Article(id=1198624307409682818, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1084, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1664380800000, receivedDateStr=2022-09-29, revisedDate=1667923200000, revisedDateStr=2022-11-09, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763703904249, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1676131200000, pubDateStr=2023-02-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763703904249, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763703904249, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763703904249, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198624302414263267, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='2', pageStart='235', pageEnd='468', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763703903058, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763704055811, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198624943157116946, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198624943161311251, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=351, endPage=359, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198624307753615762, articleId=1198624307409682818, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=The biological principle of "Biao Ben Jian Zhi", columnId=1198624307652952460, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Opinion and Academic Contention, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Along with the progress of pharmaceutical science in the past century, the theme of pharmacology has gone through pseudo agent scheme, to ligand-receptor model, and then to the theory of targeted therapy today. Due to the success of drug R&D, current drug research keeps its focus mainly on drugs with single target and precise treatment, in which the molecular mechanism is relatively clear but the therapeutic efficacy is often limited. Thus, there is a big space for exploration in the field of pharmacology. In the past 30 years, several novel chemical drugs, originated from traditional Chinese medicine, have been identified and then used in clinic, provoking a strong interest to explore new theory for pharmacology, of which the term of "Biao Ben Jian Zhi" (treating diseases by directing symptoms and root causes) has demonstrated a promising nature. We consider this concept useful for future drug discovery, drug design and clinical therapy. In this review, example drugs such as berberine, metformin and azvudine, are discussed, and "drug Cloud" (dCloud) model is introduced to elaborate the mechanism of treating diseases by directing symptoms and root causes of diseases.

, correspAuthors=Jian-dong JIANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Rui LI, Xiu-ping GUO, Yan-xing HAN, Lu-lu WANG, Jian-dong JIANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198624309565555144, articleId=1198624307409682818, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=“标本兼治”的生物学原理, columnId=1198624307833307547, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=观点与学术争鸣, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

现代药理学研究历经百年进步, 从“伪介质”理论, 到配体-受体学说, 再发展至更广泛的靶点理论, 不断地为临床治疗贡献了重要的科学认识和临床药物。由于过往的成功经验, 西方药理学研究重视分子机制, 越来越强调单靶点和精准治疗; 虽然局部机制相对清楚, 但临床效果还远不够理想, 药物治疗的科学疆域里依然充满探索。近年来, 我国的新药研究显示出如下特点, 一方面紧跟国际前沿; 另一方面注重中国原创, 在寻找新药的同时, 探索对药物多靶点理论的认识, 其中, “标本兼治”的理念因其化学基础与生物学原理的进展, 逐渐显示出系统论的轮廓及新的生命力, 可能有助于未来的药物发现、药物设计和临床治疗。本文以小檗碱、二甲双胍和阿兹夫定为例, 以“药效云”的概念阐述“标本兼治”的药物作用模式, 以期为今后的新药研发探索新的前沿。

, correspAuthors=蒋建东, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*蒋建东, Tel: 86-10-63188423, E-mail:
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“标本兼治”的生物学原理
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李瑞 1 , 郭修平 2 , 韩燕星 2 , 王璐璐 1 , 蒋建东 1, 2, *
药学学报 | 观点与学术争鸣 2023,58(2): 351-359
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药学学报 | 观点与学术争鸣 2023, 58(2): 351-359
“标本兼治”的生物学原理
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李瑞1, 郭修平2, 韩燕星2, 王璐璐1, 蒋建东1, 2, *
作者信息
  • 1.中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 北京 100050
  • 2.中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 天然药物活性物质与功能国家重点实验室, 北京 100050

通讯作者:

*蒋建东, Tel: 86-10-63188423, E-mail:
The biological principle of "Biao Ben Jian Zhi"
Rui LI1, Xiu-ping GUO2, Yan-xing HAN2, Lu-lu WANG1, Jian-dong JIANG1, 2, *
Affiliations
  • 1. Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
  • 2. State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2023-02-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1084
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现代药理学研究历经百年进步, 从“伪介质”理论, 到配体-受体学说, 再发展至更广泛的靶点理论, 不断地为临床治疗贡献了重要的科学认识和临床药物。由于过往的成功经验, 西方药理学研究重视分子机制, 越来越强调单靶点和精准治疗; 虽然局部机制相对清楚, 但临床效果还远不够理想, 药物治疗的科学疆域里依然充满探索。近年来, 我国的新药研究显示出如下特点, 一方面紧跟国际前沿; 另一方面注重中国原创, 在寻找新药的同时, 探索对药物多靶点理论的认识, 其中, “标本兼治”的理念因其化学基础与生物学原理的进展, 逐渐显示出系统论的轮廓及新的生命力, 可能有助于未来的药物发现、药物设计和临床治疗。本文以小檗碱、二甲双胍和阿兹夫定为例, 以“药效云”的概念阐述“标本兼治”的药物作用模式, 以期为今后的新药研发探索新的前沿。

药理学  /  药物复杂体系  /  标本兼治  /  小檗碱  /  药效云

Along with the progress of pharmaceutical science in the past century, the theme of pharmacology has gone through pseudo agent scheme, to ligand-receptor model, and then to the theory of targeted therapy today. Due to the success of drug R&D, current drug research keeps its focus mainly on drugs with single target and precise treatment, in which the molecular mechanism is relatively clear but the therapeutic efficacy is often limited. Thus, there is a big space for exploration in the field of pharmacology. In the past 30 years, several novel chemical drugs, originated from traditional Chinese medicine, have been identified and then used in clinic, provoking a strong interest to explore new theory for pharmacology, of which the term of "Biao Ben Jian Zhi" (treating diseases by directing symptoms and root causes) has demonstrated a promising nature. We consider this concept useful for future drug discovery, drug design and clinical therapy. In this review, example drugs such as berberine, metformin and azvudine, are discussed, and "drug Cloud" (dCloud) model is introduced to elaborate the mechanism of treating diseases by directing symptoms and root causes of diseases.

