  BMSC ICG Electroporation - U87MG Combin-PTT 808 [60]
  4T1 cell ICG Extrusion - 4T1 Combin-PTT 808 [61]
  CT26 cell ICG Freeze-thaw CD47 CT26 Combin-PTT 808 [62]
  THP-1 cell PDA Electroporation Fe3O4 (magnetic) HeLa/MCF-7 Combin-PTT 808 [63]
  Mice blood Cypate Sonication - H22 Combin-PTT 780 [64]
  CT26 cell AIE NP Electroporation - CT26 PTT 808 [65]
), ArticleFig(id=1198702047869632554, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624404650426903, language=CN, label=Table 2, caption=

Applications of exosome as PTT carriers. BPQDs: Black phosphorus quantum dots; V2C QDs: V2C quantum dots; FA: Folic acid; ICG: Indocyanine green; PDA: Polydopamine; AIE: Aggregation-induced emission; NP: Nanoparticle; BMSC: Bone marrow-mesenchymal stem cell; NR: Nanorod

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Exosome source Photothermal agent Loading manner Targeting Cancer Therapy strategy Excitation (λex/nm) Ref.
Delivery inorganic PTA
  BIU-87 cell BPQDs Electroporation - BIU-87 PTT 808 [55]
  Mice blood BPQDs Sonication - LLC Combin-PTT 808 [56]
  MCF-7 cell V2C QDs Electroporation RGD/TAT MCF-7 PTT 1 064 [57]
  4T1 cell Fe3O4 Extrusion - MCF-7 Combin-PTT 808 [58]
  THP-1 cell Au NR Electroporation RGD/FA HeLa/MCF-7 Combin-PTT 808 [59]
  CT26 cell Au nanostars Co-incubation - CT26 Combin-PTT 1 064 [45]
Delivery organic PTA
  BMSC ICG Electroporation - U87MG Combin-PTT 808 [60]
  4T1 cell ICG Extrusion - 4T1 Combin-PTT 808 [61]
  CT26 cell ICG Freeze-thaw CD47 CT26 Combin-PTT 808 [62]
  THP-1 cell PDA Electroporation Fe3O4 (magnetic) HeLa/MCF-7 Combin-PTT 808 [63]
  Mice blood Cypate Sonication - H22 Combin-PTT 780 [64]
  CT26 cell AIE NP Electroporation - CT26 PTT 808 [65]
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外泌体递送载体在肿瘤光学治疗研究进展
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杨宇亮 , 黄钟明 , 李喜亮 , 罗宇 , 李盛亮 *
药学学报 | 专题报道: 基于智能化递药系统的疾病精准治疗研究 2023,58(3): 506-515
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药学学报 | 专题报道: 基于智能化递药系统的疾病精准治疗研究 2023, 58(3): 506-515
外泌体递送载体在肿瘤光学治疗研究进展
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杨宇亮, 黄钟明, 李喜亮, 罗宇, 李盛亮*
作者信息
  • 苏州大学, 江苏 苏州 215123

通讯作者:

*李盛亮,Tel: 86-512-65882090, E-mail:
Research progress of exosome delivery vehicles in tumor phototherapy
Yu-liang YANG, Zhong-ming HUANG, Xi-liang LI, Yu LUO, Sheng-liang LI*
Affiliations
  • Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
出版时间: 2023-03-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0736
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外泌体是一种生物体自身分泌的磷脂双分子层纳米级囊泡, 因具有低免疫原性和同源靶向的重要优势而近来被发展成为一种具有前景的载体系统。光疗法是一种利用光激活药物从而产生特异性细胞杀伤效应的先进疗法, 其具有不良反应小和非侵入精准治疗的优势, 因此近年来在肿瘤治疗方面取得了巨大发展。利用外泌体作为递送系统靶向性递送光疗药物, 加强纳米药物和光学治疗在肿瘤治疗的应用潜力, 可实现高效低毒的抗肿瘤应用。本文立足光学治疗与外泌体的有效联合, 重点阐述外泌体递送载体在光学治疗领域的研究进展及重点案例。此外, 就外泌体递送光疗药物的未来趋势及所面临的挑战进行了讨论与展望。

外泌体  /  递送系统  /  纳米药物  /  肿瘤  /  光动力治疗  /  光热治疗

Exosome is a self-secreted phospholipid bilayer nanovesicles, and has shown great potential in drug delivery field due to the important advantages of low immunogenicity and homologous targeting. Phototherapy, mainly includes photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), utilize light to activate photoactive drug for tumor cell killing. The advanced therapeutic strategy shows low toxic side-effect and non-invasion precise advantages, and thus has made great progress in tumor treatment over the past few years. Therefore, using exosomes as a drug delivery system to deliver phototherapeutic agents can improve therapeutic performances with a reduced side-effect, and further enhance their application potential for clinical tumor therapy. This review focus on the rising cross-subjects field involving exosomes and phototherapy, and mainly introduce the research progress and relative case of exosomes-based delivery system for cancer phototherapy. Additionally, the advantages and challenges of exosome-based phototherapy are also discussed and proposed.

