Article(id=1190373731747857080, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1190332325088039709, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0032, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1736438400000, receivedDateStr=2025-01-10, revisedDate=1740326400000, revisedDateStr=2025-02-24, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1761736813722, onlineDateStr=2025-10-29, pubDate=1746979200000, pubDateStr=2025-05-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1761736813722, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-10-29, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1761736813722, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761736813722, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1190332325088039709, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2025', volume='60', issue='5', pageStart='1183', pageEnd='1572', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1761726941606, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761813457266, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1190695198163354009, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1190332325088039709, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1190695198163354010, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1190332325088039709, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1325, endPage=1343, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1190373732066624189, articleId=1190373731747857080, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress on therapeutic targets and drug development for neurodegenerative diseases via modulation of ferroptosis and neuroinflammation, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Neurodegenerative diseases are one of the leading causes of death and disability worldwide, with complex pathogenesis and lacking effective therapeutic drugs. Increasing researches have shown that most neurodegenerative diseases involve abnormalities in iron homeostasis and activation of immune cells in the brain. Iron accumulation in microglia promotes ferroptosis, leading to cellular dysfunction and death. In contrast, inhibiting ferroptosis can alleviate neuroinflammation, protect neurons, and slow disease progression, highlighting the pivotal roles of ferroptosis and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes the roles of ferroptosis and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases, further discusses the related targets regulating these processes, and reviews the therapeutic potential of drugs targeting ferroptosis and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases. This review aims to provide novel targets and therapeutic drugs for the treatment of neurodegenerative disease, offering new strategies for clinical management and improving the symptoms and prognosis of neurodegenerative disease.

, correspAuthors=Ling-lei KONG, Guan-hua DU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2025 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Zhao-wei LI, Ling-lei KONG, Xue-mei QIN, Guan-hua DU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1190373935234515963, articleId=1190373731747857080, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=基于铁死亡与神经炎症调节神经退行性疾病的靶点及药物研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

神经退行性疾病是导致全球致死致残的重要原因之一, 发病机制复杂, 无有效治疗药物。越来越多的研究发现, 神经退行性疾病大都涉及铁稳态的异常以及脑内免疫细胞的激活。小胶质细胞的铁积累可促进铁死亡, 导致细胞功能障碍和死亡; 而抑制铁死亡的发生能缓解神经炎症, 保护神经元, 减缓疾病发展, 提示铁死亡与神经炎症在神经退行性疾病中发挥了关键作用。本文综述了铁死亡与神经炎症在神经退行性疾病中的作用, 进一步讨论了神经退行性疾病中调控铁死亡与神经炎症的相关靶点, 并总结了靶向铁死亡和神经炎症的药物在神经退行性疾病中的治疗潜力。通过本文的综述, 期望为神经退行性疾病的治疗提供新的靶点和治疗药物, 为其临床治疗提供新的思路, 改善神经退行性疾病的症状和预后。

, correspAuthors=孔令雷, 杜冠华, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*孔令雷, Tel: 13426328191, E-mail:
杜冠华, E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《药学学报》编辑部2025, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=sYdH8JOLj3lh3V0Oq4YlQQ==, magXml=4yWVawnis3rD7EJOaSvvjg==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=OIKA/VoEGt80n+pUUc9ODw==, pdfFileSize=2075684, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=TDu0Sa3n1LEqfKjd8tGAlA==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=gH2KpAQjHwIfUwteRo+jLg==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=李朝唯, 孔令雷, 秦雪梅, 杜冠华)}, authors=[Author(id=1190694473312125545, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373731747857080, orderNo=0, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, nameCn=null, orcid=null, stid=null, country=null, authorPic=null, dead=0, email=null, emailSecond=null, emailThird=null, correspondingAuthor=0, authorType=1, ext={EN=AuthorExt(id=1190694473446343278, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373731747857080, authorId=1190694473312125545, language=EN, stringName=Zhao-wei LI, firstName=Zhao-wei, middleName=null, lastName=LI, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=1, 2, address=1. Modern Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