pharmacology  /  complex system of drugs  /  Biao Ben Jian Zhi  /  berberine  /  drug Cloud
李瑞, 郭修平, 韩燕星, 王璐璐, 蒋建东. “标本兼治”的生物学原理. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (2) : 351 -359 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1084
Rui LI, Xiu-ping GUO, Yan-xing HAN, Lu-lu WANG, Jian-dong JIANG. The biological principle of "Biao Ben Jian Zhi"[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (2) : 351 -359 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1084
药理学是药学学科重要的组成部分, 旨在阐明药物治疗疾病的机制。在实践中, 药理学的知识一是有助于临床合理用药或联合用药, 二是有利于老药新用的临床发现, 三是可以指导药物设计或药物新剂型研究, 四是可以通过诊断性治疗辅助临床诊断。回顾过去上百年的药学进程, 药理学研究经过了几个明显的进步, 代表着人类对药物治疗认识的持续性探索。随着生命科学的进展和各种新药的出现, 药理学研究呈现出更加综合的发展趋势, 正在走进前所未知的新疆域, 一个更加切合人体生理学的药物复杂体系的轮廓也隐隐显显地展示出来。本文根据作者课题组多年药物研究的探索, 阐述“标本兼治”的理念, 包括其化学基础、生物学原理及未来前景。
1935年, 磺胺类药物作为第一个人工合成的广谱抗菌药问世, 成为抗菌药物治疗史上的一座里程碑。该类药物作用机制的阐述, 为后来的药物研发提供了重要的参考。磺胺类药物在结构上与对氨基苯甲酸(PABA) 类似, 后者是细菌新陈代谢所必需的; 磺胺药可与PABA竞争而抑制细菌核酸的合成, 从而抑制细菌的生长[1]。以磺胺类为代表的药物, 由于它们与细菌复制过程中的必需物质在结构上的相似性, 并与之竞争, 以“伪介质”的形式参与核酸、蛋白合成等生理功能, 从而发挥抗菌和治疗感染的作用。这项研究于1939年获诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。后来抗病毒的核苷类药物和抗肿瘤代谢的药物如5-氟尿嘧啶(5-FU)、5-巯基嘌呤等许多药物也是服从这个原理。
由于对细胞表面分子认识的加深, 1958年, 研究者们提出了配体-受体的“诱导契合”学说, 开始了分子互作的研究, 侧重点在细胞表面。早期的例子如吗啡与吗啡受体的结合、阿托品和麻黄素与胆碱M受体结合等, 这类机制的药物有很多[2], 再如质子泵抑制剂奥美拉唑可以抑制胃壁细胞膜上的H+-K+-ATP酶, 降低H+的释放, 减少胃酸合成[3]等; 由此, 以阻断配体-受体结合为机制的药物推动了药理学和临床治疗的进步; 如近20年来以B细胞表面CD20分子为靶点的利妥昔单抗在治疗淋巴瘤、白血病等肿瘤中获得明显成功[4, 5]; 2006年后(anti-PD-1药物首次进行临床试验), 以PD-1/PD-L1为代表的免疫检查点成为抗癌药物的明星靶点, 旨在阻断PD-1和PD-L1的相互作用, 恢复T细胞免疫功能而发挥抗癌作用。目前, 全世界范围内已有11种以此为原理的抗体药物获批用于黑色素瘤、非小细胞肺癌、食管癌、头颈部鳞癌、霍奇金淋巴瘤等多种肿瘤的治疗[6, 7]。这项研究于2018年获诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。以受体-配体相互作用为机制的药物, 靶点明确, 生物学机制清楚, 成为药物研发认识的又一次进步。然而, 靶点明确是该类药物优势, 也同样可能成为该类药物的缺点; 这类药物靶点单一, 易产生耐药性, 且对很多患者无效, 以及在临床引起不良反应等, 影响了该类药物的临床使用[8-10]