exosome  /  delivery system  /  nanomedicine  /  neoplasm  /  photodynamic therapy  /  photothermal therapy
杨宇亮, 黄钟明, 李喜亮, 罗宇, 李盛亮. 外泌体递送载体在肿瘤光学治疗研究进展. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (3) : 506 -515 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0736
Yu-liang YANG, Zhong-ming HUANG, Xi-liang LI, Yu LUO, Sheng-liang LI. Research progress of exosome delivery vehicles in tumor phototherapy[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (3) : 506 -515 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0736
药物递送系统是一种通过控制药物体内释放速率、时间和位置来提高药物安全性和有效性的制剂或技术。在临床上, 通过药物递送系统可实现药物的精确控释, 也可提高药物的靶向性及水溶性, 还能调节药物代谢时间及促进药物生物屏障穿透和吸收[1]。改善药物递送过程中的安全性和有效性一直是药学研究的核心方向之一。设计高效安全的药物递送系统是药学领域的技术核心及难题。纳米技术的发展, 特别是纳米医学的发展和突破, 为药物递送提供了一种新的技术方法, 并研发出诸多提高药物疗效和降低不良反应的载体系统。在过去数十年, 已有大量无机纳米材料(金、碳、硅、氧化铁和镧系金属等) 和有机纳米材料(脂质体、聚酯类、树枝状大分子和共轭聚合物等) 被广泛研究报道作为药物递送系统递送治疗药物[2]。然而, 这些无机和有机纳米载体材料因具有免疫原性和长期安全性问题, 阻碍了其临床探索。此外, 无机和有机纳米粒一旦进入体内, 极易被当作外来物质而被网状内皮系统识别而丧失药物递送功能。开发具有生物相容、可降解及靶向性的药物递送系统具有重要意义和临床价值, 但仍是当前制药科学面临的挑战和难题。
仿生纳米递送系统是一种模仿生物活性功能而发展的具备生物体功能的“活”递送系统, 可实现高生物相容性、低毒性及发挥源细胞特定生物学功能, 从而有效提高药物递送的高效低毒属性。该技术在近年来获得广泛的关注和研究[3, 4]。目前, 基于细胞外囊泡的制剂技术和细胞膜包覆技术是仿生纳米递送系统应用最广泛的两种技术。不同细胞(肿瘤细胞、细菌、红细胞和中性粒细胞) 的细胞膜和不同来源(树突状细胞、巨噬细胞和肿瘤细胞) 的外泌体制备的仿生纳米载体都可通过调节机体的免疫反应实现免疫治疗[5]。与将微米级的细胞膜破碎、重组到纳米药物表面的细胞膜包覆技术相比, 细胞外囊泡的制剂技术不需要将膜结构碎片化, 而是直接采用完整的膜结构装载药物, 且细胞外囊泡为纳米尺寸, 因此具备更好的成药性与临床应用前景。在各种细胞外囊泡中, 外泌体是研究最全面的细胞外囊泡。外泌体是细胞质膜和细胞器膜内陷形成的多泡体内的大量腔内小体, 具备融合的质膜结构属性和特点[6]。由于其分泌产生的特殊性, 外泌体在构成上是纳米级磷脂双分子层的球形囊泡, 具有丰富的蛋白质、脂质、聚糖和核酸物质。因此, 外泌体具备天然生成、纳米尺寸、低免疫原性和跨越多种生物屏障的属性, 被视为靶向治疗的理想载体。更可贵的是, 外泌体可进一步通过表面功能化(基因工程修饰和化学修饰) 和膜融合技术构建特异性外泌体, 实现药物的靶向递送[7]。外泌体具有优良的药物递送能力, 可用于递送小分子药物[紫杉醇、多柔比星(doxorubicin, Dox) 和姜黄素] 治疗癌症, 递送蛋白药物(酶、抗原、细胞骨架蛋白和跨膜蛋白) 治疗炎症和神经退行性疾病, 递送基因药物[siRNA (small interfering RNA) 和mRNA (messenger RNA)] 治疗癌症和各种基因相关疾病, 成为了极具潜力的新型递送系统[8]。在外泌体作为递送载体治疗的众多疾病之中, 癌症一直是医学界难以攻克的世纪难题, 也是科研工作者关注的重点领域。