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TF: Transferrin; FPN: Ferroportin; IREB2: Iron response element binding protein 2; TFR1: Transferrin receptor 1; STEAP3: Prostate 6 transmembrane epithelial antigen 3; DMT1: Divalent metal transfer 1; GSH: Glutathione; GPX4: Glutathione peroxidase 4; GSSH: Oxidized glutathione; SLC7A11: Solute carrier family 7 member 11; SLC3A2: Recombinant solute carrier family 3 member 2; PUFA-OH: Hydroxy polyunsaturated fatty acid; PUFA-OOH: Hydroperoxy polyunsaturated fatty acid. Created and reprinted with permission from BioRender.com , figureFileSmall=fRNgeJfcjpM1V8VswWgE+A==, figureFileBig=O7CQfwBKtN7bXwS1l3gTMA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190694480765403822, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373731747857080, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=F6UJnXBVaLwhfCK66sauWQ==, figureFileBig=PW0uszDBttaMJnbiH6E/Jw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190694481008673456, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373731747857080, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= Schematic diagram of the interaction between neuroinflammation and ferroptosis. Nrf2 and NF-<i>κ</i>B intricately regulate each other, thereby affecting the extent of neuroinflammation and ferroptosis. SIRT1 accelerates the dissociation of Nrf2 and Keap1 by upregulating PGC-1<i>α</i>. Subsequently, Nrf2 translocates to organelles and binds to the ARE, orchestrating the transcriptional regulation of various genes. Nrf2 can block NF-<i>κ</i>B activity through multiple pathways, including the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, and the STING/TBK1 pathway. NF-<i>κ</i>B is a key transcription factor in the regulation of inflammation, not only triggering the release of proinflammatory cytokines from the NLRP3 complex, but also inhibiting SIRT1 expression. In addition, SIRT1 inhibits p53 gene expression, indirectly preventing cellular ferroptosis through the GPX4 pathway. By regulating FTH/FPN, Nrf2 controls cellular oxidative stress and unstable iron pools, thereby inhibiting ferroptosis. NF-<i>κ</i>B also stimulates iNOS production, which affects the onset of neuroinflammation and ferroptosis by influencing iron/ROS levels and inflammatory cytokines. HMGB1 affects the onset of ferroptosis by inhibiting GPX4 expression. ARE: Antioxidant response element; FTH: Ferritin heavy chain; HMGB1: High mobility group protein B1; HO-1: Heme oxygenase 1; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; MyD88: Myeloid differentiation factor 88; Nrf2: Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; SIRT1: Silent information regulator 1; STING: Stimulator of interferon gene; TLR4: Toll-like receptor 4; Gys2: Glycogen synthase 2; Glu: Glutamate; Prxs: Peroxiredoxins; NLRP3: NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3; Caspase 1: Cysteine-dependent aspartate-directed protease 1. Created and reprinted with permission from BioRender.com , figureFileSmall=F6UJnXBVaLwhfCK66sauWQ==, figureFileBig=PW0uszDBttaMJnbiH6E/Jw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190694481159668402, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373731747857080, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Target point Mechanism of action Bibliography
STING Up-regulates TBK1; regulates inflammatory signaling pathways such as NF-κB/caspase 1/IL-1β; modulates fatty acid metabolism; decreases intracellular glutathione levels; inhibits GPX4 activity; exacerbates ferroptosis [100, 102-104, 106-109]
HMGB1 Activates transcription factors such as NF-κB; reduces oxidative stress; induces ferredoxin expression; reduces Aβ accumulation; ameliorates neuroinflammation [112-115]
Nrf2 Regulates target genes involved in ferroptosis; improves cognitive deficits; alleviates neuroinflammation; upregulates glutathione production; inhibits ferroptosis [116, 118-122]
STAT3 Regulates neuroinflammation and angiogenesis; modulates iron metabolism genes, such as SLC7A11 and ACSL4; decreases hepcidin expression [124-127]
NLRP3 Increases GPX4 expression; inhibites ferroptosis; improves inflammation [128]
TLR4 Activates inflammatory pathways; reduces ferroptosis proteins SLC7A11 and GPX4 levels; decreases mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 [129, 130]
), ArticleFig(id=1190694481310663348, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373731747857080, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Targets regulating ferroptosis and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases. TBK1: TANK-binding kinase 1; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-κB

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Target point Mechanism of action Bibliography
STING Up-regulates TBK1; regulates inflammatory signaling pathways such as NF-κB/caspase 1/IL-1β; modulates fatty acid metabolism; decreases intracellular glutathione levels; inhibits GPX4 activity; exacerbates ferroptosis [100, 102-104, 106-109]
HMGB1 Activates transcription factors such as NF-κB; reduces oxidative stress; induces ferredoxin expression; reduces Aβ accumulation; ameliorates neuroinflammation [112-115]
Nrf2 Regulates target genes involved in ferroptosis; improves cognitive deficits; alleviates neuroinflammation; upregulates glutathione production; inhibits ferroptosis [116, 118-122]
STAT3 Regulates neuroinflammation and angiogenesis; modulates iron metabolism genes, such as SLC7A11 and ACSL4; decreases hepcidin expression [124-127]
NLRP3 Increases GPX4 expression; inhibites ferroptosis; improves inflammation [128]
TLR4 Activates inflammatory pathways; reduces ferroptosis proteins SLC7A11 and GPX4 levels; decreases mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 [129, 130]
), ArticleFig(id=1190694481570710198, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373731747857080, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Therapeutic agent Categorization Mechanism of action Bibliography
