Article(id=1198624305740346366, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1124, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1666627200000, receivedDateStr=2022-10-25, revisedDate=1671638400000, revisedDateStr=2022-12-22, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763703903851, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1676131200000, pubDateStr=2023-02-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763703903851, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763703903851, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763703903851, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198624302414263267, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='2', pageStart='235', pageEnd='468', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763703903058, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763704055811, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198624943157116946, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198624943161311251, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=320, endPage=329, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198624306071695369, articleId=1198624305740346366, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Physiological pharmacokinetic model of children and its application of modeling software, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Developmental changes in children can affect drug disposition and clinical effects. A physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model is a mathematical model that can be used to predict blood drug concentrations in children and gain insight into age-dependent physiological differences in drug disposition impact. Pediatric PBPK (P-PBPK) models have attracted attention over the past decade. With the concerted efforts of academia, pharmaceutical companies, and regulatory agencies, there are more and more examples of pediatric clinical studies using PBPK models. Nevertheless, the number of P-PBPK models and their predictive performance still lag behind adult models. By referring to the literature, we study the process of children adapting to adult absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) parameters and analyze the general principles of P-PBPK model establishment. In addition, we summarize the functions and application examples of commonly used P-PBPK modeling software to provide a basis for the rational application of modeling software.

, correspAuthors=Yun-jie DANG, De-ying CAO, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Xu ZHOU, Yuan-yuan WEI, Tao MA, Yue-zhou TANG, Yun-jie DANG, De-ying CAO), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198624307556479074, articleId=1198624305740346366, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=儿童生理药代动力学模型及其建模软件的应用, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

儿童的发育变化会影响药物的处置和临床效果, 基于生理的药代动力学(physiologically-based pharmacokinetics, PBPK) 模型是一种数学模型, 可用于预测儿童的血药浓度, 并深入了解年龄依赖性生理差异对药物处置的影响。儿童PBPK (pediatric PBPK, P-PBPK) 模型在过去十年中引起了人们的关注, 在学术界、制药公司和监管机构的共同努力下, 现在已经有了越来越多用PBPK模型进行儿童临床研究的例子, 尽管如此, P-PBPK模型的数量及其预测性能仍然落后于成人模型。笔者通过查阅文献, 总结了药物在儿童和成人体内不同的吸收、分布、代谢和排泄(ADME) 过程, 分析了P-PBPK模型建立的一般原则, 总结了常用的P-PBPK建模软件的功能和应用实例, 以期为建模软件在P-PBPK中的合理应用提供依据。

, correspAuthors=党云洁, 曹德英, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*党云洁, Tel: 86-0311-86265591, E-mail: ;
曹德英, E-mail:
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CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol, 2019, 8: 883-893., articleTitle=Quantitative systems pharmacology and physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling with mrgsolve: a hands-on tutorial, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1198702081860272628, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624305740346366, doi=10.1002/jps.10128, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2002, volume=91, issue=null, pageStart=1358, pageEnd=1370, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[78], rfOrder=77, authorNames=null, journalName=J Pharm Sci, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Poulin P, Theil FP. Prediction of pharmacokinetics prior to in vivo studies. II. Generic physiologically based pharmacokinetic models of drug disposition[J]. J Pharm Sci, 2002, 91: 1358-1370., articleTitle=Prediction of pharmacokinetics prior to in vivo studies. II. Generic physiologically based pharmacokinetic models of drug disposition, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1198702081969324537, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624305740346366, doi=10.1002/jps.10005, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2002, volume=91, issue=null, pageStart=129, pageEnd=156, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[79], rfOrder=78, authorNames=null, journalName=J Pharm Sci, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Poulin P, Theil FP. Prediction of pharmacokinetics prior to in vivo studies. 1. Mechanism-based prediction of volume of distribution[J]. J Pharm Sci, 2002, 91: 129-156., articleTitle=Prediction of pharmacokinetics prior to in vivo studies. 1. 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儿童生理药代动力学模型及其建模软件的应用
