Article(id=1308842541299097873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308842471539442166, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1596, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1767110400000, receivedDateStr=2025-12-31, revisedDate=1773936000000, revisedDateStr=2026-03-20, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1789981978964, onlineDateStr=2026-09-21, pubDate=1786464000000, pubDateStr=2026-08-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1789981978964, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-09-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1789981978964, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1789981978964, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1308842471539442166, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2026', volume='61', issue='8', pageStart='2821', pageEnd='3220', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1786464000000', pubDateStr='2026-08-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1789981962332, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1789984137222, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1308851593773150481, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308842471539442166, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1308851593773150482, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308842471539442166, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=2867, endPage=2878, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1308842541492035858, articleId=1308842541299097873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Advances in progress of drug targeting mixed lineage kinase-like protein, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) is a "pseudokinase" that not only functions as a key effector molecule in the necroptosis pathway but also participates in the regulation of other programmed cell death pathways, thereby playing a crucial role in modulating various physiological processes. Dysregulation of MLKL activity is closely associated with the initiation and progression of multiple diseases, rendering it a highly promising therapeutic target. However, drug discovery targeting MLKL is still in its early stages, with no candidates having advanced to clinical trials. Thus, further in-depth and systematic investigations are urgently needed. This review summarizes the structural features, biological functions, and current progress in drug development targeting MLKL.

, authors=Yi-ming LI1, 2, Nan WANG2, Ya-xi YANG3, Zhu-shuang BAI1, Chao CHEN2, 3, *, Bing ZHOU1, 2, 3, *, authorsList=Yi-ming LI, Nan WANG, Ya-xi YANG, Zhu-shuang BAI, Chao CHEN, Bing ZHOU, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Chao CHEN, Bing ZHOU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2026 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1308842544256082207, articleId=1308842541299097873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=靶向混合谱系激酶样蛋白MLKL的药物研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

混合谱系激酶样蛋白(mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein, MLKL) 是一类“假激酶”(pseudokinase), 其不仅是程序性坏死(necroptosis) 通路的关键效应分子, 还参与其他程序性细胞死亡通路, 在多种生理活动的调控中发挥关键作用。MLKL功能异常也与多种疾病的发生发展密切相关, 使其成为极具潜力的药物治疗靶点。然而, 目前靶向MLKL的药物发现仍处于早期阶段, 尚无进入临床研究的药物, 亟需开展更深入且系统的研究。本文综述了MLKL的结构特征、生物学功能及靶向MLKL的药物研究进展。

, authors=李一鸣1, 2, 王楠2, 杨亚玺3, 白著双1, 陈超2, 3, *, 周兵1, 2, 3, *, authorsList=李一鸣, 王楠, 杨亚玺, 白著双, 陈超, 周兵, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=陈超, 周兵, authorNote=

作者贡献:

李一鸣负责文献资料的收集、文章的撰写及图表的绘制; 王楠参与资料的收集和数据核实等工作; 杨亚玺负责文章的修改; 白著双在文章修回时提供修改意见并对图表进行完善; 陈超提供撰写思路和内容框架组织等工作; 周兵负责文章的选题与稿件修改完善等工作。

, correspAuthorsNote=
陈超, E-mail:
周兵, E-mail:
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TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-α; TRADD: Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated death domain; RIPK1: Receptor interacting serine/threonine kinase 1; cIAP1/2: Cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1/2; Ub: Ubiquitin; TRAF2/5: Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 2/5; SMAC: Second mitochondria-derived activator of Caspases; FADD: Fas-associated death domain; RIPK3: Receptor interacting serine/threonine kinase 3; DAMPs: Damage-associated molecular patterns, figureFileSmall=fSf0Wwz1Wle1YBgFWIy02g==, figureFileBig=AVUs4Vh/aI1lJAr/3ztQ/A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308842549134057817, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308842541299097873, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=4Po0I4GwxE8slnFAakvcbA==, figureFileBig=F7MozaYgxRNxq0lUVztSbA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308842549196972378, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308842541299097873, language=CN, label=Fig.3, caption=Structures and conformational relationships of representative MLKL inhibitors targeting pseudokinase domain. 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A: Structural of compounds 8-10; B: Discovery and optimization of 11 and TC13172; C: Co-crystal structures of compound 13 (TC13172) with MLKL (PDB code: 6ZZ1). The protein is shown as a cartoon, the π-π interaction was shown in a yellow dashed line. NSA: Necrosulfonamide; EC50: 50% effective concentration; GSH: Glutathione; Phe: Phenylalanine, figureFileSmall=o7B9JyPlEeL3q9NR2hDzAA==, figureFileBig=rt34uoziHj970sQpb3g32g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308842549402493277, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308842541299097873, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=nGQN9XDT7PfCwHmHhhMozw==, figureFileBig=Wqm1NuYaNeklhqNUAMLb4A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308842549486379358, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308842541299097873, language=CN, label=Fig.5, caption=Discovery of compound 22. A: The optimization of compound 18; B: Co-crystal structure of compound 20 with MLKL (PDB code 7NM4). The protein is shown as a solid surface, and the ligand was shown in a stick, figureFileSmall=nGQN9XDT7PfCwHmHhhMozw==, figureFileBig=Wqm1NuYaNeklhqNUAMLb4A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308842549557682527, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308842541299097873, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=JCg7i5TJVGTuY7eUYU2CKw==, figureFileBig=d4Za8WyxRjAcItF6HxGHvg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308842549624791392, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308842541299097873, language=CN, label=Fig.6, caption=Discovery of MLKL degraders 25 and 28. A: The mechanism of proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) technology; B, C: The discovery and optimization procedures of MLKL degraders 25 and 28. E2: Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme; E3: Ubiquitin ligase enzyme; POI: Protein of interest, figureFileSmall=JCg7i5TJVGTuY7eUYU2CKw==, figureFileBig=d4Za8WyxRjAcItF6HxGHvg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308842549691900257, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308842541299097873, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
CompoundActivity dataBinding siteMechanismApplicability
4Kd = 230 nmol·L-1
IC50 > 40 μmol·L-1
Pseudokinase domainBinding to the ATP-binding site of MLKL and showing no functional impact on necroptosisHuman, mouse
6 (Crizotinib)Kd = 210 nmol·L-1
IC50 > 40 μmol·L-1
Pseudokinase domainHuman, mouse
9 (NSA)IC50 < 0.2 μmol·L-14HB domainCovalent targeting of Cys86 within the 4HB domain induces MLKL conformational change, thereby blocking its oligomerization and membrane translocationHuman
13 (TC13172)EC50 = 2 nmol·L-14HB domainHuman
17EC50 = 31 nmol·L-14HB domainHuman
25 (PROTAC 36)DC50 > 1 μmol·L-1
Dmax > 90%
Pseudokinase domainNon-covalently binding to MLKL and inducing MLKL degradationHuman, mouse
28 (MP-11)DC50 = 12 nmol·L-1
Dmax = 95.06%
4HB domainCovalently binding to MLKL and inducing MLKL degradationHuman
), ArticleFig(id=1308842549771592034, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308842541299097873, language=CN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Summary of presentive drugs targeting MLKL. ATP: Adenosine triphosphate; DC50: 50% Degradation concentration; PROTAC: Proteolysis-targeting chimera