除了细胞表面的大分子外, 人们对细胞内的(或病原微生物的) 生化过程及相关的酶和大分子的了解日益增加, 逐步形成更加综合和完整的靶点概念。早期的例子如长春新碱和紫杉醇等药物可以和胞浆中微管微丝蛋白上特定的位点结合, 干扰肿瘤细胞分裂; 他汀类药物可以特异性抑制3-羟基-3-甲基戊二酰辅酶A还原酶而减少胞内胆固醇的生成[11]; 依那普利则可抑制血管紧张素转换酶的活性, 减少血管紧张素酶Ⅱ的产生, 抑制肾素-血管紧张素-醛固酮系统的作用, 舒张血管改善高血压[12]。近20年来, 以慢性白血病的费城染色体为线索发现的酪氨酸激酶抑制剂, 建立了肿瘤靶向药物治疗的方向; 2001年, 首个以酪氨酸激酶为靶的蛋白激酶抑制剂伊马替尼在美国获批上市, 拉开了肿瘤靶向治疗的序幕; 之后, 如达莎替尼、吉非替尼等相继问世用于癌症的精准治疗。这些药物作为靶向酪氨酸激酶的抑制剂, 可选择性地与癌细胞的多种酪氨酸激酶的不同突变位点结合, 抑制蛋白激酶的活化和下游信号传导[13]。其实, 酪氨酸激酶抑制剂只是一个例子,其他的生物酶如病毒复制所需要的核酸的多聚酶、蛋白酶、整合酶等, 使药物与生物靶酶相互作用局部的分子细节逐步成为关注点, 由此, 越来越多的计算机辅助设计技术和计算化学的知识被用于新药设计, 如抗关节炎的Cox-2抑制剂[14]及抗病毒酶的多种药物[15, 16]等。从生命科学的角度, 结构生物学理论指导的蛋白质结构解析技术进步很快; 新近, 人工智能原理下的AlphaFord的出现使得蛋白质3D结构研究的速度大大加快[17], 为计算机辅助药物设计提供了重要参考。近年来, 通过机器学习对药物与蛋白的作用方式和特点进行虚拟计算, 以及对人工智能进行调试与训练, 结合数学建模、理化性质等相关内容, 该项技术的精确性得到加强, 为药物靶点预测、体内相互作用、药物结构设计与改造、药代动力学预测等提供了信息[18]。依照以上研究, 有理由认为计算机辅助药物研发技术(及人工智能) 可能是药物研发过程中又一个进步, 尤其是在一些蛋白结构解析的技术难点(如糖修饰) 被攻克之后。
新中国建设初期(20世纪50年代), 研究人员首先成功研制出我国第一支青霉素, 并投入使用; 之后又不断研制出其他抗菌素, 基本解除了细菌性感染对人民健康的严重威胁, 这一创举是我国医药卫生的重大进步。上世纪80~90年代, 随着改革开放政策的推进, 制药企业逐步开始成为我国药物研发的重要力量, 其研发重点转向对西方药物进行的仿制或改良, 并取得了显著的经济和社会效益; 而当时我国原创新药的研究还只是凤毛麟角。进入21世纪以来, 我国新药研究从仿制逐渐转向原创: 以青蒿素、三氧化二砷、高三尖杉酯碱、小檗碱、双环醇、丁苯酞、槲皮素、桑枝生物碱、阿兹夫定等为代表的原创药物, 开始成为研究关注热点。这些药物具有靶点多样、作用广泛的特点, 并在疾病治疗中发挥了重要作用, 其中青蒿素研究更是于2015年获得了诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。
我国原创新药的研究更关注药用植物, 其过程大致分为两大阶段。第一阶段(我国科学家对药用植物的第一次访问) 主要是在化学层面上, 研究人员发现了一批有生物活性的化合物(结构鉴定技术) 并投入临床使用。在实际研究中主要是从植物(或微生物) 中找到有生物活性的化合物并鉴定出其结构, 再进行化学全合成(或半合成) 或修饰而实现产业化; 如双环醇是对从五味子中分离得到的抗肝炎成分五味子丙素的衍生物联苯双酯进一步修饰获得的, 具有自主知识产权[19]。第二阶段是基于生物学前沿的进展(生物技术和理论) 而对上述发现的药物开展重定位研究(第二次访问), 其基本考虑是因为小分子化合物进入体内一般有多个生物学靶点。过去20多年中, 我国科研人员带着新的生物技术和生命科学的理论, 从一些天然的原创新药中发现了多个有新用途的药物, 并用于临床, 产生了重要的国际影响; 如曾用于治疗皮肤疮腐的三氧化二砷(砒霜, 源于矿物) 和抗氧化的绿原酸(源于植物) 通过诱导肿瘤细胞分化而发挥抗肿瘤作用[20, 21]、抗菌药物小檗碱具有降糖降脂的新用途[22]、抗疟疾药物青蒿素可能有治疗自身免疫病的作用[23]等。