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周旭 , 魏园园 , 马涛 , 唐跃洲 , 党云洁 * , 曹德英 *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(2): 320-329
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药学学报 | 综述 2023, 58(2): 320-329
儿童生理药代动力学模型及其建模软件的应用
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周旭, 魏园园, 马涛, 唐跃洲, 党云洁* , 曹德英*
作者信息
  • 河北医科大学药学院, 河北 石家庄 050017

通讯作者:

*党云洁, Tel: 86-0311-86265591, E-mail: ;
曹德英, E-mail:
Physiological pharmacokinetic model of children and its application of modeling software
Xu ZHOU, Yuan-yuan WEI, Tao MA, Yue-zhou TANG, Yun-jie DANG* , De-ying CAO*
Affiliations
  • School of Pharmacy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China
出版时间: 2023-02-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1124
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儿童的发育变化会影响药物的处置和临床效果, 基于生理的药代动力学(physiologically-based pharmacokinetics, PBPK) 模型是一种数学模型, 可用于预测儿童的血药浓度, 并深入了解年龄依赖性生理差异对药物处置的影响。儿童PBPK (pediatric PBPK, P-PBPK) 模型在过去十年中引起了人们的关注, 在学术界、制药公司和监管机构的共同努力下, 现在已经有了越来越多用PBPK模型进行儿童临床研究的例子, 尽管如此, P-PBPK模型的数量及其预测性能仍然落后于成人模型。笔者通过查阅文献, 总结了药物在儿童和成人体内不同的吸收、分布、代谢和排泄(ADME) 过程, 分析了P-PBPK模型建立的一般原则, 总结了常用的P-PBPK建模软件的功能和应用实例, 以期为建模软件在P-PBPK中的合理应用提供依据。

药物处置  /  预测  /  基于生理的药代动力学模型  /  儿童生理药代动力学模型  /  建模软件

Developmental changes in children can affect drug disposition and clinical effects. A physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model is a mathematical model that can be used to predict blood drug concentrations in children and gain insight into age-dependent physiological differences in drug disposition impact. Pediatric PBPK (P-PBPK) models have attracted attention over the past decade. With the concerted efforts of academia, pharmaceutical companies, and regulatory agencies, there are more and more examples of pediatric clinical studies using PBPK models. Nevertheless, the number of P-PBPK models and their predictive performance still lag behind adult models. By referring to the literature, we study the process of children adapting to adult absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) parameters and analyze the general principles of P-PBPK model establishment. In addition, we summarize the functions and application examples of commonly used P-PBPK modeling software to provide a basis for the rational application of modeling software.