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
CompoundActivity dataBinding siteMechanismApplicability
4Kd = 230 nmol·L-1
IC50 > 40 μmol·L-1
Pseudokinase domainBinding to the ATP-binding site of MLKL and showing no functional impact on necroptosisHuman, mouse
6 (Crizotinib)Kd = 210 nmol·L-1
IC50 > 40 μmol·L-1
Pseudokinase domainHuman, mouse
9 (NSA)IC50 < 0.2 μmol·L-14HB domainCovalent targeting of Cys86 within the 4HB domain induces MLKL conformational change, thereby blocking its oligomerization and membrane translocationHuman
13 (TC13172)EC50 = 2 nmol·L-14HB domainHuman
17EC50 = 31 nmol·L-14HB domainHuman
25 (PROTAC 36)DC50 > 1 μmol·L-1
Dmax > 90%
Pseudokinase domainNon-covalently binding to MLKL and inducing MLKL degradationHuman, mouse
28 (MP-11)DC50 = 12 nmol·L-1
Dmax = 95.06%
4HB domainCovalently binding to MLKL and inducing MLKL degradationHuman
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靶向混合谱系激酶样蛋白MLKL的药物研究进展
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李一鸣 1, 2 , 王楠 2 , 杨亚玺 3 , 白著双 1 , 陈超 2, 3, * , 周兵 1, 2, 3, *
药学学报 | 综述 2026,61(8): 2867-2878
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药学学报 |综述 2026 , 61 (8) : 2867 -2878
靶向混合谱系激酶样蛋白MLKL的药物研究进展
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李一鸣1, 2, 王楠2, 杨亚玺3, 白著双1, 陈超2, 3, * , 周兵1, 2, 3, *
作者信息
  • 1山东第一医科大学 (山东省医学科学院) 药学院, 山东 济南 250117
  • 2烟台新药创制山东省实验室, 山东 烟台 264117
  • 3中国科学院上海药物研究所, 原创新药研究全国重点实验室, 上海 201203
通讯作者:
陈超, E-mail:
周兵, E-mail:
作者简介:

作者贡献:

李一鸣负责文献资料的收集、文章的撰写及图表的绘制; 王楠参与资料的收集和数据核实等工作; 杨亚玺负责文章的修改; 白著双在文章修回时提供修改意见并对图表进行完善; 陈超提供撰写思路和内容框架组织等工作; 周兵负责文章的选题与稿件修改完善等工作。

Advances in progress of drug targeting mixed lineage kinase-like protein
Yi-ming LI1, 2, Nan WANG2, Ya-xi YANG3, Zhu-shuang BAI1, Chao CHEN2, 3, * , Bing ZHOU1, 2, 3, *
Affiliations
  • 1School of Pharmacy, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250117, China
  • 2Shandong Laboratory of Yantai Drug Discovery, Yantai 264117, China
  • 3China State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
出版时间: 2026-08-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1596
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混合谱系激酶样蛋白(mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein, MLKL) 是一类“假激酶”(pseudokinase), 其不仅是程序性坏死(necroptosis) 通路的关键效应分子, 还参与其他程序性细胞死亡通路, 在多种生理活动的调控中发挥关键作用。MLKL功能异常也与多种疾病的发生发展密切相关, 使其成为极具潜力的药物治疗靶点。然而, 目前靶向MLKL的药物发现仍处于早期阶段, 尚无进入临床研究的药物, 亟需开展更深入且系统的研究。本文综述了MLKL的结构特征、生物学功能及靶向MLKL的药物研究进展。

程序性细胞死亡  /  程序性坏死  /  混合谱系激酶样蛋白  /  抑制剂  /  降解剂

The mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) is a "pseudokinase" that not only functions as a key effector molecule in the necroptosis pathway but also participates in the regulation of other programmed cell death pathways, thereby playing a crucial role in modulating various physiological processes. Dysregulation of MLKL activity is closely associated with the initiation and progression of multiple diseases, rendering it a highly promising therapeutic target. However, drug discovery targeting MLKL is still in its early stages, with no candidates having advanced to clinical trials. Thus, further in-depth and systematic investigations are urgently needed. This review summarizes the structural features, biological functions, and current progress in drug development targeting MLKL.