值得注意的是, 此类药物均为天然药物, 分子量小、靶点多, 通过多条相互交汇的信号通路或机制产生综合作用, 所以研究难度更大, 需要依赖更高的技术手段。这些研究有别于以往单一靶点的理论(见前述), 后者难以解释这些药物良好的临床治疗效果。近年来, 中国学者开始探索药理学新的前沿以诠释药物作用的复杂体系, 并在“标本兼治”的药理模式中获得初步进展, 可能有益于今后的新药研发, 值得深入探索。
“标本兼治”是我国传统医学的常用术语, 指医者在治疗表面病症的同时, 还要阻断或减少引发疾病的原因。所谓“治标”, 一般指药物作用于疾病的分子靶点或通路, 干扰其生物学活性, 改善临床症状; “治本”则是针对疾病起因, 如炎症、肠道菌群失调、免疫功能紊乱等生物学过程进行的干预, 使其恢复机体正常生理状态。总体来看, 治本有利于治标, 治标也有利于治本, 二者相互支持, 形成良好疗效。本文主要讨论“标本兼治”的药理学概念, 其源本一是根据我国药学研究在紧跟国际前沿几十年后的认识, 二是整合我国新药研究的进展及对疾病治疗的整体观, 自然且逐渐地呈现出来。以下是几个药物研究的例子。
来源于黄连、黄柏等植物的生物碱类药物小檗碱(berberine), 最初被应用于治疗细菌性腹泻, 目前仍然是治疗该疾病的重要药物之一。小檗碱价格低廉、安全性好, 是许多中国家庭必备的非处方药物。2004年, 本课题组首次发现小檗碱是一个全新机制的降血脂药物[24], 从这一发现开始, 小檗碱的研究开始了新的一页, 相关研究逐年增多, 小檗碱降血脂、降血糖、治疗脂肪肝和动脉粥样硬化的作用也被国内外许多实验室和临床医院所证实。随着对小檗碱化学和生物学研究不断深入, 对于小檗碱的作用特点和机制也有了全新的认识: 其多效性可归因于小檗碱及其代谢产物对不同的酶、受体及细胞信号通路具体靶点的治疗效应, 以及抗氧化、抗炎、调节肠道菌群等体内环境改善的背景效应, 下文分析了小檗碱的多重生物学作用, 初步勾绘出“标本兼治”的药理机制轮廓。
对于脂代谢, 口服后进入血液到达组织的小檗碱能够通过细胞外调节蛋白激酶(ERK) 通路增加低密度脂蛋白(LDL) 受体(LDLR) mRNA的稳定性[25], 通过激活JNK/c-Jun通路增强LDLR mRNA的转录活性[26], 通过降低LDLR抑制剂前蛋白转化酶枯草杆菌蛋白酶Kexin-9 (PCSK9) 的转录和表达, 上调肝细胞中LDLR的表达, 促进血浆LDL的清除[27]。此外, 小檗碱可通过激活JNK/c-Jun通路提高抗氧化剂PON1的mRNA和蛋白水平, 保护高密度脂蛋白(HDL) 免受氧化, 抑制LDL的氧化修饰[28]。对于糖代谢, 小檗碱可通过增强胰岛素受体底物2 (IRS2) 诱导的胰岛素/胰岛素样生长因子-1信号级联发挥促胰岛素作用[29, 30]。体内研究发现, 小檗碱可以提高胰高血糖素样肽-1 (GLP-1) 的分泌, 从而发挥促进胰岛素分泌、抑制胰高血糖素释放和胃排空的生物学效应[31]。此外, 小檗碱能够抑制线粒体功能, 降低细胞内ATP的产生, 最终激活腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶(AMPK), 引起葡萄糖转运体4的转运增加, 减弱胰岛素抵抗和葡萄糖转运体1介导的葡萄糖摄取增加, 增强糖代谢、下调磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸碳羧化酶(PEPCK) 和葡萄糖-6-磷酸酶(G6Pase) 基因的表达, 减少肝脏糖异生等现象[22]。小檗碱还可通过蛋白激酶D (PKD) 上调胰岛素受体(InsR) 的表达, 增加胰岛素敏感性, 改善2型糖尿病(T2DM) 患者的胰岛素抵抗[32]