drug disposition  /  prediction  /  physiology based pharmacokinetic model  /  pediatric physiologic pharmacokinetic model  /  modeling software
周旭, 魏园园, 马涛, 唐跃洲, 党云洁, 曹德英. 儿童生理药代动力学模型及其建模软件的应用. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (2) : 320 -329 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1124
Xu ZHOU, Yuan-yuan WEI, Tao MA, Yue-zhou TANG, Yun-jie DANG, De-ying CAO. Physiological pharmacokinetic model of children and its application of modeling software[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (2) : 320 -329 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1124
根据国际协调会议(ICH) E11指南, 儿科年龄类别定义为新生儿(0~27天)、婴儿(28天~23个月)、儿童(2~11岁) 以及青少年(12~18岁)[1]。儿童的生理结构并不是成人的缩小版, 不同年龄组的儿童与成人之间的差异不仅仅是体重, 还因为生理生化差异导致药物代谢与排泄不同, 这些因素使得很难确定儿童用药的安全、有效剂量[2]。虽然在某些情况下, 异速生长比例法可用于儿科药物剂量的确定, 但药物的处置过程随儿童生长发育往往呈非线性变化[3], 异速生长法无法得出准确结果, 需要更多的机制模型来说明儿童生理、生化发育特征和药物复杂相互作用[4]
在过去的十年中, 基于生理的药代动力学(physiologically-based pharmacokinetics, PBPK) 建模和模拟在基于模型的药物开发范式中变得日益突出[5]。PBPK建模是一种研究药代动力学(pharmacokinetics, PK) 的方法, 可以表征和预测体内药物浓度与时间的关系, 是确定药物治疗效果的基础[6]。PBPK模型基于由脉管系统连接的实际器官[7], 模型涵盖了器官的固有体积和血流以及作为解剖学、生理学和生物化学的函数所定义的ADME过程, 这使得PBPK模型在不同物种和不同发育阶段之间进行的缩放尤为合理。从首次人体实验的早期药物探索[8]到产品说明书中的剂量建议, PBPK建模在药物开发的各个阶段都发挥着重要作用。
通过最大限度地利用现有数据, 建模和模拟研究方法逐渐成为儿童药物研究的基石[9]。根据最近的一项研究, 在2008~2018年间, 提交给美国食品药品监督管理局的PBPK建模药物中15%为儿童药物[10]。近年来最常用的儿童PBPK (pediatric PBPK, P-PBPK) 建模与模拟软件包括Simcyp®、PK-Sim®、GastroPlus®和R。这些软件已用于计算药代动力学参数、求解复杂方程、设计模型、进行统计分析、模拟体内药物过程、预测药物疗效以及开发药物治疗方案等。P-PBPK建模软件的广泛使用促进了儿童药物的临床前研发和临床合理应用, 在儿童患者的药物开发和合理用药等方面发挥着不可或缺的作用。本文分析了儿童ADME过程随生长发育的变化, 总结了P-PBPK模型构建的一般原则, 着重探讨了常用的P-PBPK建模软件的功能和应用, 以期为P-PBPK建模软件的合理应用提供依据。
PBPK模型通过使用生理、生化和解剖特征模拟身体循环系统, 将药物处置所涉及的组织和器官作为一个整体进行连接, 在实际血流速度的控制下, 根据组织/血浆分配系数和药物特性, 在各组织或器官遵循物质平衡原则的基础上, 开发了PK数据处理方法[11]。PBPK思想最早是由Teorell于1937年提出的[12], 他使用了五个隔室, 包括循环系统、肾脏清除和药物池来模拟PK曲线。经过近一个世纪的发展, PBPK模型通过模拟临床药物的PK曲线, 实现药物的PK预测, 从而指导给药方案的制定[5]。近年来, 监管机构对模拟结果的接受大大鼓励了PBPK在制药行业的应用[13]。PBPK模型还被用于研究临床试验中食物对药物暴露的影响; 首次人体实验的临床设计指导[14]; 转运体介导的药物吸收、清除和药物相互作用的预测模型研究[15]; 药代动力学和给药方案的种族差异研究[16]; 肾功能和肝功能受损人群药物开发策略预测设计[17]; 肥胖孕妇的合理的给药方案设计[18]
PBPK模型作为药物开发决策过程中的一种有用工具, 已经获得了监管部门的批准[19, 20]。完整的PBPK模型是描述药物在血液和各种主要组织器官内的ADME过程, 采用一系列数学常微分方程(ordinary differential equation, ODE) 描述各脏器中药物变化速率。它不仅可以预测靶组织的浓度, 还可以从整体上把握药物的ADME过程。此外, 通过合理改变模型中的系统特异性参数, 研究者可以模拟虚拟的肝功能衰竭、肾功能衰竭、老年、儿童等特殊人群, 在保持相同的药物特异性参数值和PBPK模型结构的同时, 预测人体不同特殊生理条件下的PK和药效。