programmed cell death  /  necroptosis  /  the mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein  /  inhibitor  /  degrader
李一鸣, 王楠, 杨亚玺, 白著双, 陈超, 周兵. 靶向混合谱系激酶样蛋白MLKL的药物研究进展. 药学学报, 2026 , 61 (8) : 2867 -2878 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1596
Yi-ming LI, Nan WANG, Ya-xi YANG, Zhu-shuang BAI, Chao CHEN, Bing ZHOU. Advances in progress of drug targeting mixed lineage kinase-like protein[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2026 , 61 (8) : 2867 -2878 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1596
细胞死亡是生命体的重要过程之一, 对于细胞内稳态的维持和正常的细胞发育具有重要意义。其中, 程序性细胞死亡通路可在生理条件下通过特定的效应分子组成的信号级联反应实现对细胞死亡的精准调控。MLKL不仅是程序性坏死通路的关键效应因子, 还是其他多种程序性细胞死亡通路的调控因子之一, 其功能异常与炎症和癌症等疾病的进展密切相关。作为相关疾病治疗的潜在靶标, 目前靶向MLKL的创新药物研究正在快速发展。
细胞死亡是细胞生命历程中不可或缺的环节, 能够清除体内无功能、受损及有害细胞, 维持内环境稳态和保障生命体正常发育, 对生命活动的有序进行具有重要意义[1]。根据功能差异, 细胞死亡可以分为意外性细胞死亡(accidental cell death, ACD) 和调节性细胞死亡(regulated cell death, RCD)。意外性细胞死亡多与高强度的外界刺激所致的突发损伤相关; 而调节性细胞死亡是在非外源性环境扰动的情况下发生, 由特定的效应分子组成的信号级联反应精准调控。当RCD完全在生理条件下发生时, 也可被称为程序性细胞死亡[2]。
不同的细胞死亡方式具有不同的形态学特征, 并产生各异的生物学效应。凋亡(apoptosis) 是目前研究最为系统的一种细胞死亡方式, 其通过半胱天冬酶-8 (Caspase-8) 依赖的级联反应, 启动细胞死亡[3]。凋亡的典型形态学特征表现为细胞收缩、染色质凝聚、细胞核碎裂及凋亡小体(apoptotic body) 形成; 这些凋亡小体随后会被邻近的实质细胞、肿瘤细胞或巨噬细胞吞噬清除[4]。坏死(necrosis) 是由外部不良刺激(如氧化应激和脂质过氧化等) 引发的非调控性细胞死亡过程, 其典型形态学特征表现为细胞肿胀、细胞膜破裂及细胞内容物外泄, 外泄的内容物会对邻近细胞造成损伤, 进而激活机体免疫系统, 最终诱发炎症反应[5]。2005年, Degterev等[6]报道程序性坏死这一新的死亡调控方式, 其形态学表现与传统坏死高度相似, 但在分子机制层面, 它与细胞凋亡关联且高度可控。随着科学研究的深入, 越来越多新型细胞死亡方式被逐步发现, 如Parthanatos[7]、铁死亡(ferroptosis)[8]、氧死亡(oxeiptosis)[9]、线粒体凋亡(mitoptosis)[10]、焦亡(pyroptosis)[11]和NETosis (neutrophil extracellular trap cell death)[12]等。细胞死亡通路的异常激活, 与肿瘤和炎症性疾病发生发展密切相关[13, 14], 因此通过靶向细胞死亡通路的关键靶蛋白进行药物发现, 对发展难治性疾病的新型治疗策略具有重要意义[15, 16]。
激酶是药物化学中的主要靶标之一, 人类基因组中已鉴定出超过500种蛋白激酶。激酶通过利用三磷酸腺苷(adenosine triphosphate, ATP) 实现特定蛋白质底物的磷酸化, 其酶催化功能的行使依赖于三个关键的结构域, 包括ATP互作基序“VAIK (Val-Ala-Ile-Lys)”、催化环“HRD (His-Arg-Asp)”及金属辅因子结合基序“DFG (Asp-Phe-Gly)”[17]。HRD和DFG基序存在缺陷或缺失时, 激酶会丧失催化活性, 这类激酶被称为“假激酶”。作为蛋白激酶超家族的一员, “假激酶”与许多病理变化密切相关, 但主要通过非催化机制进行信号传递, 其功能难以被有效干预, 因此在很大程度上仍被视为“难成药靶点”[18]。
在2012年, 王晓东团队[19]首次发现MLKL是程序性坏死通路受体相互作用蛋白激酶1 (receptor interacting serine/threonine kinase 1, RIPK1) 和蛋白激酶3 (receptor interacting serine/threonine kinase 3, RIPK3) 的下游靶点, 是程序性坏死通路的核心执行分子。由于激酶样结构域缺乏经典激酶的3个保守的催化残基中的两个, 其中人源MLKL的HRD基序突变为HRN (His‑Arg‑ Asn), DFG基序突变为GFE (Gly‑Phe‑Glu), MLKL被归类为“假激酶”, 主要发挥蛋白激酶调节剂作用。2013年, Murphy等[20]首次解析了小鼠MLKL的全长晶体结构, 其一级结构由三部分组成(图1): N端1~117残基构成的四螺旋结构域(four-helix bundle, 4HB), C端171~464残基构成的无催化活性的“假激酶”结构域, 以及连接两者的129~169残基构成的α螺旋连接区(brace domain)。