Liproxstatin-1 Inhibitors of iron death Ameliorates lipid peroxidation; reduces inflammation-associated protein COX-2; reduces ferritin GPX4, SLC7A11, and 4-HNE expression; ameliorates iron death; and alleviates neuronal damage [132-134]
Deferoxamine Iron chelator Reduces various inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β; decreases ferroptosis-related proteins FTH and 4-HNE expression; promotes microglial transformation; lowers oxidative stress; regulates iron homeostasis [138-141]
Deferiprone Iron chelator Reduces inflammation; decreases cell proliferation; increases the expression of ferroptosis markers, such as IREB2, TFR1, Acsf2, and HO-1; reduces iron deposition [143, 144]
Edaravone Antioxidant compound Scavenges free radicals; protects glial cells; reduces production of inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6; inhibits accumulation of iron ions; reduces MDA content; inhibits GSH depletion; and reduces neuronal apoptosis [145-147]
Puerarin Flavonoid Reduces expression of inflammatory factors IL-1 and IL-6; inhibits iron overload; reduces neuroinflammation [150]
Baicalein Flavonoid Increases cellular activity; increases GPX4 protein levels; decreases iron death; decreases pro-inflammatory factor expression; inhibits NLRP3/caspase 1/GSDMD inflammatory vesicle pathway; attenuates neuroinflammation [151, 152]
Chaihu saponin B2 Terpenoid Decreases the levels of the anti-inflammatory factor IL-10; improves endoplasmic reticulum stress; regulates the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway; alleviates ferroptosis [153]
Celastrol Terpenoid Reduces cellular activation levels; reduces production of pro-inflammatory factors and neuroinflammation; reduces accumulation of iron ions and ROS production; and attenuates oxidative stress damage [154]
), ArticleFig(id=1190694481675567800, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373731747857080, language=CN, label=Table 2, caption=

Therapeutic drugs targeting ferroptosis and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Therapeutic agent Categorization Mechanism of action Bibliography
Liproxstatin-1 Inhibitors of iron death Ameliorates lipid peroxidation; reduces inflammation-associated protein COX-2; reduces ferritin GPX4, SLC7A11, and 4-HNE expression; ameliorates iron death; and alleviates neuronal damage [132-134]
Deferoxamine Iron chelator Reduces various inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β; decreases ferroptosis-related proteins FTH and 4-HNE expression; promotes microglial transformation; lowers oxidative stress; regulates iron homeostasis [138-141]
Deferiprone Iron chelator Reduces inflammation; decreases cell proliferation; increases the expression of ferroptosis markers, such as IREB2, TFR1, Acsf2, and HO-1; reduces iron deposition [143, 144]
Edaravone Antioxidant compound Scavenges free radicals; protects glial cells; reduces production of inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6; inhibits accumulation of iron ions; reduces MDA content; inhibits GSH depletion; and reduces neuronal apoptosis [145-147]
Puerarin Flavonoid Reduces expression of inflammatory factors IL-1 and IL-6; inhibits iron overload; reduces neuroinflammation [150]
Baicalein Flavonoid Increases cellular activity; increases GPX4 protein levels; decreases iron death; decreases pro-inflammatory factor expression; inhibits NLRP3/caspase 1/GSDMD inflammatory vesicle pathway; attenuates neuroinflammation [151, 152]
Chaihu saponin B2 Terpenoid Decreases the levels of the anti-inflammatory factor IL-10; improves endoplasmic reticulum stress; regulates the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway; alleviates ferroptosis [153]
Celastrol Terpenoid Reduces cellular activation levels; reduces production of pro-inflammatory factors and neuroinflammation; reduces accumulation of iron ions and ROS production; and attenuates oxidative stress damage [154]
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基于铁死亡与神经炎症调节神经退行性疾病的靶点及药物研究进展
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李朝唯 1, 2 , 孔令雷 2, * , 秦雪梅 1 , 杜冠华 2, *
药学学报 | 综述 2025,60(5): 1325-1343
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药学学报 | 综述 2025, 60(5): 1325-1343
基于铁死亡与神经炎症调节神经退行性疾病的靶点及药物研究进展
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李朝唯1, 2, 孔令雷2, * , 秦雪梅1, 杜冠华2, *
作者信息
  • 1.山西大学中医药现代研究中心, 山西 太原 030006
  • 2.中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 脑血管病新药发现及晶型研究北京市重点实验室, 北京 100050

通讯作者:

*孔令雷, Tel: 13426328191, E-mail:
杜冠华, E-mail:
Research progress on therapeutic targets and drug development for neurodegenerative diseases via modulation of ferroptosis and neuroinflammation
Zhao-wei LI1, 2, Ling-lei KONG2, * , Xue-mei QIN1, Guan-hua DU2, *
Affiliations
  • 1. Modern Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
  • 2. Beijing Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Discovery and Polymorphic Druggability Research for Cerebrovascular Diseases, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2025-05-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0032
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神经退行性疾病是导致全球致死致残的重要原因之一, 发病机制复杂, 无有效治疗药物。越来越多的研究发现, 神经退行性疾病大都涉及铁稳态的异常以及脑内免疫细胞的激活。小胶质细胞的铁积累可促进铁死亡, 导致细胞功能障碍和死亡; 而抑制铁死亡的发生能缓解神经炎症, 保护神经元, 减缓疾病发展, 提示铁死亡与神经炎症在神经退行性疾病中发挥了关键作用。本文综述了铁死亡与神经炎症在神经退行性疾病中的作用, 进一步讨论了神经退行性疾病中调控铁死亡与神经炎症的相关靶点, 并总结了靶向铁死亡和神经炎症的药物在神经退行性疾病中的治疗潜力。通过本文的综述, 期望为神经退行性疾病的治疗提供新的靶点和治疗药物, 为其临床治疗提供新的思路, 改善神经退行性疾病的症状和预后。