PBPK模型的建立分为四个独立的阶段[21, 22] (图 1): ① 收集模型参数。通常需要药物的理化性质参数以及生物体的生理参数。这些参数可通过体内和体外研究、文献检索、计算机预测或物种类比获得。② 确定模型结构。模型结构基于真实世界的解剖和生理参数, 以及人体和动物体内的药物处置过程。整体模型应包括药物活性作用部位、药物累积部位和药物消除部位。如有必要, 还包括肠肝循环和肠道清除等药物处置过程。③ 搭建模型方程。每个器官隔室内药物变化速率用质量平衡方程表示。将模型简化为一系列可使用计算机软件求解的微分方程, 每个隔室用一个微分方程表示。④ 验证模型结果。PBPK模型可以预测每个器官的药物浓度-时间曲线。通过比较动物实验中每个器官的药物浓度的观测数据和预测结果, 可以确认模型的准确性和实用性。
修改成人PBPK模型是创建P-PBPK模型的常用技术, 然而该方法使用不当时会导致P-PBPK模型的预测误差会增大甚至严重偏离实际情况[23], 因此准确理解成人和儿童ADME进程中的区别非常重要。
口服途径是儿童最常见的给药方法。当口服给药时, 所有随年龄变化的生理特征如胃pH值和排空时间、肠通过时间和肠体积都将影响吸收[24]。新生儿胃中的pH值相对较高(pH > 4), 原因是基础酸生成量低且胃分泌物总量低。然而, 也有证据表明成人和儿童肠道的pH值有时相似[25]。新生儿的高频率喂养会影响胃排空时间[26], 从而对口服药的吸收产生影响。与年龄相关的胆汁功能变化会损害胆汁分解和吸收亲脂性药物的能力, 在新生儿中, 胆汁盐的结合和转运都不成熟, 导致十二指肠吸收不足[5]。药物渗透性通常也被认为是一种年龄依赖性特征, 在两岁时达到成熟[27]。了解这些变化对于P-PBPK模型的建立以及预测结果的准确与否都至关重要。
一旦进入体循环, 药物将分布到器官和组织, 在PBPK模型中通过计算脂肪、骨、脑、肠、心脏、肾、肝、肺、肌肉、胰腺、皮肤、脾脏和胸腺等器官的组织/血浆分配系数(Kp) 来描述其分布情况[19, 20, 28, 29]。当婴儿从新生儿期生长发育时, 会发生两个显著变化: 细胞外水分减少和体脂增加, 这将导致Kp值发生变化。此外药物的脂肪溶解度和对特定组织或器官的亲和力也会影响Kp的值[30, 31]
根据血浆蛋白浓度随年龄特异性变化的相关信息, 可从成人数据中获得儿童药物-血浆蛋白结合比例的估计值。白蛋白和α-1-酸性糖蛋白(AAG) 这两种在人体内负责大部分药物结合的血浆蛋白, 在出生时的浓度低于成人。McNamara等[32]建立了年龄依赖性结合蛋白浓度的定量方程, 可用于计算P-PBPK模型中的未结合部分。根据组织特异性转运体的丰度和某些转运体系统的个体发育, 已经有一些关于转运体介导的药物处置研究[33-35]。新生儿的人血清白蛋白浓度约为成人的75%~80%, 但AAG浓度最初仅为成人值的一半。因此, 与主要与AAG结合的药物相比, 主要与人血清白蛋白结合的药物其PK受年龄的影响较小[32]。值得注意的是, 除了人血清白蛋白水平降低之外, 越来越多的证据表明胆红素和游离脂肪酸可能会改变某些药物在新生儿中的结合程度[36, 37], 这些都是P-PBPK建模中需要考虑的重要因素。
儿童的肝血流量和药物代谢酶水平低于成人, 尽管到一岁时肝血流量接近成人水平[38]。细胞色素P450 (CYP450) 参与半数以上代谢药物的代谢[39], 胎儿肝脏中CYP450的总含量在成人水平的30%至60%之间, 到10岁时, 这种酶接近成人水平[40]。细胞色素P4503A4酶在肝脏中的清除率(CL)、参考浓度和相对表达, 对新生儿的影响大于对较大婴儿或成人的影响, 前者的绝对敏感性系数更大[41]。在一项对伏立康唑在儿童中的口服生物利用度的实验中证实: CYP450第二亚家族中的重要成员CYP2C19在儿童中的含量高于成人, 因此CYP2C19会增加伏立康唑在儿童中的代谢百分比[42]
Badée等[43]整合文献中的数据探索尿苷二磷酸葡萄糖基转移酶(UGT) 亚型随儿童生长发育的变化模式。他们将儿童按年龄分组: 新生儿(出生至 < 1个月)、婴儿(1个月~2岁)、儿童(2~12岁) 和青少年(12~18岁), 计算出不同的年龄组别之间UGT具有活性差异。如果能够将临床数据验证了的UGT个体发育数据整合到P-PBPK模型中, 应该可以提高模型预测儿童UGT代谢的能力。总之, 酶和转运体的个体发育以及疾病的影响对使用P-PBPK技术预测儿童患者的剂量密切相关[44]
肾脏排泄药物的能力由三个过程决定: 肾小球滤过率(GFR)、肾小管分泌(TS) 和重吸收(TR)[45]。这些过程依赖于肾血液和肾血浆流量, 由于心输出量增加和外周血管阻力降低, 肾血液和肾血浆流量随年龄增加[40]。肾小球通透性在婴儿期的前两周迅速升高, 然后逐渐升高, 直至8至12个月大达到成人水平。
对于肾(GFR或TS) 在清除中起重要作用的药物, 为了准确估计儿童的CL, 必须考虑肾功能成熟(GFR或TS) 的影响。有研究[46, 47]儿童GFR的年龄依赖性, 使用了公式1计算药物的GFR在儿童中的清除率(CLGFR, child)[48]:
$ \mathrm{C}{\mathrm{L}}_{\mathrm{G}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{R},\mathrm{c}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}}=\frac{\mathrm{G}\mathrm{F}{\mathrm{R}}_{\mathrm{c}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}}}{\mathrm{G}\mathrm{F}{\mathrm{R}}_{\mathrm{a}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{t}}}\times \frac{{f}_{\mathrm{u},\mathrm{c}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}}}{{f}_{\mathrm{u},\mathrm{a}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{t}}}\times \mathrm{C}{\mathrm{L}}_{\mathrm{G}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{R},\mathrm{a}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{t}} $
其中, CLGFR, child (mL·min-1) 是儿童的化合物特异性清除率, CLGFR, adult (mL·min-1) 是成人的化合物特异性肾清除率, GFRadult是成人的肾小球滤过率(110 mL·min-1), GFRchild是儿童肾小球滤过率(mL·min-1)。fu, childfu, adult分别是儿童和成人的未结合药物分数。
TS能力在生命的前几个月增长, 在大约7个月时达到成人水平[49]。在生命早期阶段, TS的可变性显著高于GFR。为了提高预测的准确性, 可将TS纳入PBPK模型。使用下式计算儿童TS肾清除率(CLTS, child)[48]:
$ \mathrm{C}{\mathrm{L}}_{\mathrm{T}\mathrm{S},\mathrm{c}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}}=\frac{\mathrm{T}{\mathrm{S}}_{\mathrm{c}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}}}{\mathrm{T}{\mathrm{S}}_{\mathrm{a}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{t}}}\times \frac{{f}_{\mathrm{u},\mathrm{c}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}}}{{f}_{\mathrm{u},\mathrm{a}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{t}}}\times \mathrm{C}{\mathrm{L}}_{\mathrm{T}\mathrm{S},\mathrm{a}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{t}} $
其中, CLTS, adult (mL·min-1) 是与儿童TS相关的清除率, CLTS, adult (mL·min-1) 是与成人TS相关的清除率, TSadult是成人TS[47], TSchild是计算出的儿童TS速率(mg·min-1)。根据肾功能损害的程度, 肾功能损害会导致GFR和TS活性降低。根据Ye等[50]的说法, 肾功能损害的儿童中厄他培南的分布增强, 清除率降低, 半衰期延长。
由于尚未对TR的个体发育进行彻底研究, 因此认为在成人中测定的TR分数水平与在儿童中测定的相同。从出生到青春期, 肾小球通透性功能和肾脏TR的发育和成熟是一个渐进和连续的过程, 成熟的关键阶段分别发生在约1年和3年, 肾小管发育可能慢于肾小球发育[51]。当肾小管机制在药物清除中发挥作用时, GFR失调和肾小管功能发育可对药物清除产生多种复杂影响。
在美国食品药品监督管理局提交的监管文件中, 儿童药物开发是PBPK建模的第二大应用, 这表明PBPK建模在儿童药物开发中的重要性日益增加。P-PBPK建模可用于儿童药物开发的多种目的, 包括儿童初始剂量选择[52]、对儿童抗体药物的研究[53]、基于模拟的试验设计[54]、与靶器官毒性的相关性[55]、研究肾排泄药物的PK[56]、PK安全性评估[57]、儿童人群中可能的DDI研究[58], 以及器官功能受损对儿童PK的影响[59]。在成功建立成人PBPK模型的基础上, 开发P-PBPK模型需要一些必要的先决条件[23]。首先, 假设成人和儿童中的清除途径具有可比性。其次, P-PBPK模型的结构与成人模型的结构一致。对于因患者存在动脉导管而出现大动脉分流的早产儿, 可排除这一假设。第三, 个体发育因素以健康个体为基础, 如果是针对某些疾病如营养不良、肾损伤等, 则需要在成人模型中添加对应的疾病相关参数。
要建立P-PBPK模型, 需要在适当理解成人模型优点和缺点的基础上, 考虑成人到儿童解剖学、生理学和生物化学的变化, 并获得合适的儿童ADME参数(如pH值、腔内液体组成、肠液体积、肠表面积和长度、转运时间以及酶/转运体定位和丰度)。然而这些参数中有许多尚未在儿童人群中进行彻底探索。如果参数存在缺失, 在适当的情况下, 可以寻求儿童与成人之间无明显年龄特异性差异的参数进行假设, 但必须在模型描述中明确表达, 必要情况下需进行参数敏感性分析。最终建立的P-PBPK模型可以提供一个框架, 该框架分别包括生理参数(系统特异性参数)、药物特异性参数, 旨在涵盖控制药物处置的复杂过程[60] (图 2)。