在经典的程序性坏死通路中, 肿瘤坏死因子受体(tumor necrosis factor receptor, TNFR)、Toll样受体(toll like receptors, TLRs)、干扰素α/β受体(interferon alpha/beta receptor, IFNAR) 及Z-DNA结合蛋白1 (Z-DNA binding protein 1, ZBP-1) 等均可启动程序性坏死级联反应[21], 在死亡受体介导的程序性坏死通路中(图2), 肿瘤坏死因子-α (tumor necrosis factor-α, TNF-α) 和肿瘤坏死因子受体1特异性结合会诱导RIPK1、TNFR1相关死亡结构域蛋白(tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated death domain, TRADD)、细胞凋亡抑制蛋白1/2 (cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1/2, cIAP1/2) 和TNF受体相关因子2/5 (tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 2/5, TRAF2/5) 在细胞质膜表面富集, 形成复合体Ⅰ (complex 1)[22, 23]。在复合体Ⅰ中, E3泛素连接酶cIAP1/2介导RIPK1泛素化[24], 进而激活NF-κB信号通路[25]。当cIAP1/2的活性被线粒体源性促凋亡蛋白SMAC (second mitochondria-derived activator of Caspases) 抑制时, RIPK1和TRADD会从复合体Ⅰ中解离, 与Fas相关死亡结构域蛋白(Fas-associated death domain, FADD) 和Caspase-8形成复合物Ⅱ, 进而激活Caspase-8依赖的级联反应, 诱导细胞凋亡。当Caspase-8的活性被zVAD.fmk [z-Val-Ala-Asp-(OMe)-fluoromethyl ketone] 等抑制剂阻断时, RIPK1、RIPK3与MLKL形成坏死小体复合物(necrosome)[26]。在坏死小体中, RIPK1和RIPK3通过RIP同型相互作用基序(receptor-interacting protein kinase homotypic interaction motif, RHIM) 结构域相互作用, 促使RIPK3磷酸化。RIPK3能够与MLKL的“假激酶”结构域结合, 磷酸化MLKL (如人源细胞中的T357和S358位点), 随后MLKL会寡聚化并易位至细胞质膜, 最终导致质膜破裂, 释放损伤相关分子模式(damage-associated molecular patterns, DAMPs), 引起机体的炎症反应[27]。另外, 除RIPK1外, 其他具有RHIM结构域的蛋白, 包括含有TIR结构域的衔接分子(TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β, TRIF) 和Z-DNA结合蛋白1, 也可以与RIPK3相互作用, 通过激活RIPK3诱导非RIPK1依赖的程序性坏死[28]。
目前大部分研究认为, 4HB作为MLKL介导细胞死亡的功能核心, 负责破坏膜的完整性并诱导细胞程序性坏死, 其关键功能受到C端的“假激酶”结构域的严格调控, α螺旋连接区作为信号传递的“桥梁”, 通过自身的构象调整(如解旋或折叠), 将“假激酶”的结构变化信号传递至4HB[29]。随后, 4HB发生寡聚形成四聚体, 其带正电荷的中心口袋可与带负电荷的磷酸肌醇相互作用, 并通过肌动蛋白、高尔基体和微管运输系统定位于质膜, 最终通过N-末端执行结构域(N-terminal executioner domain, NED) 破坏膜的完整性, 增加膜渗透性并导致细胞死亡[30]。最新研究发现, SIGLEC12在人源细胞中通过介导MLKL下游的质膜破裂过程, 调控程序性坏死的最终执行阶段, 但调控机制的普适性还需要更加深入的研究[31]。
MLKL不仅是程序性坏死通路的执行者, 还参与包括Parthanatos[32]、NETosis[33]及自噬(autophagy) 通路[34]等不同形式的程序性死亡通路的调控。Parthanatos是一种由DNA损伤引起的聚(ADP-核糖) 聚合酶1 [poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1, PARP1] 介导的程序性细胞死亡[7]。PARP1过度激活可刺激细胞凋亡诱导因子(apoptosis-inducing factor, AIF) 核易位, 并加速烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD+) 和ATP的消耗, 导致DNA片段化。在肝癌细胞中, MLKL能够维持内质网和线粒体之间的Mg2+动态平衡, 抑制代谢应激诱导的Parthanatos细胞死亡和促进癌细胞免疫逃逸; 而敲除MLKL能够限制内质网Mg2+释放和线粒体Mg2+摄取, 导致内质网功能障碍和线粒体氧化应激, 进而增强代谢应激诱导的Parthanatos细胞死亡, 激活抗肿瘤免疫应答和抑制肝癌细胞增殖[32]。NETosis是一种由中性粒细胞介导的炎性程序性细胞死亡方式, 在感染和组织损伤时, 活化的中性粒细胞能够向细胞外释放由解聚的染色质和细胞内颗粒蛋白组成的中性粒细胞胞外杀菌网络(neutrophil extracellular traps, NETs), 从而捕获并杀死病原体[12]。研究发现, MLKL能够从细胞质转移到细胞膜, 并刺激下游NADPH氧化酶非依赖性活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 的产生, 并激活肽基精氨酸脱亚胺酶4 (peptidylarginine deiminase 4, PAD4), 介导白细胞介素-1β (interleukin-1β) 等炎症因子释放, 进一步放大炎症微环境, 间接加速NETosis进程[33]。