癌症又称恶性肿瘤, 是严重威胁我国人民健康的重大疾病, 长期占据致死性疾病的前列。随着医学技术的迅速发展, 癌症早期诊断、手术治疗和靶向治疗的不断进步, 癌症死亡率总体显示一定程度的下降[9]。目前已有很多治疗策略被开发应用于癌症治疗, 如手术治疗、化疗、放疗、靶向治疗、免疫治疗及光学治疗。其中, 光学治疗主要包括光动力治疗(photodynamic therapy, PDT) 和光热治疗(photothermal therapy, PTT)。PDT和PTT是通过远程光激活局部化学损伤和局部热损伤而实现肿瘤细胞有效清除的治疗模式, 具备无创性及高效低毒的内在属性。与此同时, 光学治疗还可与其他治疗策略或多模式成像相结合, 因此具有巨大的临床前和临床上的研究潜力[10]。光学治疗手段需光疗剂的参与, 主要包括光敏剂(photosensitizer, PS) 和光热剂(photothermal agent, PTA)。但光疗剂自身具有水溶性差、生物利用度低和肿瘤靶向性弱的缺陷。因此, 如何递送光疗剂从而实现安全、高效的光学治疗仍是该领域的热点研究。
随着外泌体和光疗法研究的不断深入和完善, 光疗法与外泌体载体联合应用治疗肿瘤的研究取得了令人瞩目的成果。本文将立足生物与化学材料交叉科学问题, 着重介绍外泌体载体系统用于光学治疗与影像联合的最新进展, 并同时就部分研究案例进行细节性分析(图 1)。此外, 也对外泌体光学治疗递送的相关挑战和未来趋势进行了展望, 介绍一些外泌体、光疗法的基础知识并对外泌体递送载体在肿瘤光学治疗的研究进展进行综述, 期望为相关研究者提供一定程度的启示, 推动该领域的进一步发展。
在多细胞生物中, 细胞间通讯对细胞的发育和维持内环境稳定性至关重要。其中一种通讯方式发生在细胞外囊泡中, 细胞外囊泡可将不同类型的细胞内物质如蛋白、脂质和细胞因子等运送到受体细胞[11]。细胞外囊泡可根据产生方式的不同分为3种类型: 外泌体(40~100 nm)、微泡(50~1 000 nm) 和凋亡体(50~5 000 nm)[12]。其中研究最为成熟的当属外泌体。
外泌体是细胞质膜和细胞器膜内陷形成的多泡体内的大量腔内小体, 具有特殊的结构和物质组成。透射电子显微镜中可观察到外泌体形态为明显的磷脂双分子层球形囊泡。脂质双分子层厚度约为5 nm, 磷脂双分子层球形结构使外泌体的最小直径在40 nm左右, 而由于外泌体是在内小体(200~500 nm) 内萌芽而成, 因此外泌体的最大直径在100 nm左右[13]。外泌体除了具有特有形态, 其生物组成亦具有独特性。所有外泌体都具有膜转运和膜融合蛋白[GTPases (guanosine triphosphatase)、annexins、flotillin]、四次穿膜蛋白(CD9、CD63、CD81)、热休克蛋白[Hsc70 (heat shock cognate 70)、Hsp90 (heat shock protein 90)]、多泡体生成相关蛋白(alix, TSG101) 及脂蛋白和磷脂酶[14]。通常可将上述蛋白作为指标对外泌体进行定性分析。除了相同蛋白外, 不同来源的外泌体也具有与细胞类型功能相关的独特蛋白质亚群[15]。除了蛋白质外, 外泌体还富含各种脂质、聚糖和核酸[miRNA (microRNA)、mRNA和其他非编码RNA][8]
据报道[16], 各种细胞均可分泌外泌体, 故外泌体可从细胞培养上清液或各种细胞外液(血液、尿液、唾液和脑脊液) 中分离获取。分离纯化外泌体的实验方案都需基于外泌体特有的大小、密度和形态。开发快速、有效、纯度高, 同时保留外泌体自身生物活性和形貌完整性的分离纯化方法是促使外泌体临床转化至关重要的一环。差速离心法是目前应用最广泛、过程最严格缜密的外泌体提取方法, 即将样品溶液通过200~100 000 ×g一系列低速梯度离心除去大颗粒等其他物质和细胞碎片, 然后以100 000~110 000 ×g超速离心, 除上清液后再重悬, 即可获得外泌体[17]。然而该方法所得外泌体仍含有各种细胞蛋白和颗粒聚集体, 可通过使用蔗糖或OptiprepTM密度梯度离心获得更高纯度的外泌体。除了差速离心外, 分子排阻色谱法、超滤法、免疫亲和捕获法等均可用于外泌体的分离纯化[18]。随着技术的不断革新, 已有一系列外泌体提取试剂盒上市, 以方便科研工作者更好地获取外泌体。