神经退行性疾病  /  神经炎症  /  铁死亡  /  炎症因子  /  靶点  /  药物

Neurodegenerative diseases are one of the leading causes of death and disability worldwide, with complex pathogenesis and lacking effective therapeutic drugs. Increasing researches have shown that most neurodegenerative diseases involve abnormalities in iron homeostasis and activation of immune cells in the brain. Iron accumulation in microglia promotes ferroptosis, leading to cellular dysfunction and death. In contrast, inhibiting ferroptosis can alleviate neuroinflammation, protect neurons, and slow disease progression, highlighting the pivotal roles of ferroptosis and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes the roles of ferroptosis and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases, further discusses the related targets regulating these processes, and reviews the therapeutic potential of drugs targeting ferroptosis and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases. This review aims to provide novel targets and therapeutic drugs for the treatment of neurodegenerative disease, offering new strategies for clinical management and improving the symptoms and prognosis of neurodegenerative disease.

neurodegenerative disease  /  neuroinflammation  /  ferroptosis  /  inflammatory factor  /  target  /  drug
李朝唯, 孔令雷, 秦雪梅, 杜冠华. 基于铁死亡与神经炎症调节神经退行性疾病的靶点及药物研究进展. 药学学报, 2025 , 60 (5) : 1325 -1343 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0032
Zhao-wei LI, Ling-lei KONG, Xue-mei QIN, Guan-hua DU. Research progress on therapeutic targets and drug development for neurodegenerative diseases via modulation of ferroptosis and neuroinflammation[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2025 , 60 (5) : 1325 -1343 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0032
神经退行性疾病(neurodegenerative diseases) 是中枢或周围神经系统神经元功能逐渐丧失的疾病, 导致躯体和认知障碍, 影响全球超过15%的人口, 已成为全球致死致残的主要原因[1]。常见症状包括运动障碍、记忆力减退和思维迟缓等, 严重影响生活并可能引发社交和心理问题[2]。阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease, AD)、帕金森病(Parkinson's disease, PD)、亨廷顿病(Huntington's disease, HD)、多发性硬化症(multiple sclerosis, MS) 和肌萎缩侧索硬化症(amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ALS) 等疾病均属于神经退行性疾病[3]。过去30年中, 患者人数急剧增加, 预计未来20年患病率将至少翻倍[4]
神经退行性疾病的发病与遗传、环境[5]和生活方式[6]等因素密切相关。遗传因素如AD与APOE基因的变异密切相关, PD与GRN基因的变异有关[7]。HD是由HTT基因中延长的三核苷酸CAG重复引起[8]。同时, 环境因素如暴露于有毒物质和营养不良也可能损害神经元[9]。此外, 不良生活方式如缺乏运动、吸烟和过度饮酒也会增加患病风险[10]。不同神经退行性疾病的发病机制各异: AD与β-淀粉样蛋白和Tau蛋白异常聚集有关[11]; PD涉及多巴胺神经元丧失和路易体形成[12]; HD则与特定基因的突变有关, 导致神经细胞逐渐退化和死亡[13]; ALS涉及运动神经元的退化和死亡, 导致肌肉萎缩和运动功能障碍[14]。此外, 氧化应激、线粒体功能障碍、金属离子稳态紊乱和神经炎症等病理机制也共同推动了疾病进展[15]。这些因素相互作用, 共同推动了神经退行性疾病的病理进程。
神经炎症是中枢神经系统对多种病理损伤的反应, 可导致神经元损伤和功能障碍, 被认为是神经退行性疾病发生和发展的促进因素[16]。在神经炎症发生的过程中, 中枢神经系统内的免疫细胞, 如小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞, 会被激活并释放一系列炎症介质, 包括炎性细胞因子、趋化因子、活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 和氮自由基等, 这些活性物质能够直接损伤细胞膜、蛋白质和DNA, 导致神经元和神经胶质细胞的功能障碍和死亡, 从而进一步加剧炎症反应[17]。近年来的研究发现, 不同神经退行性疾病中的神经炎症都与铁死亡存在密切联系。
铁死亡是一种细胞死亡方式, 与铁离子代谢、氧化还原平衡等有关, 可能参与多种疾病的发病过程。小胶质细胞的铁积累可以促进细胞铁死亡的过程, 导致小胶质细胞血红素加氧酶-1 (heme oxygenase-1, HO-1) 过表达, ROS的含量增加, 并降低谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4 (glutathione peroxidase 4, GPX4) 的表达。通过预防铁死亡的发生能够有效地缓解神经系统的炎症反应, 阻碍神经炎症的发展, 进而保护神经元, 减缓AD、PD等神经退行性疾病的发展。因此, 深入研究铁死亡与神经炎症对神经退行性疾病的作用, 有望为这些疾病的治疗提供新的思路和方法。
本文综述了铁死亡与神经炎症在神经退行性疾病中的作用, 进一步讨论了调控铁死亡与神经炎症的靶点对神经退行性疾病的影响, 并总结了靶向铁死亡和神经炎症的药物在神经退行性疾病中的治疗潜力。
神经炎症与铁死亡之间的关联极为复杂。在铁死亡过程中, 脂质过氧化物的产生以及受损细胞膜释放的损伤相关分子模式(damage-associated molecular patterns, DAMPs) 在免疫细胞激活中起着至关重要的作用。这种激活进一步加剧了炎症反应。神经胶质细胞是触发神经炎症中铁积累的关键因素, 它们在大脑铁代谢中扮演着至关重要的角色; 小胶质细胞的激活导致多种炎症介质的释放, 从而进一步加剧了脑组织的损伤。铁离子的积累加剧了氧化应激, 导致脂质过氧化物和ROS的显著增加。这些氧化产物不仅直接损伤细胞成分, 还会通过多种途径触发和加剧炎症反应, 进而对脑组织造成进一步的损害。因此, 铁死亡与神经炎症之间的联系是多层面的, 涉及细胞内铁稳态的调节、脂质过氧化、ROS的产生及炎症介质的释放等多个方面。
神经炎症是指中枢神经系统在遭受创伤、感染、缺血、神经变性及自身免疫反应等多种病理损伤后所引发的一种局部炎症反应[18]。它对中枢神经系统的结构和功能造成严重影响, 可能导致神经元和神经胶质细胞的损伤、死亡以及神经功能的障碍[19]。在疾病的初始阶段, 中枢神经系统中的急性炎症反应在一定程度上起到了保护作用, 通过清除病原体、死亡细胞和异常蛋白, 促进组织修复, 限制了损伤的严重程度并促进了神经元的修复。然而, 如果急性炎症没有得到充分消退, 就会演变为慢性炎症。
在慢性炎症环境中, 神经胶质细胞往往会加剧神经元的氧化应激反应, 这种状态会导致神经元膜磷脂的过氧化、蛋白质氧化和DNA损伤, 从而进一步加剧神经元的死亡和退化[20]。此外, 促炎因子[如肿瘤坏死因子α (TNF-α)] 会诱导神经元凋亡, 释放更多DAMPs, 使小胶质细胞持续激活, 形成“炎症-损伤-炎症”的恶性循环, 并且炎症因子的长期释放会影响突触功能并破坏血脑屏障(blood-brain barrier, BBB)[21]。慢性炎症还可能导致免疫耐受的丧失, 使免疫系统对自身ROS组织发起攻击, 加重神经退行性病变[22]。虽然神经炎症在神经系统疾病的初始阶段可能不是必需的, 但持续的炎症反应无疑会加剧疾病的恶化。因此, 寻找有效的方法调控神经炎症, 尤其是在慢性阶段, 对于预防和治疗神经退行性疾病具有重要意义。
在神经炎症过程中, 中枢神经系统内的免疫细胞, 如小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞, 会被激活并释放炎症介质。这些炎症介质包括炎性细胞因子、趋化因子、活性氧和氮自由基等, 会导致神经元和神经胶质细胞的损伤, 进一步加剧炎症反应[23]。同时, 炎症反应还可能引发神经元的凋亡和坏死, 导致神经功能的损害。
小胶质细胞作为中枢神经系统内固有的免疫细胞, 能够被激活并分化为具有促炎作用的M1型或具有抗炎作用的M2型[24]。在神经炎症的初始阶段, 小胶质细胞受到创伤性刺激会迅速被激活并产生一系列促炎细胞因子, 如TNF-α和白细胞介素-1 (IL-1) 等[25]。这些促炎细胞因子不仅加剧了神经元的损伤, 还引发了更为广泛的炎症级联反应, 导致血管内皮细胞的功能障碍, 从而破坏了BBB的完整性和稳定性[26]。在颅内发生炎症、感染或者其他神经系统疾病时, 小胶质细胞会被激活并通过吞噬细胞碎片和中性粒细胞等调节炎症反应[27]。在PD患者的脑脊液和黑质纹状体DA区中, TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6等细胞因子水平显著升高, 在动物模型中, 1-甲基-4-苯基-1, 2, 3, 6-四氢吡啶(1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine, MPTP) 诱导的PD小鼠纹状体中IL-lβ水平升高, 这表明小胶质细胞激活的炎症细胞因子在PD病理进程中起重要作用[28]。小胶质细胞的激活可能在AD进展的早期阶段发挥着重要的保护作用。研究表明, 小胶质细胞在应对脑内异常蛋白质沉积和神经元损伤时, 会迅速响应并启动免疫反应。这种免疫反应包括吞噬和清除病理性蛋白质, 如Aβ和Tau蛋白, 从而在一定程度上减缓疾病的进展。随着AD病程发展, 持续的小胶质细胞激活会促进M2到M1的表型转变, 分泌促炎分子, 导致过度的炎症反应, 对脑组织造成损伤, 加速AD的恶化[29]