PBPK的参数计算和模型开发是一个复杂的数学建模过程, 使用与研究目标契合的计算机软件可以使PBPK的建模研究事半功倍。目前已开发了若干软件在药物的整个发现和开发过程中使用计算机辅助PK研究[2]。本研究团队在PubMed系统中使用关键词“Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling”, “PBPK”, “Pediatrics”, “Paediatrics”, “Newborn”, “Infant”, “Children”和“Adolescents”, 检索从2013年1月1日至2022年6月1日使用P-PBPK进行药物研究相关的文章。经统计发现基于P-PBPK模型进行药物研究主要集中于四款软件: Simcyp®、PK-Sim®、GastroPlus®和R。在检索出的144篇P-PBPK相关的研究型论文中, 有121篇论文使用了这四款软件。Simcyp®和PK-Sim®分别贡献了66和37篇文章, GastroPlus®和R的文章数量一致, 都是9篇。结果表明成本因素并不能决定软件的使用率, 例如Simcyp®和GastroPlus®都是付费软件, 但Simcyp®的使用率呈明显的上升趋势。它在P-PBPK建模中的广泛应用可能是因为儿童建模需要更多关注儿童药物代谢方面的问题, 而Simcyp®的优势就是侧重于对代谢酶的分析。PK-Sim®自2010年开始成为开源软件后, 其使用率并没有明显提高。但对于那些不想为工具付费的用户来说, PK-Sim®值得研究者青睐。Gastroplus®则更侧重于吸收行为的模拟, 复杂的用户界面和高昂的收费可能是导致其使用较低的主要原因。基于R编程语言的开源工具虽然具有显著的建模灵活性和自主性, 但未如其他三款商业软件内置PBPK先验结构与儿童数据参数, 需要研究者自行搭建微分方程, 并进行参数的缩放, 这就要求使用者不仅对药代动力学理论知识详细掌握, 还需具备一定的编程能力, 从而导致其使用率较低。
Verscheijden等[61]通过Simcyp®进行P-PBPK建模, 模拟儿童中的氯喹暴露量, 并提出2019冠状病毒(COVID-19) 的最佳给药方案。在Simcyp®中使用软件预先定义的北欧白种人“Sim-Healthy volunteer”和“Sim-Paediatric”进行人群模拟, 成人数据使用Simcyp®默认的数据库, 无需做任何修改, 女性患者的比例设置为0.5。药物相关的参数也使用Simcyp®数据库中的已有数据。儿童模型中年龄相关的生理参数同样使用Simcyp®数据库中的默认值。儿童受试者随时间变化的相关参数根据Abduljalil等[62]的研究进行了修改。模型建立之后, 使用Zhao等[63] (美国、健康成人、非洲、疟疾感染儿童) 和Karunajeewa等[64] (感染疟疾的美拉尼西亚儿童) 的氯喹血浆浓度与模拟浓度进行比较, 从而验证模型。通过建立P-PBPK模型, 获得了较为可靠的年龄相关的氯喹剂量用于儿童COVID-19疾病治疗, 这些剂量和先前对患有疟疾的儿童患者进行的PK研究相吻合[63, 65, 66]。P-PBPK建模是典型的知识驱动、模型引导的剂量选择范式, 可以作为在缺乏儿童临床试验数据时推荐儿童剂量的科学替代方案。
儿童营养不良是一个全球健康问题, 尤其是在发展中国家[67]。营养素供应不足对身体成分和生理功能的影响可能对药物处置产生影响, 并最终影响这一弱势群体的临床结果[68]。Sjogren等[69]结合健康成人和营养不良成人之间的身体成分差异以及健康成人和健康儿童之间的差异这两个重要信息为营养不良的儿童群体建立一个基于生理的桥梁, 这座桥梁能够根据健康成人的PK数据预测营养不良儿童的药物暴露情况。采用PK-Sim®中的通用全身PBPK模型结构, 包括15个由循环血液系统连接的器官或组织, 并由组织体积、成分和血流定义。每个器官由四个子隔室组成: 血浆、红细胞、细胞外隔室和细胞隔室[70]Kp可根据五种不同的模型计算, PK-Sim® Standard、Rodgers and Rowland、Schmitt、Poulin and Theil和Berezhkovskiy。PK-Sim®中的吸收模型将胃肠道分为12个部分, 由组织体积、转运时间和pH值定义。每个部分由管腔、黏膜组织和非黏膜组织组成。对于口服药物, 每个段的管腔被建模为两个隔室, 代表溶液中的药物和管腔段中可用的液体体积。对于固体口服制剂, 包括一个与溶解药物相连的额外隔室[71]
创建营养不良虚拟儿童人群可以概括为两个连续的步骤(图 3): 第一步, 利用PK-Sim®中的内置人群算法创建一个非营养不良的虚拟儿童人群; 然后, 通过将体重/身高的比例值与总体平均值的偏差超过一个标准差的个体排除在外, 从而降低了这些虚拟种群的生物特征变异性。第二步, 将非营养不良人群转变为营养不良人群。这是通过为P-PBPK模型的系统参数开发一组生理比例参数来实现的, 这些参数代表了由营养不良引起的生理紊乱。通过建立的P-PBPK模型和PSP机制对咖啡因、头孢西丁、环丙沙星、羽扇豆碱、乙胺嘧啶和磺胺多辛这六种药物进行PK预测, 结果证明这种建模策略可以为任何年龄范围的儿童群体创建相对应的营养不良儿童人群。