由于外泌体具有磷脂双分子层球形结构, 磷脂双分子层间可嵌入或吸附各种药物, 并且内部空腔也可包载各种不同类型的药物。同时, 外泌体因具有天然的生物安全性、低免疫原性、潜在的癌细胞靶向性及可直接与质膜融合增强细胞摄取的特性, 使其可成为靶向递送抗癌药物的纳米递送载体。而想实现这一策略, 其必须通过人为手段将所需运载的药物装载到外泌体中, 即实现外泌体的载药。理想的载药方法不仅要实现较高的载药效率, 还应保留药物和外泌体的完整性。外泌体的载药方法可分为分泌前载药和分泌后载药(图 2)[12]。各种载药方法都有其优劣。分泌前载药是将药物与分泌外泌体的细胞共孵育或转染技术, 在细胞内实现药物装载, 然后再通过一系列提取分离手段即可得到载药外泌体[19], 其优势是省略了药物封装后的复杂的后处理过程, 同时可很好地保留外泌体的完整性, 然而缺点是载药效率相对较低。分泌后载药是将药物通过各种物理化学方法装载到事先分离纯化得到的外泌体中[20]。电穿孔是目前应用最广泛的一种分泌后载药方法, 其工作原理为通过瞬时电流在外泌体膜上形成孔洞使药物分子可以渗入其中[21]。除了电穿孔外, 超声[22]、挤压[23]、冻融[24]等也可实现有效封装。这些方法的优势是载药效率较高, 缺点是过程可能会破坏外泌体的完整性且需较复杂的后处理过程。目前已有报道装载各种小分子[19, 25, 26]、蛋白[25, 26]和核酸药物[27, 28]等的外泌体作为递送系统实现癌症化疗[19, 25, 26]、放疗[29]、免疫治疗[27, 28]等。同时, 也有研究报道关于外泌体通过基因工程[27]或化学方法[30]对外泌体表面进行修饰, 从而赋予外泌体更优异的靶向特异性。另一方面, 由于外泌体的脂质双分子层可与脂质体相似的膜结构融合, 从而形成新型仿生纳米粒[31]
光疗法是利用阳光或人工光线(红外线、紫外线、可见光、激光) 防治疾病和促进机体康复的方法。而抗癌光疗则是将光疗剂靶向递送到癌症部位, 然后通过特定波长的激光照射癌症部位来触发局部的化学损伤或热损伤来实现癌症的治疗。基于光疗法具有不良反应小、选择性高和耐药性低的特点, 光疗法在临床应用上被视为是一种无创、直接和精确的癌症治疗手段[32]。通常而言, 光疗法主要包括PDT[33, 34]和PTT[35, 36]。而为了提高癌症治疗的效率, 已有许多研究报道实现了PDT和PTT的联合应用[37, 38], 或是光疗法与其他疗法的联合应用[39, 40], 极大地拓宽了光疗抗癌的应用前景。
然而, 由于光疗剂分子自身具有水溶性差、易聚集, 直接注射难以实现肿瘤的靶向性的缺点, 因此人们开发了各种类型的纳米材料作为光疗剂的递送载体, 将光疗剂与纳米载体结合, 设计成具有各种不同功能的纳米药物, 从而实现不同类型的癌症治疗[41]。纳米药物的靶向性一般可分为两种: 一种称为被动靶向, 被动靶向利用了纳米药物特殊的结构大小, 通过实体瘤的高通透性和滞留效应使纳米药物选择性聚集在肿瘤组织[42]; 另一种称为主动靶向, 其利用在纳米药物表面特异性修饰上相应的配体, 通过配体-适体的特异性结合而实现主动靶向, 或则将纳米药物设计成敏感性材料, 如pH敏感、磁敏感、热敏感等, 使得纳米药物可在肿瘤部位实现敏感性靶向或敏感性释放, 从而实现主动靶向[43]。仿生载体由于具有更好的生物相容性、较低的免疫原性及潜在的同源靶向性, 成为一种能更好实现临床转化的优良载体[44]
PDT是一种基于光化学的治疗方法。外部的光、PS和组织中的氧分子组成了PDT的三部分。PS自身并不具有毒性, 但绝大部分PS在氧分子存在和光照激活的情况下, 其可产生活性氧物质, 对核酸、脂质、蛋白质、细胞膜和细胞器产生化学损伤, 诱导细胞凋亡从而实现癌症治疗[45]。PDT实现癌症治疗来源于3种相互作用的机制: ①对癌细胞的直接杀伤作用; ②对癌症部位血管系统的间接损伤; ③诱导激活免疫系统的炎症反应[46]。PDT的具体工作原理(图 3): 在光激发条件下, PS吸收光子的能量从基态跃迁到激发单重态的不同能级(Sn), 然后经过能量内转化和振动弛豫返回到第一激发单重态(S1) 的最低能级, 一方面可经过辐射跃迁返回基态产生荧光; 另一方面可通过系间窜越到达第一激发三重态(T1), 激发三重态分子除了可产生磷光外, 还可通过PDT的I型或II型反应过程产生活性氧物质。I型反应通过激发三重态与底物间的电子转移生成阳离子或阴离子自由基, 如羟基自由基(·OH) 和超氧阴离子(O2)。II型反应通过氧化还原反应的能量转移将三线态氧(3O2) 转化成高活性的单线态氧(1O2)。