自噬是维持细胞内稳态的重要过程, 通过溶酶体降解自身蛋白或细胞器, 实现细胞本身代谢需要和某些细胞器的更新[35]。细胞过度自噬会导致自噬依赖性细胞死亡(autophagy-dependent cell death, ADCD), 其主要特征为细胞质中出现大量自噬溶酶体, 细胞内容物大量被降解, 但细胞核保持完整[36]。一方面, 棕榈酸(palmitic acid, PA) 刺激会诱导MLKL的表达和溶酶体易位, 进而破坏溶酶体膜完整性, 抑制自噬溶酶体功能, 阻断自噬通量, 从而促进肝损伤和炎症反应[37]; 另一方面, 微管相关蛋白1轻链3 (microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3, LC3) 是自噬的标志蛋白, 可通过与RIPK1/3中的LC3相互作用结构域(LC3 interacting region, LIR) 结合, 影响MLKL介导的程序性坏死通路活性。例如, 在缺氧的心肌细胞中, 自噬体积累可加速坏死小体形成, 最终激活程序性坏死[38]。
异常激活的程序性坏死通路会导致多种组织损伤, 其与急性结肠炎、全身炎症反应综合征(systemic inflammatory response syndrome, SIRS)、心肌损伤及阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease, AD) 等炎性疾病的发生发展密切相关[39]。通过敲除RIPK3或使用RIPK1激酶抑制剂干预程序性坏死通路, 可完全保护小鼠免于致死性SIRS, MLKL作为程序性坏死通路的关键效应因子, 亦是治疗相关炎症性疾病潜在靶标[40]。MLKL异常磷酸化会激活程序性坏死, 还可能导致心肌细胞相关死亡; 抑制MLKL功能则可有效改善心脏功能障碍[41]。此外, 神经元细胞损失可能是阿尔茨海默病等神经退行性疾病的诱因之一[42], 抑制MLKL可发挥神经元保护作用, 从而改善相关疾病的病理学特征[43]。MLKL还能够调节基因表达, 在前脂肪细胞中敲除MLKL, 会促进Wnt10b的表达并下调脂肪代谢相关基因, 进而抑制白色脂肪细胞分化, 提示MLKL可能是肥胖治疗的潜在靶标[44]。另外, MLKL可通过与脂质结合后发挥调控功能: 磷酸化MLKL能够结合磷脂酰肌醇(4, 5)-二磷酸[PI(4, 5)P2], 从而抑制胰岛素刺激下质膜中的PI (3, 4, 5) P3的产生, 导致胰岛素抵抗并促进2型糖尿病的发展[45]。
在肿瘤中, MLKL的功能具有多样性, 一方面, 肿瘤细胞通过诱导血管内皮细胞发生程序性坏死, 破坏血管屏障完整性, 从而促进自身外渗并加速转移。在肝转移的胰腺导管腺癌(pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, PDAC) 患者组织中, MLKL的表达升高会导致程序性坏死增强, 进而招募巨噬细胞, 增强肿瘤CD47的“不要吃我(don't eat me)”信号, 并诱导形成巨噬细胞细胞外陷阱(macrophage extracellular traps, MET) 及激活C-X-C趋化因子配体8 (C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 8, CXCL8) 介导的上皮-间质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition, EMT), 最终促进PDAC肝转移[46]。另一方面, 激活的程序坏死会导致肿瘤细胞的坏死和增强抗肿瘤免疫反应[47, 48]。例如, Werthmöller等[49]报道, 程序性坏死诱导剂zVAD.fmk联合放疗、化疗和热疗等其他疗法, 可增加低免疫原性B16-F10黑色素瘤细胞坏死, 减少肿瘤微环境中调节性T细胞(regulatory T cells, Tregs) 浸润, 增加树突状细胞(dendritic cells, DCs) 和CD8+ T细胞浸润, 显著抑制肿瘤生长。此外, MLKL还能通过调控其他死亡通路, 发挥肿瘤促进功能。在肝癌细胞中, MLKL作为AMP激活的蛋白激酶α1 (AMP-activated protein kinase α1, AMPKα1) 与蛋白磷酸酶1B (protein phosphatase, Mg2+/Mn2+ dependent 1B, PPM1B) 之间的桥接分子, 促进AMPKα1去磷酸化, 从而抑制自噬和促进肝癌发生[50]。另外, MLKL还会抑制肝脏微环境中代谢应激诱导的Parthanatos死亡, 进而增强抗肿瘤细胞免疫逃逸[32]。
总之, MLKL通过程序性坏死依赖性功能和非程序性坏死功能, 广泛参与了多种疾病的进程, 靶向MLKL的药物发现对于疾病治疗和MLKL的功能探索具有重要意义。
目前报道的靶向MLKL药物根据作用机制可以分为抑制剂和降解剂两大类[51, 52]。其中, MLKL抑制剂根据作用位点和机制差异, 可划分为三大类: 靶向“假激酶”结构域的MLKL抑制剂、靶向4HB结构域的MLKL共价抑制剂, 以及靶向4HB结构域的非共价MLKL抑制剂。MLKL降解剂根据作用位点和机制差异, 可划分为两类: 靶向“假激酶”结构域的非共价MLKL降解剂和靶向4HB结构域的共价MLKL降解剂。
Murphy等[53]发现, MLKL的4HB结构域释放与RIPK3磷酸化介导的“假激酶”结构域构象变化同时发生, 并且证实“假激酶”结构域能够以非镁离子依赖且非催化的方式结合核苷酸。为探索核苷酸结合对MLKL功能的调控作用, Hildebrand等[54]构建了小鼠MLKL“假激酶”结构域重组蛋白, 利用细胞热位移分析技术(cellular thermal shift assay, CETSA) 对包含367个小分子的化合物库进行筛选, 发现化合物1 (GW806742X) 能够与MLKL结合(图3A)。机制上, 化合物1通过竞争性结合“假激酶”结构域的核苷酸结合位点, 进而阻碍MLKL向细胞膜异位。随后, Ma等[55]解析了人MLKL与化合物1的共晶结构(图3B), 发现化合物1结合于MLKL的ATP结合位点, 属于Ⅱ型激酶抑制剂。晶体复合物结果显示: 化合物1的磺酰胺片段与MLKL的Glu293存在氢键作用; 脲连接子与C-螺旋的Glu250及Gly349形成氢键; 三氟甲氧基苯基占据未结合ATP时GFE基序中Phe350侧链所在口袋。后续研究表明, 化合物1不具备MLKL选择性, 其可能脱靶作用于RIPK1/RIPK3, 从而抑制程序性坏死。