对于炎症, 许多研究报道了小檗碱具有抗炎、抗氧化的作用[33]。小檗碱与二甲双胍联用能够减少T2DM患者IL-6、TNF-α、C反应蛋白等炎症因子的分泌, 能够降低非酒精性脂肪性肝病(NAFLD) 患者IL-17、TNF-α水平[22]。小檗碱联合吡格列酮能够降低NAFLD患者IL-18、TNF-α、超敏C反应蛋白(hs-CRP) 水平, 降低丙二醛(MDA) 的合成, 同时上调超氧化物歧化酶(SOD) 的表达[22]。小檗碱促进核因子E2相关因子(Nrf2) 的核转位和血红素加氧酶(HO-1) 的表达, 抑制多种前炎症细胞因子的产生而发挥抗炎和抗氧化作用[34, 35]。小檗碱还可上调Klotho基因表达发挥抗氧化和抗凋亡的作用, 实现对血管内皮的保护作用[36]。现有资料显示, 小檗碱的抗炎、抗氧化应激作用涉及多条通路, 如核因子κB (NF-κB)、AMPK、MAPKs信号通路等[33, 37]。炎症和氧化应激是心血管疾病、糖尿病、肝肾脏疾病、癌症等多种慢性疾病的内在因素, 而以上研究提示小檗碱可以通过抗炎、抗氧化等作用驱动机体疾病的病理环境向生理环境的转归。
研究表明, 小檗碱能与一系列分子靶点相互作用, 其药效可能是基于多靶点的综合作用[38]。然而, 口服给药后, 95%以上的小檗碱在肠道积累而非进入循环, 所以对肠道菌代谢的调控成为小檗碱药效药理的重要组成部分。由于肠道细菌接触更高浓度的小檗碱, 可能成为小檗碱发挥多种药理作用的介质。首先, 肠道菌群通过硝基还原酶将小檗碱还原为二氢小檗碱, 二氢小檗碱更易被肠道吸收, 而后在肠壁被氧化为小檗碱进入血液而发挥生物活性[39], 这是小檗碱吸收的重要机制。而在肠道, 众多证据表明, 小檗碱能够通过增加双歧杆菌等有益肠道菌的数量, 同时减少大肠杆菌等有害菌的丰度, 改善T2DM、NAFLD、高血脂、动脉粥样硬化等慢性疾病患者的代谢紊乱[40]。在高脂血症伴动脉粥样硬化的患者中, 口服小檗碱被还原为二氢小檗碱, 通过作用于肠道菌胆碱三甲胺裂解酶及辅酶(CutC/CutD) 和肠道菌黄素单加氧酶及辅酶(FMO/FAD), 抑制肠道菌三甲胺-N-氧化物(TMAO) 的生物合成, 从而抑制动脉粥样硬化斑块的形成, 改善动脉粥样硬化[41]。此外, 小檗碱还可以利用肠道菌群调节产生多种生物活性物质。大部分有益肠道菌可以产生短链脂肪酸(SCFAs), 如乙酸、丙酸和丁酸等。研究发现小檗碱可以增加产生SCFAs的有益菌数量, 恢复疾病状态下被抑制的SCFAs水平, 这有益于改善代谢紊乱[39]。而且, 小檗碱进入肠道后能够降低细菌ATP和NADH的含量, 刺激丁基辅酶A的形成并上调丁基激酶A和丁基辅酶A; 上调乙酰辅酶A转移酶的表达以促进丁酸盐的合成[39]。小檗碱通过此途径有效降低患者的血脂水平、抑制胰岛素抵抗和脂质分解, 实现全身代谢的改善[42]。小檗碱还可以改变肠道菌群功能, 通过恢复肠上皮屏障的完整性来减轻炎症损伤[43]
综上, 不同于精准治疗的靶点理论, 小檗碱的药理作用不仅简单地改善疾病症状(标), 而且能够针对疾病的根源(本) 进行调节, 其治疗的多重效应特点符合我国医学“标本兼治”的理念(图 1)。具体来说, 一是进入血液的小檗碱可以调节代谢通路相关的分子(如ERK、AMPK、LDLR、PCSK9、SIRT3等), 而且小檗碱刺激肠道菌群产生的SCFAs等生物活性物质进入血循环, 参与到机体代谢调节和抗炎治疗中, 以多元素的模式实现对病症即“标”的治疗, 如降低血脂血糖、缓解脂肪肝、减轻体重等; 二是小檗碱利用抗炎、抗氧化应激及调节肠道菌群组成、数量和功能等生物活性, 在肠道实现对疾病根源即“本”的治疗。这种“代谢调节+肠道菌优化”的模式是小檗碱改善代谢紊乱的整体机制。实际上, 小檗碱促使肠道菌群产生更多的SCFAs, SCFAs入血后有抗炎抗氧化作用, 并与G蛋白偶联受体结合促进GLP-1的生成和释放, 进而改善代谢紊乱直接产生“治标”作用[42], 体现了治本与治标之间的互作对话及分子基础。为验证小檗碱“标本兼治”的治疗理念, 本课题组还比较了小檗碱、丁酸钠及二者联用治疗高脂饮食(HFD) 诱导小鼠NAFLD的效果的差异[44]。结果显示, 与单独使用小檗碱相比, 小檗碱联用丁酸钠能更有效地激活AMPK信号通路, 改善脂代谢和肝组织病理损伤等症状[44], 即固本治疗加强了治标的效果。作者用了“药效云(drug Cloud, dCloud)”的理念阐述了小檗碱在脂肪肝治疗中标本兼治的药物作用模式[45] (见后)。