PTT是一种基于光物理的治疗方法。虽然PTA并不是PTT所必需的, 但一般会采用靶向递送PTA以提高局部光热转换效率来增强PTT疗效。在PTT过程中, 只有当肿瘤细胞温度达到41 ℃以上时才会产生光热损伤效果, 而想要达到有效消融每一个肿瘤细胞的效果, 需在肿瘤中心达到更高温度(≥ 50 ℃) 方能使肿瘤边缘也达到相应的治疗温度[47]。PTT的基本工作原理(图 3): 在光激发条件下, PTA吸收光子能量从基态跃迁到激发态, 激发态分子通过各种非辐射跃迁返回到基态而将能量转变成为热能。当温度升高到上述温度后, 即可杀死肿瘤细胞。
基于光疗法和外泌体的迅速发展, 目前已有大量研究将外泌体作为PS的载体, 利用两者的优势, 从而实现新型的癌症治疗模式(表 1[48-54])。外泌体可递送各种不同类型的PS。二氢卟吩e6 (chlorin e6, Ce6) 是一种常用的市售PS, 已被广泛报道用于近红外实时成像和各种癌症的PDT。同时利用癌细胞分泌的外泌体作为纳米递送载体可实现同源靶向效应和激活免疫系统对癌细胞的免疫杀伤作用。Jang等[48]利用超声作用将Ce6装载到MIA-PaCa-2人胰腺癌细胞源性的外泌体中得到载药外泌体, 利用光声成像观察载药外泌体的肿瘤靶向蓄积, 并在激光照射下产生活性氧物质杀伤癌细胞, 同时还促进了免疫细胞释放免疫因子, 从而实现了基于外泌体的光声成像引导的胰腺癌的PDT和免疫治疗。除了细胞源性外泌体载药外, Pan等[49]用超小金纳米粒携带大量Ce6制备出载药纳米粒, 然后通过电穿孔方式将纳米粒装载到从胃癌患者尿液收集得到的克量级的高纯度外泌体中, 制备出外泌体包裹的载药纳米囊泡。该工作使用的尿源性外泌体较细胞源性外泌体相比, 可实现高产量, 还可避免细胞长期传代和培养中发生的交叉污染, 同时也保留有提高细胞摄取和减少免疫细胞吞噬的性质。
具有聚集诱导发光(aggregation-induced emission, AIE) 特性分子的开发推动了生物成像和PDT的重大发展, 同时, 也成为外泌体递送的潜在光疗剂。Zhu等[50]利用电穿孔的手段将聚集诱导发光分子DCPy装载到4T1小鼠乳腺癌细胞源性的外泌体, 形成杂化纳米囊泡仿生PDT系统。同时作者使用糖皮质激素药物地塞米松使肿瘤微环境内的血管正常化, 以减少局部缺氧, 从而显著增强杂化纳米囊泡的PDT疗效, 有效抑制了小鼠乳腺癌细胞的生长。实验证明, 与聚乳酸-羟基乙酸共聚物递送系统相比, 外泌体递送系统有效地延长了体内循环时间并增强了肿瘤靶向性。光疗剂的性质会极大影响外泌体的载药。在作者另一个最新工作中[51], 则利用穿孔和共孵育将质子泵抑制剂和另一种聚集诱导发光分子TBP-2装载到MGC803人胃癌细胞源性外泌体中。由于TBP-2分子具有两个正电荷, 可在极短时间内迅速吸附到细胞膜上作为膜染料, 并在进入细胞后发挥I型PDT。而质子泵抑制剂可抑制肿瘤细胞谷胱甘肽和ATP的生成, 改善了聚集诱导发光分子的PDT疗效。该系统有效抑制人胃癌细胞的生长, 甚至促进该细胞发生免疫原性细胞死亡(图 4)。而Huang等[52]则通过将具有过氧化氢酶活性的铜单原子纳米酶与SGC-7901人胃癌细胞共培养, 用试剂盒分离出包载铜纳米酶的外泌体, 将聚集诱导发光分子TBP-2吸附到外泌体膜上, 从而构建了肿瘤外泌体仿生级联催化系统。实验证明, 与红细胞膜包覆纳米系统相比, 具同源靶向性的外泌体系统显示出更高效的肿瘤靶向能力。而该级联催化系统能有效抑制肿瘤细胞的生长, 且更有效地诱导肿瘤细胞免疫性死亡, 在SGC-7901人胃癌和CT26小鼠结肠癌模型中均取得良好疗效。值得关注的是, 此系统还可抑制CT26复发小鼠肿瘤模型术后的肿瘤复发, 具有良好的临床应用潜力。