为了获得选择性MLKL抑制剂, Ma等[55]对化合物1进行了结构简化, 得到了化合物2和3 (图3A)。结果显示, 二者对MLKL的选择性提高, 但结合活性降低。随后, 通过高通量筛选发现化合物4, 其对MLKL具有高结合活性(Kd = 230 nmol·L-1), 而对RIPK1和RIPK3无明显结合活性(Kd > 30 000 nmol·L-1); 其对映异构体5的MLKL结合亲和力较弱(Kd = 7 600 nmol·L-1)。晶体学研究显示(图3C), 化合物4结合于MLKL的ATP结合位点, 属于Ⅰ型激酶抑制剂, 氨基吡嗪基与铰链区Glu284和Cys86形成两个氢键, 4-氟苯基朝向P-loop, 与Arg210脂肪侧链产生堆叠作用; 未取代的苯基指向GFE基序, 但未将Phe350从其口袋中置换。在FADD缺陷型Jurkat细胞中, 化合物4不具备抑制细胞程序性坏死活性(IC50 > 40 μmol·L-1), 表明其虽能特异性地结合MLKL, 但无法诱导MLKL构象发生变化, 进而阻断RIPK3介导的MLKL磷酸化。类似地, MLKL选择性抑制剂化合物6 (crizotinib) 也不具备抑制Jurkat细胞的程序性坏死[54]。2021年, Prajapati等[56]报道了化合物7 (6, 7-dihydroxycoumarin, 6, 7-DHC), 其可直接与人源MLKL的ATP结合残基Lys52相互作用并抑制其磷酸化, 但同样存在选择性问题。综合而言, 目前靶向“假激酶”结构域MLKL抑制剂尽管具有良好的结合活性, 但缺乏生理抑制功能, 这导致MLKL的“假激酶域”被认为是“不可成药”的。因此, 能够靶向MLKL“假激酶”结构域并阻断其构象转换的活性分子还需要进一步探索。
2012年, Sun等[19]利用TNF-α、SMAC模拟物和z-VAD.fmk联合处理人结直肠癌HT-29细胞, 构建程序性坏死筛选模型, 对20万个化合物进行高通量筛选, 得到的苗头化合物8 (图4A), 其具有良好的抗程序性坏死活性(IC50 < 1 μmol·L-1)。以化合物8为先导化合物进行结构修饰, 得到活性显著提升的化合物9 (necrosulfonamide, NSA, IC50 < 0.2 μmol·L-1)。为明确其作用靶点, 他们将NSA的吡嗪环与生物素偶联, 合成探针化合物10, 通过生物素-亲和素系统(biotin-avidin system, BAS) 进行靶标垂钓, 证实化合物10可特异性结合人源MLKL, 而对鼠源MLKL无结合活性。机制研究发现, α, β-不饱和酮结构是NSA维持生物活性的关键, 其通过Michael加成特异性与人源MLKL的Cys86残基共价结合, 从而阻断MLKL四聚体的寡聚化及细胞死亡。鼠源MLKL缺乏可共价结合的Cys86残基, 这导致NSA对鼠源细胞无活性。NSA的发现首次证实, 靶向4HB结构域的共价MLKL抑制剂可干预MLKL功能, 为后续的研究奠定了基础。
2017年, Yan等[57]通过高通量筛选发现了黄嘌呤类MLKL共价抑制剂11 (图4B), 其通过共价结合Cys86在HT-29细胞中表现出良好的抗程序性坏死活性(EC50 = 390 ± 8 nmol·L-1)。化合物11具有良好的靶点选择性, 在10 μmol·L-1的浓度下对RIPK1和RIPK3不具备明显的抑制活性。以11为先导化合物, 进行构效关系研究发现: 在化合物的N-1位、N-7位及C-8位引入不同取代基团时, 其抗程序性坏死活性均呈下降趋势; 而在N-3位引入丙炔基团得到化合物12 (EC50 = 152 ± 23 nmol·L-1), 活性高于引入苄基等基团的化合物, 表明该结合位点存在狭窄的疏水空间。随后, 在丙炔末端引入苯酚基团得到化合物13 (TC13172), 其可能通过额外的氢键增强与MLKL的相互作用, 抗程序性坏死活性显著提升(EC50 = 2 ± 0.6 nmol·L-1)。研究团队[58]通过生物素标记的化学活性导向蛋白质谱分析技术(biotin-tagged chemical activity-based protein profiling, BTC-ABPP) 及液质联用技术(liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, LC-MS/MS), 证实TC13172可通过甲磺酰基的亲电取代反应与MLKL的Cys86残基共价结合, 从而诱导MLKL的4HB结构域构象改变。晶体学研究发现(图4C), TC13172与MLKL共价结合后, 其黄嘌呤母核与Phe148残基形成有利的π-π堆积作用, 将MLKL锁定在自抑制状态。
TC13172的甲磺酰基具有高化学反应活性, 易与谷胱甘肽(glutathione, GSH) 发生非特异性结合, 不仅存在脱靶风险, 还会降低其体内的代谢稳定性。为提高分子的化学稳定性, Cui等[59]保留TC13172中的丙炔基苯酚结构, 以简化的脲嘧啶替换黄嘌呤母核, 同时引入高活性共价基团以保持对MLKL的抑制活性, 开发了一系列脲嘧啶类MLKL抑制剂(图4B)。通过对共价基团的探索发现, 化合物14中5位丙烯酰胺基与6位的氯原子对活性的维持至关重要, 进一步的机制研究发现, 6位的氯原子是与MLKL的Cys86形成共价键的关键。为降低与谷胱甘肽的反应活性, Cui等在氨基处引入不同取代基构建酰胺类衍生物, 发现: 在羰基的α或β位引入具有平面结构的大体积取代基会导致活性下降, 而引入构象自由度更高的长链酰基或苄基酰基时, 则有助于提升活性, 其中化合物15活性最佳(EC50 = 316 ± 23 nmol·L-1)。为维持优化过程可能破坏的TC13172中酚羟基与Glu156的氢键作用, 他们通过氨基取代、羟基移位及在苯环引入更灵活的N-甲基吡啶酮基团等方式, 得到活性显著提升的化合物16 (EC50 = 82 ± 4 nmol·L-1) 和17 (EC50 = 31 ± 1 nmol·L-1)。