星形胶质细胞是中枢神经系统中的第二大类神经胶质细胞, 它们在维持脑稳态和保护神经元方面扮演着关键角色[30]。星形胶质细胞具有独特的星形形态, 它们的突起能够覆盖并包裹神经元, 形成一道保护屏障, 调节神经元之间的突触传递, 通过释放和摄取神经递质影响突触的强度和可塑性[31]。星形胶质细胞与小胶质细胞一样可以分化为不同的亚型, 包括促炎A1和抗炎A2型两种表型。A1星形胶质细胞在某些病理条件下(如炎症) 会释放出具有细胞毒性的化学物质(如补体蛋白C3、NO和TNF-α), 这些物质会对神经元和少突胶质细胞产生影响, 导致其死亡, 进一步加剧炎症反应和神经细胞损伤。而A2星形胶质细胞通过释放多种生长因子和抗炎物质, 如神经营养因子、脑源性神经营养因子和IL-10等, 以促进神经元的修复和再生。同时, 它们还能够吞噬死亡的神经元碎片, 防止炎症扩散, 从而保护神经元免受进一步损伤[32]。因此, 星形胶质细胞在神经系统中的作用是双面的, 既可以产生有害的化学物质, 也可以通过分泌神经营养因子发挥积极的保护作用。在MCAO大鼠模型中皮下注射棉麻籽油发现, 棉麻籽油治疗显著降低小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞活化, 减少IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α的释放, 并确定核因子κB (nuclear factor kappa-B, NF-κB) 是介导A1型星形胶质细胞活化的关键分子。这表明棉麻籽油通过抑制NF-κB介导的A1星形胶质细胞活化, 减轻了缺血性脑卒中损伤诱导的神经元损伤[33]。星形胶质细胞也有助于大脑中的Aβ聚集, 进而对阿尔茨海默病的发生和发展起到一定的调节作用, 其还可以通过介导谷氨酸的兴奋性毒性和钙离子稳态促进PD的发生[34]
外周免疫细胞包括巨噬细胞、淋巴细胞、中性粒细胞、嗜酸性粒细胞等, 具有不同的形态和功能, 形成一个相互协作的免疫系统, 在机体免疫反应中发挥重要作用[35]。这些免疫细胞能够穿过血管壁进入组织并参与免疫防御和炎症反应, 在某些病理条件下也能够进入中枢神经系统发挥其功能。这些外周免疫细胞浸润到中枢神经系统会进一步加剧已经发生的神经炎症反应, 从而在一定程度上放大炎症的影响[36]
在人体的免疫系统中, 淋巴细胞能够识别各种病毒、细菌以及其他病原体。它们通过特定的受体与病原体表面的抗原进行特异性结合, 从而实现对病原体的精确识别[37]。T淋巴细胞可促进炎症反应, 在多种炎症和自身免疫性疾病中发挥重要作用。研究人员通过腹膜内注射MPTP构建PD模型, 在PD小鼠脑组织中发现了T细胞浸润, 抑制CD4+ T细胞或CD8+ T细胞的浸润可减少促炎因子的产生, 改善疾病状态[38]。MS也受到促炎T淋巴细胞驱动, 固有淋巴细胞3型(innate lymphoid cells type 3, ILC3s) 源自血液循环, 它们在中枢神经系统中紧邻浸润的T细胞, 充当抗原呈递细胞的角色, 它们能够重新激活针对髓鞘的特异性T细胞。Ibiza等[39]观察到相对于转基因Rorc-eGFP小鼠, MS小鼠模型的中枢神经系统、硬脑膜和颈部淋巴结中ILC3s的数量显著增加。通过分泌各种细胞因子和化学信号, 淋巴细胞还能够引导其他免疫细胞如巨噬细胞、中性粒细胞等, 对识别出的病原体发起有效的攻击。这种协调机制确保了免疫反应的高效性和针对性, 保护机体免受感染和疾病的侵害。
中性粒细胞是先天免疫的第一道防线。在急性缺血性卒中的情况下, 中性粒细胞参与中枢神经系统和外周组织的炎症反应。这些细胞通过释放各种炎症介质和酶, 帮助清除受损组织和病原体[40]。促炎细胞因子的释放、活性氮的产生以及中性粒细胞胞外陷阱(neutrophil extracellular traps, NETs) 的释放会加剧缺血后中性粒细胞浸润和神经元损伤[41]。在AD模型小鼠上观察到中性粒细胞迁移到大脑中并产生NETs和IL-17, 引起异常的Aβ、Tau蛋白积累和小胶质细胞激活, 表明中性粒细胞可能导致慢性BBB损伤和炎症, 中性粒细胞耗竭可改善记忆并减轻病理损伤[42]。此外, 中性粒细胞与淋巴细胞比值(NLR) 是反映外周炎症的重要指标[43]。通过将中性粒细胞计数除以全血细胞计数中的淋巴细胞数量计算, 其变化常常与炎症的发生、进展及严重程度密切相关。Kara等[44]在100名PD患者中发现, 与健康对照组相比, PD患者的外周NLR水平升高, 而中性粒细胞计数则随着病程延长而逐渐降低。
嗜酸性粒细胞在过敏炎症部位积累, 释放多种介质(如主要碱性蛋白、半胱氨酰白三烯、自由基氧和细胞因子), 在疾病发病机制中具有重要作用[45]。C-C基序趋化因子配体11 (C-C motif chemokine ligand 11, CCL11) 是嗜酸性粒细胞趋化因子家族的一员, 是嗜酸性粒细胞的趋化剂[46], 在中枢神经系统中发挥重要作用。在MS等神经炎症性疾病中均能观察到CCL11的表达升高[47]。此外, 在MPTP诱导的PD动物模型中发现其黑质部位和血清中CCL11的表达降低, 注射针对活化调节正常T细胞表达与分泌因子和嗜酸性粒趋化因子的功能性阻断抗体的混合物减少了CD4+和CD8+ T细胞浸润到黑质中并减弱该部位促炎分子的表达[48]。嗜酸性粒细胞是早期IL-4的主要来源, 在神经再生过程中扮演了重要的角色, 直接促进了神经元的再生与修复。这一发现进一步证实了嗜酸性粒细胞能够根据组织和病理环境的变化, 积极促进神经元损伤的修复, 并有效缓解炎症反应[49]
因此, 在中枢神经系统疾病中, 脑内免疫细胞和外周免疫细胞共同参与了神经炎症的病理过程, 靶向脑内免疫细胞和外周免疫细胞相互作用可能是治疗神经炎症的新策略。
2012年, Dixon等[50]首次发现了一种新型的调节性细胞死亡的方式并命名为铁死亡, 这一发现为生物学领域带来了全新的视角和思考。铁死亡是一种非凋亡形式的细胞死亡, 在细胞形态学、遗传学和生物化学方面与众所周知的细胞死亡形式有很大不同。它的特点在于, 细胞在铁死亡过程中会积累大量的铁离子, 导致细胞内ROS的产生增加, 进而引发细胞死亡[51]。铁死亡是一个复杂的生物学过程, 与多种因素紧密相关, 包括铁离子代谢、氧化还原平衡及细胞膜的通透性等。铁死亡是细胞对抗外界压力和损伤的一种自我保护机制。在某些情况下, 当细胞受到无法逆转的损伤时, 通过触发铁死亡可以迅速清除受损细胞, 防止其对周围组织的进一步侵害。铁死亡参与多种疾病的发病过程, 在一些神经退行性疾病中, 铁死亡的发生可能导致神经元细胞的死亡和神经功能的障碍。因此, 深入研究铁死亡的机制将有助于理解相关疾病的发病机制, 为疾病的治疗提供新的思路和方法。
谷胱甘肽(glutathione, GSH) 是一种由半胱氨酸、谷氨酸和甘氨酸组成的三肽, 它在细胞内的浓度对于细胞的氧化还原状态具有重要的调控作用。在GSH的合成过程中, 半胱氨酸和谷氨酸的跨细胞膜转运是关键的一步。这一过程依赖于名为system Xc-的抗氧化系统, 该系统由SLC7A11 (xCT) 和SLC3A2两个亚基组成[52]。这两个亚基协同工作, 确保半胱氨酸和谷氨酸能够顺利地进入细胞, 为GSH的合成提供充足的原材料。因此, system Xc-调节GSH的合成, 保护细胞免受氧化损伤。这也意味着, system Xc-对维持细胞内GSH水平和细胞外胱氨酸/半胱氨酸的氧化还原平衡具有至关重要的作用[53]。多数HD患者存在GSH缺失、脂质过氧化和ROS水平升高, 而GSH的缺失会导致铁死亡。研究表明, 在3-硝基丙酸诱导的HD模型大鼠的皮质、纹状体以及海马区域内的GSH水平显著下降, 给予四甲基吡嗪后能减少病变面积并恢复GSH水平, 减轻氧化应激反应[54]。GPX4则是另一个不可或缺的因子, GPX4也被称为磷脂过氧化氢, 是一种硒依赖的酶, 也是介导细胞铁死亡的关键靶点[55]。GPX4的活性直接影响到细胞对过氧化物的清除能力, 对于维护细胞的氧化还原平衡具有重要意义。P8快速老化小鼠(SAMP8) 模型是AD的主要模型之一, 在SAMP8小鼠大脑中观察到细胞内ROS和铁死亡相关蛋白的异常, 银杏内酯B通过上调Nrf2和GPX4表达明显逆转了这些变化, 这表明Nrf2/GPX4通路在调节铁死亡过程中起到了重要作用。银杏内酯B治疗增强了SAMP8小鼠的空间学习和记忆能力, 说明其通过激活Nrf2/GPX4通路参与了对AD小鼠模型的保护作用[56]
多不饱和脂肪酸是人体必需的脂肪酸, 具有多种生理功能, 如调节免疫系统、新陈代谢、排泄等[57]。在细胞内, 膜脂质过氧化物是细胞膜上的多不饱和脂肪酸在受到氧化应激时产生的。在某些病理条件下, 如氧化应激、铁离子过载等, 细胞内脂质过氧化反应失衡, 会导致脂质过氧化物的过度累积。这些脂质过氧化物不仅可以直接损伤细胞膜, 导致细胞结构的破坏, 还会进一步生成醛类副产物, 如丙二醛(malondialdehyde, MDA) 和4-羟基壬烯醛(4-hydroxynonenal, 4-HNE), 引起细胞死亡[58]。铁死亡的特点是细胞膜上的磷脂发生氧化损伤, 导致细胞膜的通透性增加, 最终引发细胞死亡。在这一过程中, 膜脂质过氧化物的积累起着至关重要的作用。大量研究显示, 膜脂质过氧化物的产生和清除之间的不平衡是导致铁死亡的关键因素之一[59]。在AAP/PS1双转基因AD小鼠模型中给予四羟基二苯乙烯糖苷发现, 四羟基二苯乙烯糖苷通过抑制氧化应激和脂质过氧化途径, 可以改善AD的症状。它不仅上调了GPX4和超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase, SOD), 还上调了铁蛋白重链1 (ferritin heavy chain 1, FTH1) 和溶质载体家族7成员11 (solute carrier family 7 member 11, SLC7A11), 这表明四羟基二苯乙烯糖苷能够通过SLC7A11/GPX4等通路发挥抗脂质过氧化和抗铁死亡的作用[60]。另有研究表明, 铁死亡脂质过氧化参与了PD细胞的损伤, 通过影响Keap1/Nrf2/GPX4信号通路的活化, 降低脂质过氧化水平, 从而增强多巴胺能神经元抗铁死亡的能力[61]
铁是人体重要的微量元素之一, 广泛参与体内各种生物化学反应。铁是构成血红蛋白和肌红蛋白的主要成分, 正常情况下, 血浆中的铁元素几乎都与转铁蛋白结合, 这种结合形式能够有效地防止铁元素在体内自由扩散, 避免对组织造成氧化损伤[62]。然而, 当铁代谢出现失衡, 多余的铁元素在体内积累, 就会引发铁死亡。铁响应元件结合蛋白2 (iron response element binding protein 2, IREB2) 是一种关键的铁代谢调控因子, 它在铁死亡的过程中起重要作用。IREB2能够促进铁代谢过程中细胞质内铁蛋白轻链和重链的表达水平, 这种促进作用有助于细胞更好地应对铁代谢失衡, 从而在一定程度上保护细胞免受铁死亡的威胁[63]。研究发现, IREB2基因突变的患者会表现出脑瘫和额叶萎缩等神经系统问题, 而IREB2缺失的小鼠存在显著的运动缺陷, 提示IREB2的缺失可能会诱导小鼠发展成运动功能障碍和认知障碍为特征的神经退行性疾病[64]。另一方面, Nrf2是一种重要的抗氧化转录因子, 在调节细胞内铁平衡发挥关键作用。Nrf2能够降低铁转运蛋白受体1 (transferrin receptor 1, TFR1) 的表达, 从而减少细胞对铁的吸收, 调节铁代谢并维持细胞内的铁稳态。由于铁离子在催化ROS生成方面起着至关重要的作用, Nrf2对TFR1的调控有助于限制ROS的产生, 减少铁死亡的发生概率, 从而在细胞抗氧化防御机制中发挥重要的保护作用[65]。铁代谢在细胞内是一个复杂而精细的过程, 涉及铁的摄取、存储和利用等多个环节[66]。这些环节相互关联, 共同维持着细胞内的铁平衡。一旦铁代谢的任何一个环节出现问题, 都可能导致铁死亡的发生与发展。
铁死亡的发生与氨基酸代谢、铁代谢及脂质代谢等多个过程密切相关, 这些过程之间相互促进, 共同影响着细胞的命运(图 1)。因此, 深入理解这些代谢途径在铁死亡中的作用, 对于开发新的治疗策略具有重要的意义。
铁死亡和神经炎症常常同时发生, 并且在中枢神经系统疾病的发展中扮演着至关重要的角色。铁死亡是由铁离子催化和ROS诱导的脂质过氧化引起的调节性细胞坏死, 而神经炎症则是由炎症反应引起的脑内环境变化[67]。铁死亡不仅与氧化应激有关, 还与炎症反应紧密相连。铁代谢的失调会导致细胞内铁离子浓度的异常升高, 进而引发脂质过氧化反应, 这是铁死亡的关键特征之一。同时, 脂质过氧化产物又可以激活免疫细胞, 促进炎症因子的释放, 加剧神经炎症[68]