另外, 通过合理设计, 可使外泌体纳米载体具备更优异的肿瘤靶向性。Cheng等[53]从小鼠的血液中获取外泌体与合成肽链ChiP通过振荡和透析方法合成并分离出多功能嵌合肽工程化外泌体。多功能嵌合肽段由外泌体工程化烷基链、用于PDT的原卟啉IX和核定位信号(nuclear localization signal, NLS) 肽组成。该系统先通过质膜靶向PDT直接破坏细胞膜完整性而诱导细胞死亡及增强细胞对PS的吸收, 同时第一阶段光引发的光化学内化和溶酶体逃逸改善了杂化外泌体的质膜传递, 由于核定位信号肽修饰, 增强了外泌体的核传递。而在第二阶段光照下, 核内杂化外泌体将被激活生成活性氧物质, 从而破坏细胞核DNA, 通过双阶段光引导的亚细胞双靶向PDT策略增强肿瘤靶向递送和光PDT疗效。Du等[54]通过质粒转染HEK293T人胚肾供体细胞获得过表达CD47的外泌体。CD47的过表达可有效逃避单核吞噬细胞系统的吞噬作用, 从而增加在肿瘤部位的分布。通过超声法将铁死亡诱导剂(erastin, Er) 和PS (rose bengal, RB) 装载到过表达CD47的外泌体中。在激光照射下, 通过Er的铁死亡和RB的PDT协同诱导肿瘤细胞死亡, 从而实现肝癌治疗, 且具有较小的肝脏和肾脏毒性。
相似地, 将外泌体作为PTA递送载体用于癌症治疗的研究也被大量报道(表 2[45, 55-65])。随着PTT的不断发展, 越来越多的近红外吸收且具备高光热转换效率的无机、有机的光热材料被广泛报道用于癌症治疗。其中, 量子点是一种具有特殊光热性质的半导体纳米结构, 已被广泛报道用于癌症PTT。Liu等[55]将黑磷量子点(black phosphorus quantum dots, BPQDs) 通过电穿孔法装载到BIU-87人膀胱癌细胞源性的外泌体中形成杂化的外泌体纳米球。外泌体的包裹抑制了量子点的降解, 从而提高了杂化纳米球的光热稳定性, 同时赋予了该PTA良好的生物相容性、良好的内小体逃逸能力、较强的膜通透能力和同源靶向能力。在近红外光照射下, 该系统实现了体内外人膀胱癌细胞几乎完全消融。另外, Liu等[56]发现接受热疗后荷瘤小鼠的血清外泌体具有一系列患者特异性肿瘤相关抗原的特性。基于此, 将BPQDs通过超声方法装载到此外泌体中, 通过量子点光热杀伤实现肿瘤消融, 激活宿主免疫系统并增加肿瘤浸润T细胞的数量构建出一种有效的抗癌光纳米疫苗。Cao等[57]将碳化钒量子点(V2C quantum dots, V2C QDs) 与工程化外泌体相结合实现了近红外II区光激活的核靶向低温PTT策略。该量子点除了高效的光热效应外, 还具有荧光成像、光声成像和核磁共振成像能力。作者用细胞核靶向穿膜肽TAT修饰碳化钒量子点, 通过与细胞共孵育的手段得到膜靶向穿膜肽RGD修饰的MCF-7人乳腺癌细胞源性外泌体, 再通过电穿孔方法组成癌细胞膜和核细胞器双靶向系统。结果显示RGD修饰增强癌症靶向能力, 细胞核靶向穿膜肽TAT增强量子点穿过细胞核核膜的能力, 体外细胞在1 064 nm光照下, 在超低温(~45 ℃) 下实现细胞坏死。体内抗癌治疗亦显示该外泌体系统具有长体液循环性质、良好癌细胞靶向能力和出色的抗人乳腺癌治疗效果。
金属及各种金属氧化物也属于常用的无机光热材料。氧化铁由于自身的光热性质及磁性靶向特性成为潜在的PTT药物。Yuan等[58]通过肿瘤外泌体仿生氧化铁纳米粒实现近红外药物递送。作者首先将化疗药物Dox装载到氧化铁纳米粒上构成载药纳米粒, 通过挤压方式装载到4T1小鼠乳腺癌细胞源性的外泌体中, 构成外泌体包裹的氧化铁磁性纳米粒。该系统在激光照射下氧化铁纳米粒产热并使外泌体热解体而Dox快速释放从而实现光热与化疗的联合治疗效果, 且外泌体包裹能有效阻止氧化铁纳米粒被单核吞噬细胞吞噬, 提高纳米粒的生物相容性。与氧化铁不同, 金在不同条件下可以生长出不同形状的金纳米粒, 具有不同的光学特性而被用于PTT。Wang等[59]通过将修饰物与人单核细胞白血病细胞THP-1细胞共孵育, 分离出具有穿膜肽RGD和巯基修饰的外泌体, 再通过电穿孔手段封装化疗药物Dox, 通过金-硫键将金纳米棒(Au nanorod, Au NR) 共价结合到外泌体上, 为了提高靶向效率, 再在金纳米棒上修饰肿瘤特异性配体叶酸(folic acid, FA), 最终得到双配体协同靶向的化学、光热协同治疗的多功能外泌体。