为确保治疗等效性, 不同生产批次的仿制药或新药产品必须具有与其参考产品相同的吸收率和吸收程度[72]。生物等效性(bioequivalence, BE) 研究被广泛接受, 并在支持仿制药和新药产品的批准和上市方面发挥着至关重要的作用[73, 74]。Miao等[75]使用GastroPlus®软件中的PBPKPlusTM模块和高级隔室吸收转运ACATTM模块, 开发了成人和儿童的基于生理学的药代动力学吸收模型PBPK-AM, 以支持在不同年龄组使用虚拟BE模拟将盐酸奥司他韦产品的溶解空间设置为安全空间。ACATTM模块预测胃肠道口服吸收的速率和程度, PBPKPlusTM模块中建立了一个包含14个组织/器官室的全身PBPK模型来模拟盐酸奥司他韦和羧酸奥司他韦的PK。PBPK-AM结合了药物的物理化学特性(药物的解离常数、粒径和密度、渗透性和溶解度) 和生理因素(首过代谢、胃排空、肠道转运时间和转运) 来预测口服药物吸收, 如图 4所示。儿童PBPK-AM是从成人PBPK-AM外推而来的。虚拟BE分析是使用来自参考产品和具有理论溶出曲线的仿制药的模拟PK曲线作为输入进行的。成人模拟结果表明, 溶出曲线比参考生物批次慢10%的仿制药产品仍然可以保持合理的BE。与之不同的是, 儿童模拟观察到溶出边界需要遵循严格的范围(青少年慢6%, 0~2个月新生儿慢4%) 以维持BE。
R是一种统计计算和图形语言环境[76], 它支持各种统计和图形技术(线性和非线性建模、传统统计测试、时间序列分析、分类、聚类等), 并且非常容易扩展。Mrgsolve是一个开源R包, 结合了R和C++代码实现基于分层、常微分方程模型的模拟[77], 适用于PBPK建模。与其他商用软件类似, Mrgsolve在进行P-PBPK模拟时, 同样先构建一个成人模型, 然后从成人模型外推出儿童模型。在Mrgsolve中, 从成人模型到儿童模型的外推是通过更新参数列表来实现的, 所以Mrgsolve要求成人模型和儿童模型的参数列表必须一致。Mrgsolve的显著的灵活性在于它有一个独立的功能函数来获得任何药物的物理化学性质, 对于不同的药物, 输入药物的物理化学性质(辛醇-水分配系数, 药物的解离常数, 未结合药物分数), 即可根据Poulin和Theil法[78, 79]的方法计算Kp
Elmokadem等[77]介绍了使用Mrgsolve建立伏立康唑的PBPK模型并进行PK预测和验证。为了生成伏立康唑PBPK模型需要创建两个文件: 一个基于ODE的模型规范文件和一个R脚本文件。Mrgsolve使用基于C++的高级语言进行模型规范文件的建立, 模型文件中包括参数([PARAM])、状态变量([INIT], 隔室定义([CMT])、表达药动学过程的常微分方程的[ODE]模块以及输出模块([TABLE]和[CAPTURE])。Mrgsolve中的“参数”可以是任何类型的数据。首先使用Mrgsolve建立并验证了之前开发的伏立康唑PBPK模型, 接着更新参数创建P-PBPK模型, 然后运行模拟并将模型的预测值与观察数据[45]进行对比, 结果显示PBPK模拟的PK数据和观察数据有良好的拟合。
P-PBPK模型有助于预测没有可用数据或数据缺失的儿童PK。虽然目前模型性能在新生儿群体、非CYP酶代谢的药物、药物转运蛋白底物和口服吸收药物等方面的研究都具有一定的挑战性, 但P-PBPK模型能够在学习和校正的循环中不断改进和完善, 在儿童药物研究领域已经取得了快速的进步。商业软件平台可用性的增加有助于在药物开发的不同阶段更广泛地使用PBPK建模作为“学习和验证”工具[80]。目前常用于P-PBPK建模的软件程序包括Simcyp®、PK-Sim®、GastroPlus®和R。这些具有高计算能力和用户友好界面建模软件的发展, 极大推动了P-PBPK模型在儿童药物研究中的应用, 还便于评估儿童的特定生理参数对PK的影响, 及其对所研究药物或化学物质暴露的影响。未来, 在学术界、制药行业和监管机构的共同努力下, P-PBPK模型能够在儿科用药的临床实践中发挥更大作用。
作者贡献: 周旭负责文章的构思、撰写和修改; 魏园园, 马涛和唐跃洲负责数据搜集和整理; 党云洁和曹德英负责文章的指导和审阅。
利益冲突: 所有作者声明本文无任何利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(81973251)
  • 河北省自然科学基金项目(H2020206610)
  • 河北省2022引进留学人员资助项目(C20220345)
  • 河北医科大学2022年大学生创新性实验计划项目(USIP2022225)
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2023年第58卷第2期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1124
  • 接收时间:2022-10-25
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-02-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-10-25
  • 修回日期:2022-12-22
基金
国家自然科学基金项目(81973251)
河北省自然科学基金项目(H2020206610)
河北省2022引进留学人员资助项目(C20220345)
河北医科大学2022年大学生创新性实验计划项目(USIP2022225)
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    河北医科大学药学院, 河北 石家庄 050017

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曹德英, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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