机制研究发现, TC13172可阻断TSZ诱导的MLKL寡聚化, 而化合物16和17仅能部分减少MLKL寡聚化, 这表明其可能通过抑制后续的细胞膜易位发挥抗程序性坏死功能。对化合物16的作用模式的模拟显示, 脲嘧啶母核与Phe148之间存在π-π堆积作用, 但强度弱于黄嘌呤母核与Phe148的相互作用, 这可能导致其无法完全阻止MLKL磷酸化触发的构象变化及寡聚化。化合物16和17如何抑制寡聚化MLKL的膜转位仍需进一步研究。此外, 与TC13172相比, 化合物16与谷胱甘肽的反应速率显著降低, 从而减少脱靶效应并降低细胞毒性[59]。
由于鼠源MLKL蛋白缺乏关键的Cys86残基, 这导致鼠源细胞中的MLKL功能研究和MLKL抑制剂的早期动物模型评价受到限制。为突破这一局限, Rübbelke等[60]通过使用蛋白质核磁共振(nuclear magnetic resonance, NMR) 技术解析了MLKL的4HB片段结构, 发现了一个不依赖Cys86的新型小分子结合口袋。随后对包含2 891个化合物的片段库进行高通量筛选, 发现化合物18 (图5A)。在基于NMR的筛选显示, 化合物18外消旋体与MLKL结合后, NOE效应光谱(nuclear overhauser effect spectroscopy, NOESY) 中呈现出两组不同强度的NOE信号, 提示其两个对映异构体体存在活性差异。化合物18在手性拆分过程中化学稳定性较差, 通过将吲哚母核生物电子等排替换为苯并咪唑结构, 得到化合物19和20, 二者对MLKL的结合亲和力均有所降低。对化合物20与MLKL的晶体复合物结构分析显示(图5B), 羟基朝向位置存在未填充的亚口袋, 因此将羟基修饰成甲氧基, 得到结合亲和力明显提升的化合物21。同时, 苯并咪唑的苯基部分面向溶剂区, 故在苯基上引入极性羧基基团, 得到对MLKL表现出较强结合亲和力的化合物22 (Kd = 50 μmol·L-1)。由于异丙基-苯基部分指向α-螺旋的疏水核心, 对化合物22中的异丙基-苯基部分进行修饰发现: 萘基取代导致活性明显下降, 而联苯基取代可维持活性。这可能是由于联苯片段的可旋转键使其具有比萘基更高的构象自由度, 或萘基体积超出疏水口袋的空间容纳极限。对TC13172共价饱和结合的MLKL进行NMR滴定实验, 结果显示该类化合物与MLKL的亲和力无明显变化, 表明其结合位点与Cys86依赖型MLKL抑制剂的结合位点不重叠。但总体而言, 化合物22的结合亲和力较弱且透膜性差, 仍需进一步的优化[59]。
蛋白水解靶向嵌合体(proteolysis targeting chimeras, PROTAC) 技术由耶鲁大学Craig Crews团队[61]于2001年首次提出。作为一类异双功能分子, PROTAC可同时与目标蛋白(protein of interest, POI) 和E3泛素连接酶结合, 形成三元复合物, 通过E3泛素连接酶诱导POI泛素化, 进而招募蛋白酶体降解靶蛋白质(图6A)。与传统小分子药物相比, PROTAC可直接降解目标蛋白, 不仅能够阻断靶蛋白的“酶催化”功能, 还能够破坏其蛋白质骨架相关的“非酶催化”功能, 从而实现对传统的“不可成药”靶点的成药性突破, 显著拓宽药物研发的靶点范围。MLKL属于“难成药”的“假激酶”家族成员, 借助PROTAC技术, 可实现对其“非酶功能”的抑制, 从而加速靶向MLKL的药物研发进程。
2021年, ANAXIS PHARMA公司在专利中披露了一系列基于吡唑甲酰胺的MLKL选择性结合配体, 这类化合物对MLKL具有纳摩尔级结合亲和力(Kd < 10 nmol·L-1) 和良好的选择性。分子对接显示, 化合物23的磺酰胺片段指向口袋, 而芳环取代基朝向溶剂暴露区。Rathje等[62]通过不同长度的连接链与来那度胺配体偶联, 构建了一系列PROTAC分子。在HT-29细胞系中, 化合物24表现出优异的降解活性, 在10 μmol·L-1下可剂量依赖性地几乎完全降解MLKL (图6B)。通过对连接子和CRBN配体的系统性优化, 得到最优化合物25 (MLKL PROTAC 36), 其在10 μmol·L-1浓度下的MLKL降解率大于90%。在HT-29细胞中, 化合物25能够剂量依赖性地抑制程序性坏死, 在10 μmol·L-1浓度下实现对细胞的完全保护。化合物25基于靶向“假激酶”结构域的配体设计, 充分证明了PROTAC技术在靶向“难成药”靶标中的潜力, 为靶向MLKL的药物研发提供了新的方向。
化合物25作为首个靶向MLKL的非共价降解剂, 降解活性较低。利用靶蛋白不可逆配体构建的共价PROTAC降解剂虽不具备催化机制, 但其与蛋白的强结合活性可能赋予选择性和强效性等额外优势[63]。Li等[64]基于AlphaFold数据库预测的全长人源MLKL蛋白质结构, 将其与E3泛素连接酶CRBN进行蛋白-蛋白对接分析, 成功识别出MLKL与CRBN之间形成稳定结合的构象模式。在此基础上, 通过计算机辅助药物设计和基于PROTAC-DB数据库的连接子筛选, 进行PROTAC理性设计: 将带有炔基结构的化合物12通过Click反应与携带有不同长度和类型连接子的泊马度胺配体相连, 得到一系列靶向MLKL的PROTAC分子(图6C)。活性筛选结果显示, 化合物26在1 μmol·L-1下仅对MLKL表现出轻微降解效果[Dmax = (8.12 ± 0.15)%], 且无抗程序性坏死活性, 提示其含有的三氮唑结构可能破坏了配体与MLKL的结合。