铁死亡对神经炎症的调节机制复杂, 涉及多个方面的作用。有研究表明, 神经炎症可能是由小胶质细胞中的铁死亡所触发的。当细胞内的铁离子积累过多, 会导致氧化应激反应增强, 进而引发小胶质细胞损伤和死亡。在Sanfilippo综合征(一种小儿神经退行性疾病) 中发现, 将星形胶质细胞与Sanfilippo患者尿液中的硫酸乙酰肝素寡糖共培养发现, 硫酸乙酰肝素寡糖的积累可诱导小胶质细胞中铁调素和二价金属离子转运蛋白1 (divalent metal transporter 1, DMT1) 上调以及铁转运蛋白(ferroportin 1, FPN1) 下调, 并且直接参与Toll样受体4 (Toll-like receptor 4, TLR4) 和NF-κB通路的激活, 这会导致铁与释放的炎症因子一起积累, 引起神经炎症[69]。用柠檬酸铁铵处理小胶质细胞, 以诱导细胞内的铁过载现象。随后用脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS) 的处理发现, 在这种双重刺激下, 小胶质细胞被激活, IL-1β与TNF-α表达显著升高, 表明细胞铁稳态影响活化的小胶质细胞中IL-1β和TNF-α的分泌[70]。Urrutia等[71]研究了炎症细胞因子TNF-α和IL-6以及LPS对大鼠脑细胞中铁含量及铁转运蛋白DMT1和FPN1表达的影响。炎症刺激会提升DMT1的表达, 并诱导星形胶质细胞和小胶质细胞中铁调素的表达, 但神经元中无此现象。铁调素与细胞共孵育会降低FPN1的表达, 导致神经元和小胶质细胞中铁积累增加。研究首次建立了炎症与脑细胞中铁积累之间的因果关系, 可能通过铁调素介导的DMT1和FPN1表达变化。在LPS诱导的BV2细胞凋亡的体外模型中, 补充烟酰胺单核苷酸(nicotinamide mononucleotide, NMN) 可以激活GPX4, 减少BV2细胞中的铁死亡和促炎细胞因子的产生, 将铁死亡抑制剂与NMN联合使用在减少促炎细胞因子和铁死亡方面表现出更显著的效果。NMN给药调节GSH生物合成, 以GPX4依赖性方式抑制脂质ROS的积累, 并抑制海马神经炎症, 说明铁死亡促进神经炎症, 抑制铁死亡能够改善神经炎症[72]
因此, 铁死亡在神经炎症中起到了关键的触发作用。脑组织受损后, 小胶质细胞可能通过吞噬和清除受损神经细胞和其他细胞碎片, 吸收大量的铁离子。这种铁积累会导致小胶质细胞内部的铁平衡失调, 进而引发铁死亡。因此, 小胶质细胞的铁死亡介导了神经炎症发生[73]。铁死亡通过介导神经炎症促进了神经退行性疾病的进展, 理解铁死亡对神经炎症中的调控机制, 对于开发新的神经退行性疾病治疗策略具有重要意义。
AD是一种常见的原发性神经退行性疾病, 65岁及以上的老年人群是AD的高发群体。其病理机制与Aβ-淀粉样蛋白聚集和Tau蛋白的过度磷酸化有关[74]。随着全球人口老龄化趋势的不断加剧, AD已经成为当今社会中最昂贵和高负担的疾病之一。
铁死亡和神经炎症是AD的重要机制。在AD患者的海马体和皮层等脑区检测到铁的异常积累以及铁蛋白ferritin水平的下降。AD患者大脑中的铁含量过高, 并且铁含量与AD的病程进展及认知功能的衰退呈正相关。因此, AD的发生与铁死亡之间存在密切联系。大量研究均证实了铁死亡在AD发病机制中的重要作用, 并通过调节炎症改善疾病发展进程。在铁调素介导大脑抗炎反应的假设下, 研究人员发现用铁调素预处理可减少Aβ处理的星形胶质细胞和小胶质细胞中TNF-α和IL-6的表达和分泌。使用立体脑定位技术在C57雄性小鼠右侧脑室首先注射2 µL PBS, 2 h后再次注射2 µL Aβ1-42或Aβ42-1 (l g·µL-1), 发现铁调素可减少小鼠Aβ注射引起的神经胶质细胞活化和氧化损伤[75]。连翘脂苷A能够激活APP/PS1小鼠模型中的多巴胺能信号通路, 从而抑制小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞的激活, 减少促炎介质的分泌, 降低神经炎症。进一步发现连翘脂苷A激活Nrf2信号通路, 增加HO-1和GPX4的表达, 这提示其对AD小鼠模型的治疗作用与抑制神经炎症和铁死亡有关[76]。Chen的研究发现[77], 尿石素B能够保护AD患者脑内脂滴型小胶质细胞介导的神经元铁死亡。在动物实验中, 使用不同剂量的尿石素B对4月龄的APP/PS1/Tau转基因AD小鼠进行治疗, 发现脂滴型小胶质细胞释放的炎性因子(CCL3、TNF-α) 均得到显著回调, 尿石素B通过下调PI3K/Akt与p38 MAPK信号通路可以抑制AD小鼠脑内脂滴型小胶质细胞的活化, 进而缓解了脂滴型小胶质细胞介导的神经元铁死亡。因此, 干预铁死亡的发生能够阻碍神经炎症的发展, 并且为阿尔茨海默病等神经退行性疾病的治疗提供新的研究方法和手段。
PD是全球第二大常见神经退行性疾病, 随着社会老龄化进程加快, PD发病率逐年攀升[78]。PD是一种可以通过其独特的临床表现和病因识别的综合征。这种疾病通常表现为一系列典型的症状和体征, 包括但不限于静止性震颤、肌肉僵硬、运动迟缓以及平衡和协调问题。PD的病理特征是由异常的α-突触核蛋白聚集、线粒体障碍、铁离子蓄积和神经炎症相互作用导致多巴胺能神经元加速死亡[79]
在PD的病理生理过程中, 神经炎症被认为是早期的关键事件。当小胶质细胞内的炎症小体被激活, 它们会诱导代谢途径从氧化磷酸化转变为糖酵解, 并促使小胶质细胞极化为促炎的M1型, 进而触发神经炎症和神经退行性疾病。铁的累积会促使小胶质细胞表现出炎症和糖酵解的特征[80]。已有研究表明[81], 神经炎症会导致PD中的神经变性。LPS诱导HMOX1M-KO系列WT雄性小鼠中, 腹腔注射去铁胺(100 mg·kg-1) 会缓解小鼠大脑神经炎症并发现其铁积累和铁代谢标志物的改变, 同时可以上调HO-1, 进而显著改善铁代谢、炎症和疾病行为。亮氨酸重复蛋白激酶2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2, LRRK2) 是PD中最常见的突变基因, 可以通过铁死亡调节PD神经炎症。在LPS处理的BV2细胞模型上发现, LRRK2可以通过调节铁死亡和激活NF-κB促进小胶质细胞活化。抑制LRRK2表达可有效抑制LPS诱导的促炎细胞因子, 促进神经保护因子的释放, 从而调节PD症状[82]。在MPTP诱导的PD模型中, 通过腹腔注射NADPH氧化酶4 (NADPH oxidase 4, NOX4) 拮抗剂(5 mg·kg-1) 抑制多巴胺能神经元和星形胶质细胞中的NOX4发现, NOX4调节铁转运减轻了PD模型动物黑质中的脂质过氧化和铁积累。此外, NOX4拮抗剂通过降低星形胶质细胞脂质运载蛋白-2的表达, 减轻了MPTP诱导的神经炎症[83]。因此, 通过抑制铁死亡的过程, 可以有效地缓解神经系统的炎症反应, 进而保护神经元, 减缓PD的进展。
ALS是一种以快速进展为特征的神经退行性疾病。这种疾病主要影响大脑中的运动皮层、脑干以及脊髓内的上下运动神经元[84]。这些神经元负责传递大脑发出的运动指令到肌肉, 使人类能够进行各种运动, 而运动神经元的丧失是ALS患者出现肌肉萎缩、无力和运动功能障碍的主要原因。
运动神经元死亡通常伴随着神经炎症, 其特征是小胶质细胞的激活。在ALS小鼠的疾病病理进展过程中, 成年mSOD1小胶质细胞存在表型和功能转变。成年mSOD1小胶质细胞在早期阶段为神经保护的M2表型; 快速发展阶段, 则转为M1神经毒性表型, 从而诱导神经元损伤, 加重炎症反应[85]。研究表明, 人参皂苷Re治疗可以减少hSOD1G93A转基因小鼠脊髓中运动神经元的丢失和活化小胶质细胞相关的Iba-1表达。此外, 与年龄匹配的hSOD1G93A小鼠相比, 人参皂苷Re治疗的hSOD1G93A小鼠显示出与TLR4信号通路相关的促炎蛋白(如CD14和TNF-α) 表达的显著降低[86]。研究人员在体内外实验利用iNOS特异性抑制剂促进M1型小胶质细胞发生铁死亡, 减少了M1型小胶质细胞数量并缓解了炎症反应[87]。因此, 调节小胶质细胞表型, 提升其抗炎特性, 以及抑制或减少M1型细胞的毒性, 可能成为治疗ALS的有前景的方法。另外大量研究表明, 铁死亡也参与了ALS的发病过程, 导致运动神经元死亡, 并且参与了小胶质细胞介导的炎症反应, 在ALS患者和SOD1G93A系列小鼠的运动皮层和脊髓中观察到铁的积累。小胶质细胞能够通过吞噬死亡或濒死细胞获取铁使胞质铁蛋白的表达上调, 同时, 胞质铁蛋白的mRNA表达水平也会因促炎细胞因子或一氧化氮的刺激而增加。通过腹膜给予亲脂性铁螯合剂, SOD1G93A小鼠脊髓含铁细胞的数量明显减少, 炎症因子表达降低, 表明铁稳态的破坏和中枢神经系统中铁积累的增加会导致疾病的进展, 这为治疗ALS提供了强有力的证据[88]。Mesci等[89]在hSOD1模型上发现xCT表达在ALS小鼠的小胶质细胞中增加。在疾病早期, 在xCT缺失的ALS小鼠中可以检测到抗炎性Ym1/Chil3标志物的短暂表达降低, system Xc-缺失会很大程度上减少原代小鼠小胶质细胞的谷氨酸释放。在ALS患者的脊髓死后组织中也可检测到xCT的表达, 并且与炎症增加相关。
铁死亡过程中铁离子的转化失衡、膜脂质过氧化、ROS的累积以及氧化应激的不均衡, 会导致细胞内促炎相关物质释放, 引发神经炎症反应, 并加速ALS的进展。因此, 深入理解ALS中铁死亡介导神经炎症的病理机制, 有助于探索新的治疗方案。
神经炎症也是HD发病机制中的重要部分, 突变型亨廷顿蛋白(mutant Huntingtin protein, mHTT) 的表达能够显著影响神经胶质细胞的特定反应, 如细胞信号传导、细胞因子释放(IL-6、TNF-α和ROS的表达增加) 等[90]。在HD患者的大脑中, 存在星形胶质细胞累积的现象, 往往会加剧炎症过程。当表达mHTT的星形胶质细胞功能出现缺陷时, 谷氨酸转运蛋白表达会降低, 导致谷氨酸的摄取受到抑制, 这一现象与铁死亡机制中神经元谷氨酸兴奋性密切相关[91]。前扣带皮层萎缩与HD患者情绪表现有关。研究发现, HD患者扣带皮层中活化的小胶质细胞比例增加, 分泌的促炎因子增多, 与mHTT负荷正相关。这表明小胶质细胞变化可能在HD进展和表现中起关键作用, 可作为治疗靶点[92]。此外, Simmons等[93]在HD患者大脑中发现铁蛋白含量高的小胶质细胞数量增多, Perl染色显示这些细胞铁水平异常高, 首次证明HD中的铁代谢异常主要与小胶质细胞有关。在R6/2HD小鼠模型中观察到, 出生后2~4周时纹状体内的铁蛋白免疫染色呈现上升趋势。铁蛋白染色主要分布在小胶质细胞中, 并且随着小鼠的成长, 这种染色变得更加显著。因此, 推测小胶质细胞所引起的神经炎症与铁代谢异常会加重HD。
MS是免疫细胞对中枢神经系统的攻击, 导致脱髓鞘病变的慢性神经系统退行性疾病[94]。MS神经退行性病变的关键过程包括小胶质细胞的激活、谷氨酸兴奋毒性、线粒体功能障碍以及大脑中的铁积累[95]。星形胶质细胞中的铁蛋白是少突胶质细胞的主要铁来源, 活化的星形胶质细胞会增加促炎因子的分泌。研究显示, 急性MS患者少突胶质细胞死亡后会释放铁[96], 提示铁死亡在中枢神经系统炎症反应中起着重要作用。Rothammer等[97]在MS患者的脑组织中发现, 神经元抗铁死亡基因的表达水平有所下降, 这一现象可能与MS患者神经元损伤和功能障碍有关。在神经元培养模型中, 通过抑制常染色质组蛋白赖氨酸N-甲基转移酶2 (chromatin-associated protein lysine N-methyltransferase 2, G9a) 的活性, 增强了抗铁死亡基因的表达。这一结果表明, G9a抑制剂可能在治疗MS等神经退行性疾病中具有潜在的应用价值。Wang等[98]也发现铁通过调节RNA结合蛋白PCBP1的稳定性促进T细胞中促炎细胞因子的表达, 从而证实了以上推测。
综上所述, 神经退行性疾病大都涉及免疫细胞激活引起的神经炎症, 以及铁稳态的异常, 这些变化不仅揭示了铁死亡与神经炎症在神经退行性疾病的时空分布上存在着紧密的联系, 而且表明其在疾病进展中可能发挥了关键作用。深入研究铁死亡与神经炎症在神经退行性疾病中的作用, 有助于揭示这些疾病的发病机制, 为改善神经退行性疾病的症状和预后提供新的治疗策略。
STING作为内质网上的关键适配蛋白, 在DNA感应抗病毒免疫机制中起关键作用[99]。STING一旦被激活, 便能够催化TANK结合激酶1 (TANK-binding kinase 1, TBK1) 的磷酸化过程。TBK1反过来又进一步激活干扰素调节因子3 (interferon regulatory factor 3, IRF3) 和NF-κB。这些激活的转录因子进入细胞核, 触发促炎细胞因子及I型干扰素的生成[100]。STING蛋白是当前免疫治疗研究的热点, 它主要通过cGAS-STING信号通路促进免疫防御。