二甲双胍(metformin) 是天然产物山羊豆碱的衍生物, 于1957年首次用于治疗T2DM, 至今仍是治疗T2DM的一线药物。临床前和临床研究数据不断激发着人们再次访问二甲双胍的兴趣, 其降糖外的药理作用也不断被证实, 包括抑制肿瘤、抗衰老、肝肾和心血管保护作用等。作为一种亲水化合物, 二甲双胍主要通过有机阳离子转运体(OCTs) 进入细胞, 因此其主要靶器官是肝脏、肠道等机体代谢相关组织[46], 多项研究提出了二甲双胍发挥降糖作用的复杂机制[47, 48]。二甲双胍可以通过抑制肝细胞线粒体呼吸链复合物Ⅰ而激活AMPK, 增加AMP/ATP比值, 从而抑制肝脏糖异生。另有研究发现, 二甲双胍通过抑制线粒体甘油磷酸脱氢酶的活性, 改变细胞的氧化还原状态, 实现对糖异生的抑制[49]。此外, 二甲双胍还可以通过激活AMPK, 促进GLP-1的分泌从而改善T2DM患者的血糖稳态[50]。最新研究发现, 二甲双胍能够结合溶酶体PEN2, 利用PEN2-ATP2AP1轴激活AMPK及下游信号通路, 实现二甲双胍降糖和延长寿命的作用[51]
除了靶向具体信号通路实现对疾病症状的改善和治疗外, 二甲双胍还具有抗炎、抗氧化的药理作用。临床研究表明, 二甲双胍对T2DM或多囊卵巢综合征患者的全身炎症具有改善作用[52], 该作用可能是通过抑制NF-κB信号通路而直接改善炎症状态。此外, 有研究报道二甲双胍能够抑制线粒体反向电子传输介导的活性氧的合成, 发挥心脏保护作用[53]。二甲双胍的口服生物利用度一般, 而在肠道的浓度较高, 约为血浆浓度的30~300倍[46], 且早期研究证实二甲双胍静脉给药的降糖效果弱于口服给药, 提示肠道是二甲双胍发挥多效性的重要部位[54]。肠道中的二甲双胍除了利用直接或间接作用促进GLP-1的分泌, 还可以通过肠道-脑轴机制抑制食欲、减少食物摄入、减缓胃排空等多效作用降低血糖[54], 并能够调节肠道菌群来发挥生物活性, 调节肠道菌群的组成, 促进肠道菌群生物活性物质的生成(如SCFAs、胆汁酸), 改善肠道菌群与宿主代谢的相互作用[55], 以及通过改善肠道菌群和菌群代谢物影响宿主的局部或全身免疫[56]。可见, 二甲双胍也是通过“代谢调节+肠道菌优化”的整体机制改善代谢紊乱, 这种作用方式与小檗碱非常相似。值得注意的是, 肠道菌群是肠道生态系统中具有高度代谢活性的生物体组成部分, 除了小檗碱和二甲双胍外, 他汀药物[42]、益生菌、膳食纤维也通过对肠道菌群的调节改善局部或全身的炎症状态, 纠正机体代谢, 改善疾病表征。从小檗碱和二甲双胍这两个例子, 作者推测肠道菌群可能是药物实现“清源治本”的主要靶体。
综上, 二甲双胍通过激活AMPK等多靶点机制改善糖、脂代谢紊乱等疾病的临床症状(治标); 同时, 通过调节肠道菌群和减轻炎症等恢复机体的稳态(治本), 实现“标本兼治”的多重生物学效应。
阿兹夫定(azvudine) 是一种核苷类抗病毒药, 最初由美国罗氏公司设计、合成和报道, 发现其具有抑制丙型肝炎病毒(HCV) 复制的活性[57, 58]。随后多项研究报道阿兹夫定具有抗肿瘤[59]、抗乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)[60]、抗艾滋病病毒(HIV)[61]的作用。在治疗HIV感染的Ⅰ期和Ⅱ期临床试验中, 阿兹夫定展现出了理想的药代动力学特点及充分的有效性和安全性[62], 2021年被中国国家药品监督管理局(NMPA) 附条件批准上市治疗艾滋病。实际上, 2020年新型冠状病毒肺炎(COVID-19) 暴发后, 为寻找抗新冠药物, 本课题组和合作者们[63]对阿兹夫定开展了老药新用的研究, 发现阿兹夫定有抗新冠的作用。阿兹夫定的随机开放性对照临床试验或单臂自对照临床试验显示, 阿兹夫定能够显著缩短核酸转阴时间, 缓解病情, 并且无不良反应发生。该项研究初步显示了阿兹夫定对COVID-19潜在的治疗作用[64]。在完成多国的Ⅲ期临床试验后, 2022年7月中国NMPA已经附条件批准阿兹夫定上市, 用于治疗新冠感染。