随后保留了TC13172中与MLKL结合的关键炔基和苯基结构, 在其末端引入携带不同连接子的CRBN配体, 得到一系列降解剂, 其中化合物27在HT-29细胞中表现出良好的MLKL降解能力(DC50 = 0.029 ± 0.004 μmol·L-1, Dmax = 92.30%) 和抗程序性坏死活性(EC50 = 0.031 ± 0.008 μmol·L-1)。为增强代谢稳定性, 他们研究团队在化合物27的基础上引入刚性环结构, 得到最优化合物28 (MP-11), 其对MLKL的降解能力(DC50 = 0.012 ± 0.003 μmol·L-1, Dmax = 95.06%) 和抗程序性坏死活性(EC50 = 0.017 ± 0.003 μmol·L-1) 均显著提升。在体内实验中, 化合物28 (40 mg·kg-1) 静脉注射和口服给药后, 分别导致HT-29异种移植小鼠肿瘤中约90%和72%的MLKL降解, 证实其在体内具有靶向降解MLKL能力。数据显示, 单次静脉注射40 mg·kg-1化合物28显示出良好半衰期(t1/2 = 0.26 ± 0.03 h) 和血浆暴露量(AUC0-t = 1 558.5 ± 294.1 ng·h·mL-1), 但口服给药的绝对生物利用度仅为26%, 仍需进一步优化。值得注意的是, 化合物28通过甲磺酰基与人源MLKL中保守的Cys86形成共价键, 导致其在鼠源细胞中降解活性较弱, 一定程度上限制了其在MLKL功能研究中的适用范围。
MLKL通过程序性坏死功能和非程序性坏死依赖性功能, 广泛参与多种疾病的进程。在程序性坏死相关疾病中, 尽管RIPK1和RIPK3抑制剂的研发已取得较大的进展, 如RIPK1抑制剂GSK3145095和SAR443060等目前处于临床研究状态[65, 66], 但RIPK1和RIPK3在细胞内参与更加广泛的信号调控, 可能导致抑制剂产生额外不良反应, 从而增加其在非肿瘤疾病中的治疗风险。相较而言, MLKL蛋白处于程序性坏死通路的最末端, 靶向MLKL的药物或具有更优的靶向性和安全性。此外, MLKL还通过非程序性坏死通路发挥功能, 而现有的程序性坏死通路相关药物无法调控其非程序性坏死功能, 这进一步凸显了靶向MLKL药物研发的必要性。
最早报道的靶向“假激酶”结构域核苷酸结合口袋的药物, 因无法限制MLKL构象转化和随后的4HB结构域活化以抑制MLKL的功能, 导致靶向MLKL的药物研发面临巨大挑战。后续发现的以NSA和TC13172为代表的共价抑制剂, 通过靶向人源MLKL 4HB结构域保守的Cys86残基阻断其寡聚化与膜定位, 虽在细胞水平表现出高效抗程序性坏死活性, 但存在代谢稳定性差和脱靶风险高等共价抑制剂的共性问题, 目前仍处于先导化合物发现阶段。此外, 啮齿类动物MLKL因缺乏关键的Cys86残基, 进一步限制了共价MLKL的动物水平评价及临床转化。而针对4HB结构域的非共价抑制剂尚处于早期探索阶段, 已发现的苗头化合物存在结合亲和力低和膜通透性差等缺陷。
MLKL作为“假激酶”主要通过“非酶催化功能”发挥作用, 而新兴的PROTAC技术为靶向MLKL的药物研发提供了新策略。目前报道的非共价MLKL降解剂PROTAC 36虽实现了MLKL的“不可成药性”突破, 但存在降解活性差等缺陷。基于共价配体开发的MLKL降解剂MP-11, 尽管具有良好的体内外降解活性和代谢稳定性, 但其在鼠源细胞中无效, 一定程度上限制了其应用(表1)。此外, PROTAC分子的固有结构特性使其具有远超传统类药性五规则(Lipinski's rule of five) 的理化性质, 为后续成药性优化带来挑战。
总体而言, MLKL作为重要的创新药物研发靶点, 其在疾病中的功能仍需要进一步深入研究和验证。目前靶向MLKL的药物尚处于早期阶段, 结合多种药物发现策略, 开发兼具高活性、高选择性、广泛应用性、低毒性、良好体内代谢稳定性和药效的MLKL靶向干预分子, 仍是当前该领域的核心需求, 这也将助力MLKL生物学新功能的验证和靶向MLKL药物的临床转化。

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2026年第61卷第8期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1596
  • 接收时间:2025-12-31
  • 首发时间:2026-09-21
  • 出版时间:2026-08-12
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  • 收稿日期:2025-12-31
  • 修回日期:2026-03-20
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    1山东第一医科大学 (山东省医学科学院) 药学院, 山东 济南 250117
    2烟台新药创制山东省实验室, 山东 烟台 264117
    3中国科学院上海药物研究所, 原创新药研究全国重点实验室, 上海 201203

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
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属
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种数
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species
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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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