除了促进炎症反应外, 大量研究还揭示了STING参与多种细胞死亡过程, 如自噬、铁死亡等。近年来, 研究日益聚焦于神经退行性疾病中STING蛋白与铁死亡的分子互作网络, 从STING介导的NF-κB炎症信号激活到铁死亡关键调控因子(如GPX4、SLC7A11) 的表观遗传抑制, 逐步揭示了STING通过驱动脂质过氧化和神经炎症级联反应加剧神经元铁死亡的病理机制[101]。体外实验发现, 脑室内注射链脲佐菌素大鼠出现Tau高磷酸化和Aβ沉积等散发性AD特征, 而水飞蓟宾预处理能够抑制上述变化, 并且可以明显抑制p53蛋白的表达, 并上调SLC7A11和GPX4的表达, 表明水飞蓟宾通过调节p53/SLC7A11/GSH/GPX4轴降低细胞对铁死亡的敏感性, 进而减轻STING介导的神经炎症级联反应(NF-κB/caspase 1/IL-1β), 改善AD病理反应[102]。Chen等[103]的实验发现, 在淋巴增殖品系MRL/lprLN小鼠模型中尾静脉注射liproxstatin-1 (10 mg·kg-1), 可以显著改善铁离子、4-HNE、MDA和ROS的产生, 并且STING通过上调TBK1和激活NF-κB信号通路介导铁死亡和炎症反应。PD患者的血清中含有许多促炎细胞因子, Sliter等[104]发现Parkin (一种E3泛素连接酶) 和PINK1 (一种泛素激酶) 的突变会导致早发性PD, 二者通过促进线粒体自噬、改善铁蓄积减轻STING介导的炎症。cGAS-STING信号通路与缺血性脑卒中的小胶质细胞活化、神经炎症和铁死亡也密切相关[105]。STING蛋白在免疫反应中起着重要作用, 同时它还参与调控脂肪酸代谢, 特别是通过抑制脂肪酸去饱和酶2 (fatty acid desaturase 2, FADS2) 的活性, 导致多不饱和脂肪酸代谢产物的积累[106]。STING蛋白的活性受氧化应激的影响, 而GPX4是维持细胞氧化还原平衡的关键酶, 缺乏GPX4会导致脂质过氧化加剧, 进而影响STING蛋白的功能[107]。cGAS-STING信号通路的激活与细胞内铁沉积有关, 铁处理可以增加cGAS、STING及其下游靶标表达, 而铁蛋白自噬会加剧细胞内游离铁的积累[108]。缺血性卒中后, 细胞损伤和BBB受损导致免疫细胞浸润, cGAS-STING通路参与这一过程, 通过释放促炎细胞因子和激活免疫细胞, 进而影响胱氨酸/谷氨酸逆向转运蛋白的表达, 降低细胞内谷胱甘肽水平, 间接抑制GPX4活性, 加剧铁死亡[109]
HMGB1是一种非组蛋白染色体结合蛋白, 具有高度的保守性和广泛的生物活性。细胞坏死或免疫细胞响应感染因子和炎性细胞因子时, 会主动分泌HMGB1到细胞外间隙[110]。HMGB1作为DAMP分子的一部分, 在先天免疫反应中发挥重要作用, 参与炎症的发生和持续。因此, HMGB1作为炎症的早期生物标志物已在多种急性和慢性炎症性疾病中进行了研究[111]
越来越多的证据表明, HMGB1可以通过调节铁死亡影响神经炎症过程。Gao等[112]在流体叩击伤模型小鼠损伤后50 min静脉注射重组膜联蛋白A5 (recombinant membrane annexin A5, A5) (30 μg·kg-1), 发现A5减少了铁积累和脂质过氧化, 并增加了抗氧化活性, 增加了M2/M1表型小胶质细胞的比率, 降低了炎症因子水平, 减少了外周免疫细胞浸润。进一步研究表明, A5通过调节NF-κB/HMGB1通路和Nrf2/HO-1抗氧化系统改善铁死亡、氧化应激和神经炎症。这些结果表明, A5强大的抗炎和抗氧化特性可以使其成为治疗创伤性脑损伤(traumatic brain injury, TBI) 的有前途的药物。脑铁水平失调会导致神经功能紊乱并损害神经元, 在MCAO大鼠模型中观察到星形胶质细胞的铁调素表达上调, 进一步研究证明重组HMGB1处理刺激星形胶质细胞以TLR4和C-X-C趋化因子受体4依赖性方式诱导铁调素表达, 并在缺血脑组织中引起急性铁激增和随后的铁死亡, 从而加重神经炎症[113]。Zhu等[114]在新生儿缺氧缺血性脑损伤模型中给予HMGB1抑制剂甘草甜素, 可以改善皮层线粒体损伤和氧化应激水平, 并通过HMGB1/GPX4通路抑制新生大鼠的铁死亡和神经炎症, 从而减轻缺氧缺血性脑损伤。在APP/PS1小鼠和Aβ25-35诱导的AD大鼠模型中给予三氯巴丁(trichlorobenzene, TLB) 发现, TLB给药有效调节了海马氧化还原状态的不平衡, 抑制小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞的活化, 并降低促炎细胞因子和NF-κB活性, 显著地改善了两种AD动物模型的认知缺陷; 在Aβ25-35处理的BV2细胞中, TLB (12.5~50 μmol·L-1) 通过抑制HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB信号通路可以增加细胞活力, 说明靶向HMGB1可以通过减轻神经炎症、减少Aβ积累来阻止AD进展, 从而改善认知缺陷。HMGB1可以诱导星形胶质细胞中铁调素上调, TLB也可能通过抑制HMGB1信号通路, 降低星形胶质细胞中的铁含量调控铁死亡, 从而改善神经炎症[115]
Nrf2作为基本转录因子家族的一员, 在细胞抗氧化反应中占据核心地位, Nrf2与近200个抗氧化基因共同维护着细胞的健康与稳定[116]。Nrf2作为抗氧化蛋白, 通过调节下游多个靶基因参与铁死亡, 包括铁代谢相关的FTL/FTH/FPN和抗氧化系统相关的GPX4/SLC7A11/GCL/GSH[117]
许多研究表明, Nrf2信号通路在神经系统疾病中发挥着重要作用。天麻中性多糖通过Nrf2/HO-1信号通路抑制铁死亡介导的神经炎症, 减轻脑缺血再灌注损伤。在体外实验中, 天麻中性多糖处理可以减轻OGD/R诱导的HT22细胞铁死亡, 上调GPX4的表达, 降低Fe2+含量以及IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α炎症因子水平[118]。在慢性脑低灌注大鼠模型上连续5周灌胃富马酸二甲酯100 mg·kg-1, 能够降低MDA, 增加GSH和SOD水平, 缓解海马氧化应激, 同时降低海马促炎细胞因子浓度, 进一步发现富马酸二甲酯通过Nrf2信号通路调节铁死亡和神经炎症, 改善慢性脑灌注不足大鼠的认知缺陷[119]。Cui等[120]研究表明RSL3刺激BV2小胶质细胞后, 通过增加Nrf2表达, 增强了小胶质细胞和巨噬细胞抗炎反应和铁死亡抵抗。在TBI后30 min, 腹腔注射TrkB激动剂N-乙酰血清素10 mg·kg-1, 能够通过PI3K/Akt信号通路促进Nrf2的上调, 减轻铁死亡和相关的神经炎症, 改善运动缺陷和认知功能障碍[121]。在LPS刺激的BV2细胞中, 给予连翘脂苷A减少了促炎因子IL-6、IL-1β和NO的形成, 在雄性APP/PS1小鼠中, 连翘脂苷A治疗改善了记忆和认知障碍。组学分析表明, 连翘脂苷A处理显著增强了多巴胺能信号, 抑制了铁沉积和脂质过氧化, 阻止了NF-κB信号的激活, 减少促炎因子的分泌。以上研究证实, 连翘脂苷A通过Nrf2/GPX4通路抑制铁死亡及神经炎症, 改善AD[122]。另有研究表明, 在pMCAO模型上给予咖啡酸(2 mg·kg-1) 能够下调TFR1和ACSL4, 并通过Nrf2信号通路上调谷胱甘肽的产生, 抑制铁死亡, 从而减轻缺血脑组织的氧化损伤和神经炎症, 减少脑梗死体积[116]
Nrf2信号通路是参与抗氧化和抗炎反应的重要调节通路, 靶向Nrf2信号通路是一种很有前途的干预铁死亡的方法, 对神经退行性疾病具有显著的治疗效果。
STAT3作为一种关键的转录因子, 参与调节多种生理过程(神经炎症、血管生成、增殖和分化), 维持机体内环境的稳定[123]。作为氧化反应的重要转录因子, STAT3与铁死亡密切相关。在铁死亡过程中, STAT3能够调控一系列与铁代谢和ROS产生相关的基因, 如SLC7A11、ACSL4等。这些基因的表达变化, 直接影响细胞内铁离子的积累和ROS的产生, 从而决定细胞是否发生铁死亡[124]。因此, STAT3是调控铁死亡的关键靶点。
除了直接的调控作用外, STAT3还能与其他信号通路相互作用, 共同调节铁死亡的发生。使用LPS处理小鼠, 持续7天腹腔注射咖啡因(100 mg·kg-1), 能够显著抑制LPS诱导的TFR1和FPN1的下调, 降低血清中的IL-6水平。进一步研究表明咖啡因通过调节IL-6/STAT3通路降低铁调素表达, 减轻炎症下异常的铁代谢[125]。脂质运载蛋白2 (lipocalin 2, LCN2) 是神经系统疾病相关的炎症蛋白, 有证据表明LCN2可以调节神经系统疾病的炎性细胞因子和铁积累。在痴呆病理中, LCN2通过调控大脑中铁元素的积聚, 对神经元细胞的凋亡过程产生影响。此外, 它还能够调节神经胶质细胞的活化状态与功能, 从而加速神经炎症的进展。因此, 合理调控LCN2的表达水平, 有望成为改善痴呆的潜在策略[126]。另有研究表明, 用谷氨酸刺激HT22细胞24 h, 敲除LCN2可以显著抑制HT22中谷氨酸刺激的脂质过氧化升高和铁蓄积, 进一步发现LCN2通过NF-κB/STAT3通路加剧神经炎症的诱导效应, 促进神经元铁死亡的发生并诱导线粒体功能障碍[127]
因此, STAT3作为一种关键的转录因子, 在铁死亡过程中发挥了重要的作用。它不仅直接调控与铁死亡相关的基因表达, 还与其他信号通路相互作用, 共同影响细胞命运。
在神经退行性疾病中, 铁死亡和神经炎症的发生涉及许多靶点和通路, 除上述4种主要靶点外, NLRP3炎症小体(NLRP3 inflammasome, NLRP3)、TLR4等也与铁死亡和神经炎症的发生密切相关。NLRP3是中枢神经系统中研究最广泛的炎症小体, 在OGD/R处理后的BV2细胞中, GPX4蛋白表达降低, 而敲低NLRP3后, GPX4蛋白表达呈上升趋势, 抑制了铁死亡。体内实验表明, NLRP3缺乏可以通过Keap1-Nrf2轴抑制铁死亡和炎症改善脑缺血再灌注损伤[128]。TLR4可以触发炎症通路的激活, 采用缺氧缺血的新生大鼠模型和氧糖剥夺(OGD) 的细胞模型发现, 缺氧缺血触发神经元铁死亡, 伴有TLR4通路激活, 显著上调TLR4, 并降低SLC7A11和GPX4水平, 给予TLR4特异性拮抗剂TAK-242 (0.5 mg·kg-1) 降低促炎细胞因子IL-1β、IL-18 mRNA表达, 提示抑制TLR4可减少铁死亡的激活和神经炎症[129]。氧化槐定碱是从苦豆子中提取的一种生物碱, 在脑缺血/再灌注损伤中发挥有益作用。在MCAO大鼠模型中每天一次腹腔注射60、120或180 mg·kg-1, 能够缓解大鼠脑损伤和神经元凋亡, 降低大鼠脑组织中ROS的积累和铁死亡; 在体外实验中, OGD/R后促炎因子IL-1β和TNF-α的蛋白表达水平显著升高, 抗炎因子IL-10的蛋白表达水平显著降低, 氧化槐定碱预处理逆转了OGD/R对炎症因子蛋白表达水平的影响。进一步研究表明, 氧化槐定碱通过抑制TLR4/p38MAPK介导的铁死亡和炎症防止脑缺血/再灌注损伤[130]
综上所述, 涉及铁死亡和神经炎症的靶点和通路较为广泛(表 1图 2), 其在神经退行性疾病中的作用还有待进一步阐明。铁死亡与炎症的激活密切相关。通过深入了解这一关联机制, 可以为神经退行性疾病提供新的思路和方法。
抗氧化剂liproxstatin-1 (Lip-1) 是一种喹喔啉类螺环化合物的衍生物, 能够有效地减缓脂质过氧化物的积累, 保护细胞膜和细胞器膜的完整性, 维持细胞的正常功能, 从而抑制铁死亡[131]。研究发现[132], 在前脑神经元特异性GPX4基因敲除小鼠模型上给予Lip-1 (10 mg·kg-1) 发现, Lip-1可以显著减轻模型小鼠海马区和大脑皮层中4-HNE水平, 改善铁死亡。Lip-1还可以减轻小鼠的海马神经退行性病变, 减轻神经炎症, 改善神经功能缺陷。另有研究表明, 妊娠晚期睡眠剥夺会损害后代大鼠的学习和记忆能力。在新生大鼠海马中, 炎症相关蛋白COX-2显著高于正常组, 使用Lip-1后可明显消除这种影响, 并且降低其子代大鼠海马中ACSL4和4-HNE铁死亡蛋白水平[133]。此外, 在鱼藤酮诱导的小鼠模型上连续3周给予Lip-1 (10 mg·kg-1), 显著减轻了小鼠的神经退行性病变和突触丢失, 缓解神经元损伤, 抑制了铁积累并恢复铁代谢蛋白(GPX4、SLC7A11) 的平衡, 减轻了炎症反应, 提示Lip-1可能通过调节铁死亡介导的神经炎症改善AD的病理过程[134]