病毒的RNA聚合酶能够与核糖核苷酸2′位的羟基发生氢键作用, 从而识别核糖核苷酸的底物。机制研究发现, 三磷酸化的阿兹夫定2′位的氟原子也能与RNA聚合酶产生氢键作用, 从而抑制RNA聚合酶与底物的结合进而抑制冠状病毒的复制。此外, 研究发现新冠病毒感染的恒河猴口服的阿兹夫定在胸腺被磷酸化为活性形式并累积于胸腺, 在清除胸腺病毒的同时保护了胸腺的免疫功能[63]。单细胞测序结果显示, 感染新冠病毒的恒河猴在接受阿兹夫定治疗后, 其胸腺组织中免疫细胞的状态比未进行治疗组更好。此外, 给予阿兹夫定增加了恒河猴外周血中CD3+、CD4+和CD8+细胞的比例, 而CD20+细胞的比例保持不变, 这进一步证实了胸腺免疫功能的增强。对胸腺中主要免疫细胞进行差异基因功能富集分析, 发现给予感染新冠病毒的恒河猴阿兹夫定后胸腺中T细胞数量和功能增强、多项抗病毒相关的免疫应答功能上调[63]
在上述阿兹夫定的作用模式中, 它不仅作为RNA依赖性RNA聚合酶(RdRp) 抑制剂起到抗新冠病毒的作用, 还能够靶向胸腺, 保护免疫细胞, 实现抗病毒同时免疫增强的效果[63]。具体来说, 阿兹夫定经脱氧胞苷激酶磷酸化后, 转变为活性形式三磷酸阿兹夫定, 在病毒RNA合成过程中嵌入, 导致RNA链合成及病毒复制被迫中止, 从而消灭组织内的病毒, 是为对“标”治疗。而口服吸收的阿兹夫定归巢于胸腺, 在胸腺被活化为三磷酸形式, 通过清除胸腺新冠病毒保护免疫系统, 最终维持机体免疫, 则为固“本”的治疗。这种“抗病毒化疗+免疫治疗”的协同机制, 产生了“标本兼治”的治疗效果, 在临床以很小的剂量就可以有效地治疗新冠病毒感染(每天5 mg, 口服)。就作者所知, 阿兹夫定归巢于胸腺、靶向增强免疫的特性在已知的RdRp抑制剂中可能是独特的[65]
过去几十年, 单靶点药物理念为多种疾病的治疗带来了重大进展, 目前仍是药物研究的主流, 其采用的研究理念和方法, 为多靶点药物的研究提供了重要参考。然而, 单靶点药物的靶标单一, 虽然机制相对清楚, 但临床效果常常不满意, 如在抗新冠的药物中, 瑞德西韦虽然体外有很好的RdRp抑制作用[66], 但在临床试验中效果却不理想[67, 68]。单靶点治疗带来的问题还包括易产生耐药性等, 当治疗效果不能达到预期时, 不能单纯依靠增加剂量实现增效。过去十多年来, 由于二甲双胍、阿司匹林、小檗碱、雷帕霉素及一些组分中药等药物机制研究的深入, 药理学研究出现新的发展前沿, 即药物复杂体系, 被学者描述为“药效云”的概念(见下)[42, 69]
相对于精准靶点的理论, 虽然“标本兼治”的药理学概念是更加正确的, 但其完整的生物分子信号系统及相互之间的关联性非常复杂, 有待深入研究。同时, 不同的药物也各不相同: 如在前文提到的3个例子中, 治疗代谢性疾病的药物(如小檗碱和二甲双胍), 机体能量代谢相关通路或靶点分子是其治标的基础, 而肠道菌群的健康状态是其主要的治本之靶; 而对于新冠病毒感染的治疗(如阿兹夫定), 进入人体的病毒引发疾病是其标, 机体免疫系统是其本。“标本兼治”的概念可能使研究者对药物治疗(及联合用药) 的原理及如何有效增加疗效有了新的认识。
标本兼治的疗效是通过“药效云”[42, 69]的形成来实现的, 它是指药物在体内发挥效应的药物复杂体系, 其内容包括一系列药物相关的化学物质(药物、药物代谢产物、口服药物刺激肠道菌产生的内源性活性物质等)、中间生物活性分子(如分子靶点、信号通路上的节点分子及大分子复合体等) 和各终端分子间(各种起效的分子如LDLR或复合物) 的对话、协调与互助, 形成综合疗效。在这个药物治疗系统中有两个效应: 一个是药物的背景效应(或叫固本效应, Y轴, 治本), 指改善机体的状态至接近生理的状态(如抑制炎症、改善肠道菌群、保持免疫力等); 另一个是药物的治疗效应(X轴, 治标), 指药物作用于疾病靶分子改善疾病的症状; 而标本兼治则是指这两个效应的复合(图 2)。