多功能外泌体双配体主动靶向性和光激活响应性药物释放不仅可促进其在肿瘤部位的特异性聚集, 而且可改善药物在肿瘤部位的释放, 从而实现化学光热协同抗肿瘤疗效, 减轻不良反应。Finlay等[45]利用金纳米星能促进肿瘤细胞外泌体胞吐的特性, 将金纳米星与CT26细胞共孵育得到了小鼠结肠癌细胞源性星状等离子外泌体。实验证明外泌体包裹增强了肿瘤细胞的吸收并可有效逃避巨噬细胞的吞噬作用。该系统通过光声成像观察在肿瘤组织的聚集情况, 并在近红外II区激光和X射线照射下, 整合了PTT和放疗的优势, 有效抑制了小鼠结肠癌细胞的生长。
除了无机PTA外, 有机PTA由于其结构明确、易于合成和衍生、在体内易分解代谢等特性也被广泛用于PTT中。吲哚菁绿(indocyanine green, ICG) 是美国食品药品监督管理局唯一批准的菁染料药。作为一种临床诊断用药, ICG已成为一种市售的标准制剂。Li等[60]研究发现, 以电穿孔装载ICG和姜黄素的外泌体能有效促进药物进入肿瘤细胞, 在近红外光激活下, 通过协同化疗光疗可有效消除胶质瘤, 有效预防瞬时光疗后的肿瘤快速复发, 并通过肿瘤基因表达图谱的分析, 确定了联合治疗引发的分子途径。Tian等[61]则先将ICG和Dox装载到介孔二氧化硅纳米粒中, 再与4T1小鼠乳腺癌细胞源性的外泌体通过挤压方法得到另一种协同化疗光疗系统, 并通过实验证明外泌体膜修饰后能促进二氧化硅纳米粒在肿瘤部位的蓄积, 而且不影响ICG的光热效应和Dox的细胞毒性。有趣的是, Cheng等[62]设计了一种外泌体与脂质体融合的新型纳米囊泡用于光热与免疫联合治疗(图 5)。作者先通过质粒转染CT26细胞得到CD47过表达的小鼠结肠癌细胞源性外泌体, 并与ICG和免疫佐剂R837载药热敏脂质体通过冻融的膜融合技术得到杂交纳米囊泡。CD47过表达的载药杂交纳米囊泡可实现体内长循环及外泌体的同源靶向实现肿瘤部位的高浓度聚集, 光照后产生PTT消融小鼠结肠癌细胞, 导致免疫原性细胞死亡并产生大量肿瘤相关抗原, 在免疫佐剂的辅佐下促进未成熟树突状细胞成熟, 并引发强烈的免疫反应。
除了双重协同治疗外, 还有报道多重协同治疗的工作。Wang等[63]设计了一种肿瘤高靶向性的化学/基因/PTT的外泌体。作者通过共孵育方法获得生物素标记的外泌体, 用电穿孔技术装载Dox得到载药外泌体, 再通过生物素-亲和素相互作用, 得到含有Dox、氧化铁、聚多巴胺(polydopamine, PDA) 和分子信标的纳米药物。外泌体内腔载有化疗药物Dox而外层修饰有磁性靶向氧化铁、PTA聚多巴胺和发挥细胞成像和基因沉默分子信标的纳米药物模型, 启发读者可通过不同的外泌体载药方式运载多种药物, 发挥协同治疗效果。
级联协同治疗可通过不同治疗手段间的相互促进有效增强抗癌疗效。Ma等[64]将从全血提取的血小板源性外泌体与载有荧光菁染料Cypate的热敏脂质体通过孵育进行膜融合得到杂交纳米囊泡, 再超声包封级联反应药物得到最终纳米系统。第一阶段, 通过血小板外泌体上过表达CD44特异性靶向黏附在癌细胞上产生光热效应与血小板自身物质共同引发血管损伤, 同时PTT亦诱导了免疫原性细胞死亡。然后通过级联反应生成大量羟基自由基, 实现增强化学动力学治疗。免疫原性细胞死亡诱导免疫应答使CD8+ T细胞释放γ干扰素, γ干扰素与羟基自由基共同诱导肿瘤细胞铁死亡。实验结果表明此协同治疗策略具有优异的小鼠肝癌抑制效果。血小板外泌体赋予了纳米药物明显的肿瘤靶向能力, 且提高了药物的生物相容性, 使疏水性染料的肝脏代谢减少。
与外泌体和脂质体膜融合的重组纳米囊泡不同, Li等[65]设计了一种肿瘤细胞原性“外泌体帽”的生物可排泄的聚集诱导发光纳米粒。作者将自研发的生物可排泄的聚集诱导发光荧光团用表面活性剂F127包裹形成聚集诱导发光纳米粒, 由于纳米粒粒径较大, 通过电穿孔手段CT26小鼠结肠癌细胞源性的外泌体不能完全包裹纳米粒, 只能形成部分包被的外泌体帽结构。作者通过实验证明“外泌体帽”结构也能显著延长药物体内循环时间及增强体内外肿瘤细胞的摄取。