铁螯合剂通过阻止铁向氧提供电子以形成ROS阻断铁死亡, 它包括膜不可渗透性和膜渗透性(亲脂性铁螯合剂) 两大类[135]。亲脂性铁螯合剂与细胞膜脂质融合, 无需转运蛋白即可入细胞。亲脂性铁螯合剂可以结合游离铁离子, 形成稳定络合物, 阻止自由基生成[136]。另一方面, 去铁胺和去铁酮均属于膜不可渗透性铁螯合剂, 这意味着它们不能直接通过细胞膜进入细胞内部, 而是通过内吞作用被细胞摄取进入溶酶体。在溶酶体内, 二者能够高效地捕获并螯合游离的铁离子[137]
DFO能够有效地与铁离子结合, 形成稳定的化合物, 从而避免铁离子在生物体内产生过多的毒性作用。因此, DFO通常被用于治疗与铁超负荷有关的疾病, 如输血依赖性铁过载、铁沉积症等[138]。通过抑制铁死亡和神经炎症, DFO能够有效地减轻脑外伤对神经元的损伤和死亡, 促进神经功能的恢复。DFO可以保护TBI小鼠的运动记忆功能, 在TBI小鼠模型上给药后, 铁死亡相关蛋白FTH和4-HNE的表达降低, 并且促炎小胶质细胞标志物(CD16/32) 减少, 抗炎小胶质细胞标志物(CD206) 增加, 表明DFO可以促进促炎小胶质细胞转化为抗炎表型[139]。对STZ诱导的糖尿病大鼠模型皮下注射DFO (100 mg·kg-1), 显著降低了炎症因子IL-6水平和氧化应激指标MDA, 提示DFO通过调节铁稳态, 抑制炎症和氧化应激改善糖尿病大鼠中铁沉积导致的认知功能障碍[139]。另有研究表明, 用铁螯合剂DFO治疗可以显著地改善手术诱导的铁稳态变化, 预防手术创伤造成的海马铁死亡和神经炎症。与对照组相比, 手术导致海马中铁蓄积长达两周, DFO预处理可减轻这种铁积累; 小鼠每天给予100 mg·kg-1 DFO也减轻了海马TNF-α和IL-1β水平[140]。通过向APP/PS1小鼠的海马注射DFO, 原本占据主导地位的M1型小胶质细胞开始向M2型转化。这一转变不仅减少了促炎因子的释放, 还促进了抗炎因子如IL-10、TGF-β的表达, 从而有效抑制了神经炎症的进展[141]
DFP可以穿透BBB, 直接作用于脑细胞。DFP与铁离子具有高度特异性的结合能力, 能深入到线粒体、内质网等关键细胞器内, 有效地清除这些区域过量积累的铁离子, 同时保留身体所需的全身性铁, 从而大大降低了治疗过程中的不良反应[142]。Rayatpour等[143]将溶血卵磷脂注射到雄性C57BL/6J小鼠的视神经中诱导局灶性脱髓鞘, 通过Perl染色观察到DFP处理显著减少了铁沉积, 增加了铁死亡标志物IREB2、TFR1、Acsf2和HO-1的表达; DFP治疗还降低了炎症、小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞增生的严重程度, 从而改善MS过程中的铁死亡和神经炎症, 减轻髓鞘损伤并促进神经保护作用。体外和体内研究表明, 铁螯合剂对PD的治疗也有作用。MPTP小鼠口服DFP (300 mg·d-1) 部分缓解了黑质内的氧化损伤, 显著减少了动物脑黑质中过量的不稳定铁, 同时提高纹状体多巴胺水平, 改善运动功能, 证明安全的铁螯合剂治疗对早期PD患者具有神经保护潜力[144]
依达拉奉是一种强效的自由基清除剂, 具有抗氧化、抗炎、抗凋亡等多种药理作用[145]。依达拉奉能够迅速清除自由基, 保护脑细胞免受进一步损伤, 从而起到保护脑组织的作用。依达拉奉是ALS治疗中的一种有效药物, 尤其在病程较短、肺活量较好的患者中疗效明显。研究表明, 依达拉奉通过清除羟基自由基、过氧自由基和3-硝基酪氨酸水平减缓ALS的进程, 有助于保护神经胶质细胞、内皮细胞和神经元免受氧化应激的损害, 减缓运动功能的退化[146]。Guo等[145]在Aβ1-42诱导的HT22小鼠神经元细胞损伤模型中发现, 给予依达拉奉(80 µmol·L-1) 能够减少Aβ1-42诱导的HT22细胞凋亡, 降低Aβ1-42引起的促炎细胞因子(如TNF-α、IL-1β和IL-6) 的分泌。依达拉奉还能够抑制铁离子的积累, 减少MDA水平, 并提高GSH的含量, 这表明依达拉奉在Aβ1-42诱导的神经炎症和铁死亡中发挥了显著的神经保护作用。另有研究表明, 通过在PC12细胞中建立机械划痕模型模拟TBI机械损伤, 给予依达拉奉发现细胞ROS和MDA含量明显下降, 而且铁死亡相关蛋白ACSL4、FTH和TFR1都可以在体外机械损伤后被依达拉奉干预逆转, 提示依达拉奉可以抑制神经元铁死亡相关蛋白的表达和神经炎症, 减少神经元凋亡, 从而改善TBI[147]
黄酮类化合物是一类具有苯并吡喃酮结构的天然化合物, 广泛存在于各种植物中, 包括水果、蔬菜、茶叶、红酒等。这些化合物具有多种生物活性, 如抗氧化、抗炎等。黄酮类化合物能够通过调节细胞内铁离子代谢和氧化还原平衡, 抑制铁死亡的发生, 从而发挥细胞保护作用[148]。葛根素是一种从中药葛根中提取的主要有效成分, 属于异黄酮类化合物, 具有神经保护和抗氧化作用[149]。Zhang等[150]在APP/PS1转基因小鼠上给予葛根的复合物发现, 复合物治疗组的小鼠脑皮层铁含量显著低于AD模型组, 并且其脑皮层中炎症因子(IL-1β、IL-6等) 的水平显著降低, 表明该复合物能够显著抑制由铁过载引起的神经炎症。黄芩素是中药黄芩中含量最高的黄酮类化合物之一, 具有显著的抗炎、抗氧化、抗菌等作用。在体外七氟醚诱导SN4741多巴胺神经元细胞损伤的PD模型中观察到, 给予黄芩素(10或20 μmol·L-1) 可以显著提高SN4741细胞活性, 提高GPX4蛋白水平, 减轻七氟醚诱导的铁死亡[151]。此外, 在MPTP处理的小鼠中发现, 黄芩素治疗可以有效逆转由MPTP引起的运动功能障碍, 显著降低促炎细胞因子(IL-1β、IL-18、TNF-α等) 的表达, 黄芩素通过抑制NLRP3/caspase 1/GSDMD炎症小体途径减轻PD中的神经炎症[152]。作为一种具有多方面药理性质和多样化分子结构的天然产物, 其强大的自由基清除和抗炎作用以及潜在的抗铁死亡作用为药物研发和疾病治疗提供了新的思路。
萜类化合物是一类由异戊二烯单位组成的天然有机化合物, 具有多种生物活性, 广泛存在于动植物和真菌中。这些化合物具有独特的化学结构和生物活性, 能够与生物体内的受体、酶和离子通道等相互作用, 从而发挥药效。萜类化合物以其抗炎作用而备受关注, 如甘草甜素、柴胡皂苷、雷公藤红素等。许多研究表明, 这些化合物能够抑制炎症介质的产生和释放, 减轻炎症反应。研究发现, 柴胡皂苷B2可以通过抑制铁死亡介导的神经炎症和内质网应激改善抑郁诱导的小胶质细胞活化。在CUMS小鼠模型中, 灌胃柴胡皂苷B2 (10 mg·kg-1) 能够减轻中枢神经炎症, 逆转IL-1β和TNF-α的增加, 降低抗炎因子IL-10的水平, 改善海马神经元损伤, 从而逆转CUMS小鼠的抑郁样行为, 并进一步证明柴胡皂苷B2通过TLR4/NF-κB通路减轻由LPS诱导的小胶质细胞激活和铁死亡, 减轻LPS诱导的铁死亡[153]。雷公藤红素是一种五环三萜类化合物, 具有抗炎和抗氧化作用。Zhang等[154]发现在MPTP诱导的PD小鼠模型上给予雷公藤红素治疗(10 μg·kg-1), 能够降低小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞的活化水平和促炎细胞因子的产生, 减少神经炎症的发生。进一步实验表明, 雷公藤红素能降低铁离子积累、减少ROS生成并通过Nrf2通路提高抗氧化酶(HO-1、NQO1) 水平, 减轻氧化应激损伤, 从而改善PD相关病理特征。以上研究表明一些萜类化合物能够通过抑制神经元铁死亡, 减轻神经炎症, 从而延缓神经退行性疾病的进程, 为其治疗提供了新的思路和方法。
综上所述, 目前针对铁死亡和神经炎症治疗神经退行性疾病的主要药物涵盖铁死亡抑制剂、抗氧化药物及天然产物等类别(表 2)[132-134, 138-141, 143-147, 150-154]。这些药物在动物模型和细胞实验中展现出减少铁沉积、降低促炎因子(IL-1β和TNF-α) 水平及恢复神经元功能的潜力,尤其天然产物的多靶点特性与低毒性为临床转化提供了新方向。
神经退行性疾病是威胁人类健康的重大疾病, 发病机制不清, 治疗方法有限, 寻找新的治疗策略成为医学界迫切的需求。铁死亡是一种铁依赖性非凋亡细胞死亡方式, 近年来在生物医学领域引起了广泛关注。其核心特征在于铁超载以及脂质过氧化物的过量产生和积累, 这与神经退行性疾病的主要病理机制相符, 使得抑制铁死亡可能成为治疗神经退行性疾病的新策略。
在神经退行性疾病中, 铁死亡作为疾病进展的重要原因, 不仅破坏氧化还原平衡, 还加剧了神经元的损伤, 促进了神经炎症的发生。在小胶质细胞内, 铁离子的过度积累会引起一系列破坏性的连锁反应, 大量炎性细胞因子的释放, 加剧神经组织的局部炎症。随着铁离子的累积, 小胶质细胞内的氧化还原平衡被打破, 过度的氧化环境不仅直接损伤了细胞内的DNA、脂质等生物大分子, 还导致多个靶点的激活, 如STING、HMGB1、Nrf2、STAT3等, 进一步促进神经炎症反应。
已有研究表明, 抑制铁死亡可以增加神经元细胞的存活, 改善神经炎症, 这为靶向调节铁死亡介导神经炎症治疗神经退行性疾病提供了理论基础。然而, 铁死亡与神经炎症之间存在诸多联系, 但直接针对铁死亡介导神经炎症治疗神经退行性疾病中的研究仍相对较少。各种研究揭示了铁死亡与神经炎症之间的联系, 但铁死亡的分子机制在不同神经退行性疾病中存在差异, 铁死亡的具体机制及其在神经退行性疾病的作用仍需进一步深入研究。
由于神经退行性疾病的病理过程涉及多种机制和靶点, 针对单一机制和单一靶点药物并未取得成功。目前, 通过调节铁死亡和神经炎症改善神经退行性疾病的治疗药物仍然缺少临床试验证据。但天然产物具有多靶点多活性的特点, 尤其一些黄酮类和萜类化合物具有良好的抗氧化、抗炎和铁螯合作用, 并且已被证实具有抗铁死亡及神经炎症活性, 可通过多途径发挥治疗作用。因此, 从天然产物中寻找新的神经退行性疾病的治疗药物将成为研究的热点。
作者贡献: 杜冠华负责确定选题、拟定文章框架和对稿件进行初步校验、修改; 杜冠华、孔令雷进行文章修改和基金获得; 李朝唯撰写文章; 秦雪梅负责文章监督。
利益冲突: 所有作者无任何利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金面上项目(82474112)
  • 中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程项目(2022-I2M-1-015)
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2025年第60卷第5期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0032
  • 接收时间:2025-01-10
  • 首发时间:2025-10-29
  • 出版时间:2025-05-12
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  • 收稿日期:2025-01-10
  • 修回日期:2025-02-24
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国家自然科学基金面上项目(82474112)
中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程项目(2022-I2M-1-015)
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    1.山西大学中医药现代研究中心, 山西 太原 030006
    2.中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 脑血管病新药发现及晶型研究北京市重点实验室, 北京 100050

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*孔令雷, Tel: 13426328191, E-mail:
杜冠华, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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