从疾病防治的角度来说, 治本更重要, 抑制病因不让疾病再次和不断地发生: 如优化肠道菌可以改善糖脂代谢, 减少代谢性疾病和心脑血管病发生概率; 保护免疫功能则可以减少感染或肿瘤等发生。从疗效上看, 在治标和治本之间存在着相互支撑的作用: 如抑制细胞炎症(或坏死) 将保护细胞线粒体的功能, 保证产生一定量的ATP, 由其提供磷酸根给核苷类药物完成三磷酸化而成为活性形式, 在细胞内发挥抗病毒作用。实际上, 本课题组的研究发现, 抗炎药物苦参素与抗HBV药物拉米夫定联合使用, 在慢性乙肝患者的治疗过程中, 获得了更好的抗HBV效果[70, 71]。反之亦然, 在阿兹夫定的例子中, 阿兹夫定在胸腺产生抗病毒作用后(治标), T细胞免疫功能同时得到保护(治本), 清除机体内的病毒[63]图 2是以小檗碱治疗脂肪肝为例说明其标本兼治的生物学效应; 图中的Y轴为小檗碱对肠道菌的作用, X轴为小檗碱对机体靶标的作用, 来自XY轴方向的生物学作用在肝脏协同, 形成治疗脂肪肝的药效云。本文选择脂肪肝为例是因为它是一种多因素导致的疾病。理论上说, 不同药物或针对不同的病症, 药效云的组成也有所不同。在具体运用中, 如抗炎的药物具有“治本”的作用, 可让细胞部分(或更多地) 恢复到正常生理的状态, 有利于“治标”的药物按其设计原理发挥活性(如抗病毒药或抗癌药物等), 两者联用可能产生更好的疗效[70, 71]。同时, 这种分子药理目标相对清晰的关系也为多靶点药物的设计提供了线索; 作者推测, 一个药物的化学结构中如果既含有针对“标” (如病毒或肿瘤的生物酶) 的药效团, 并处在合适的位置上, 又含有理想的治“本” (抗炎或抗氧化) 的药效团, 就有可能实现标本结合的目的, 达到更好效果。由于同时涉及到多个生物大分子靶点相互作用的分子配对及局部变构调节, AI的深度学习能力(多靶点同时作用) 也许可以提供切实的帮助。
本文从药理学的视角, 针对药物复杂体系的机制, 提出“标本兼治”的药理模式, 涵盖了“药-本-标”3个要素, 希望在传统的单靶点治疗的基础上, 从兼顾“治疗效应”与“固本效应”的角度去研究多靶点药物治疗疾病的生物学原理。一方面, 作者相信在许多疾病的治疗过程中, “标本兼治”的药物可能会带来更令人瞩目的临床效果; 另一方面, “标本兼治”的化学基础和生物学原理可能会丰富目前药理学的内容及药物治疗的内涵, 指导新一代的药物设计与临床药物联用, 并在系统论思想的指导下探索药物治疗的无尽前沿。
作者贡献: 李瑞、郭修平、韩燕星、王璐璐负责文献整理和撰写; 蒋建东负责文稿的统筹和修改。
利益冲突: 作者声明不存在任何利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82151525)
  • 中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程(2022-I2M-JB-012)
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2023年第58卷第2期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1084
  • 接收时间:2022-09-29
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-02-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-09-29
  • 修回日期:2022-11-09
基金
国家自然科学基金资助项目(82151525)
中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程(2022-I2M-JB-012)
作者信息
    1.中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 北京 100050
    2.中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 天然药物活性物质与功能国家重点实验室, 北京 100050

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*蒋建东, Tel: 86-10-63188423, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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