外泌体是细胞分泌的纳米囊泡, 在细胞间通讯起着重要作用。作为药物的递送载体, 外泌体具有天然稳定性、低免疫原性和优异的组织/细胞渗透能力, 可实现长时间的血液循环和高效的细胞摄取。同时, 肿瘤细胞源性的外泌体可通过同源靶向效应增强纳米药物在肿瘤部位的蓄积。为了进一步提高靶向能力和疗效, 可通过生物工程、化学修饰等手段获得具有更高选择性和有效性的外泌体。然而, 获得高纯度、质量可控并且可大规模生产的外泌体是目前外泌体应用面临的最大难题。同时, 外泌体的不同来源对于疗效和不良反应的影响及肿瘤细胞源性的外泌体可能诱导肿瘤细胞生长的潜在风险, 仍需通过更多实践应用进行探究。而外泌体形成和特定细胞靶向的亚细胞成分及相关机制仍需进行更深入的研究。但总体而言, 外泌体作为仿生载体, 其未来应用有着巨大前景。
光疗法与其他传统疗法相比, 具有无创性、高治愈率和低不良反应的显著优势, 成为抗癌治疗中的一种重要手段。然而随着光疗法的不断发展, 如何开发高效能光疗剂是众多研究工作者需攻克的难题。在光动力疗法中, 对PS分子结构的合理设计以增加活性氧物质产生的能力。而在光热疗法研究中, 通过分子结构的合理设计得到具有更长波长吸收的PTA, 从而实现深层组织穿透治疗。除了光疗剂的设计改良外, 研发各种具有良好生物相容性和优异肿瘤靶向性药物递送系统, 以及开发多手段协同治疗的纳米药物也是现阶段研究的重点。
外泌体作为光疗法载体的研究仍处于初步研究阶段。在已有报道中发现, 外泌体与光疗法的联合应用都充分保留并发挥了两者各自的优势, 可成为一种安全、有效的肿瘤治疗手段。但目前研究只是简单的1 + 1 = 2的效果, 如何实现1 + 1 > 2的效果, 仍需科研工作者们寻找和发现更精确的应用领域。未来, 外泌体作为光疗法载体的发展将主要聚焦于①外泌体装载各种不同性能的光疗剂, 发挥不同的治疗效果; ②发展不同外泌体的载药手段, 提高载药效率; ③通过外泌体表面工程化和膜融合手段构建更多具有高靶向性能的新型载体; ④充分发挥外泌体递送和光疗疗效的前提下, 与其他疗法相结合, 通过联合治疗实现更优异的治疗效果。虽然外泌体递送载体用于光学治疗的临床转化还有漫长的道路需要走, 但已有研究充分表明外泌体递送光疗药物具有积极、乐观的发展前景, 未来一定可在肿瘤治疗领域占据不可或缺的地位。
作者贡献: 李盛亮和杨宇亮提出并确定综述的主旨及提纲; 杨宇亮负责文章的撰写; 李盛亮、黄钟明、李喜亮和罗宇对综述进行修订。
利益冲突: 所有作者声明本文无利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(52173135)
  • 江苏高校优势学科建设工程资助项目
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2023年第58卷第3期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0736
  • 接收时间:2022-06-16
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-03-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-06-16
  • 修回日期:2022-07-01
基金
国家自然科学基金资助项目(52173135)
江苏高校优势学科建设工程资助项目
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    苏州大学, 江苏 苏州 215123

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*李盛亮,Tel: 86-512-65882090, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
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Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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