Article(id=1308841263596667337, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308841198224240856, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1298, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1762185600000, receivedDateStr=2025-11-04, revisedDate=1767715200000, revisedDateStr=2026-01-07, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1789981674336, onlineDateStr=2026-09-21, pubDate=1781193600000, pubDateStr=2026-06-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1789981674336, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-09-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1789981674336, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1789981674336, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1308841198224240856, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2026', volume='61', issue='6', pageStart='1881', pageEnd='2376', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1781193600000', pubDateStr='2026-06-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1789981658750, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1789984187230, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1308851803500933401, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308841198224240856, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1308851803500933402, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308841198224240856, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=1968, endPage=1984, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1308841263881880010, articleId=1308841263596667337, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress on targeting biomolecular condensates for intervention of neurodegenerative diseases, columnId=1308841198912106713, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Special Reports: Frontier Target Discovery and Molecular Pharmacological Mechanisms of Major Diseases, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Abnormal aggregates with degradation-resistant properties are the core pathological hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Huntington's disease (HD). Emerging studies have revealed that the pathogenesis of these diseases is closely linked to abnormalities in biomolecular condensates within cells. This review aims to systematically outline the relevant physiological and pathological functions of biomolecular condensates, summarize the regulatory mechanisms underlying phase separation of disease-related proteins and their associations with biomolecular condensates under physiological and pathological conditions, reveal the roles of these proteins in mediating neuronal dysfunction and death, and finally summarize the current therapeutic strategies targeting biomolecular condensates for intervention in neurodegenerative diseases.

, authors=Si-qian CHEN1, 2, Qiang PENG1, Yu-qing QIAO1, Ning-ning LI1, Hong-feng WANG1, Kin-yip TAM2, *, Zheng YING1, *, authorsList=Si-qian CHEN, Qiang PENG, Yu-qing QIAO, Ning-ning LI, Hong-feng WANG, Kin-yip TAM, Zheng YING, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Kin-yip TAM, Zheng YING, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2026 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1308841266763366867, articleId=1308841263596667337, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=靶向生物分子凝聚物干预神经退行性疾病的研究进展, columnId=1308841199054713051, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道: 前沿靶标发现与重大疾病分子药理学机制研究, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

神经退行性疾病相关病理蛋白形成各类难以降解的异常聚集体, 被认为是包括肌萎缩侧索硬化(amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ALS)、阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease, AD)、帕金森病(Parkinson's disease, PD) 和亨廷顿病(Huntington's disease, HD) 在内的神经退行性疾病共同的核心病理特征。近期研究表明, 这些疾病的发病机制与细胞内生物分子相分离和凝聚物的异常密切相关, 凝聚体的动态异常是神经退行性病变的可能驱动因素之一。本综述聚焦生物分子凝聚物的生理病理功能, 总结神经退行性疾病相关蛋白发生相分离的调控机制, 以及凝聚物在生理与病理状态下的改变, 讨论上述过程在神经元功能障碍与死亡中的作用, 最后总结目前靶向生物分子凝聚物干预神经退行性疾病的治疗策略。

, authors=陈思倩1, 2, 彭嫱1, 乔雨晴1, 李宁宁1, 王洪枫1, 谭建业2, *, 应征1, *, authorsList=陈思倩, 彭嫱, 乔雨晴, 李宁宁, 王洪枫, 谭建业, 应征, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=谭建业, 应征, authorNote=

#

共同第一作者.

作者贡献:

陈思倩、彭嫱负责文献检索、插图绘制、论文撰写及修改; 乔雨晴参与文献检索; 李宁宁参与插图绘制; 王洪枫负责提供修改意见; 谭建业、应征负责指导论文撰写、修改并定稿。

, correspAuthorsNote=
谭建业, Tel: 86-853-88224988, E-mail:
应征, Tel: 86-512-65883325, E-mail:
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Gene (protein)ChromosomeLLPS-linked domainAssociated diseaseFunction
FUS (FUS)16p11.2LCD, RBDALSRNA processing
TARDBP (TDP-43)1p36.2LCD, RRM1, RRM2ALSRNA processing
C9ORF72 (DPR)9q21-22DPRsALS, FTDRNA processing
SOD1 (SOD1)21q22.1Zn2+ binding regionALSAntioxidation
HNRNPA1 (hnRNPA1)12q13.1LCD, RBDALSRNA processing
OPTN (OPTN)10p13N/AALSMitophagy receptor
SQSTM1 (p62)5q35PB1 domain, IDR, UBA domainALSProtein degeneration
VCP (VCP)9p13.3N/AALSProtein quality control
UBQLN2 (UBQLN2)Xp11.21LCD, UBA domainALS, FTDProtein degeneration
PFN1 (PFN1)17p13.2N/AALSCytoskeleton
SIGMAR1 (Sigma-1)9p13.3N/AALS, FTDSignal transduction
MAPT (Tau)17q21.31LCD, MTBDFTD, ADRegulation of the dynamic equilibrium of microtubules
SNCA (α-synuclein)4q22.1Negative charge domainPDRegulation of synaptic functions and plasticity
HTT (huntingtin)4p16.3Polyglutamine repeat domainHDMultiple functions
), ArticleFig(id=1308841272132076052, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308841263596667337, language=CN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Neurodegenerative disease-associated proteins. RBD: RNA binding domain; UBA domain: Ubiquitin-associated domain; DPR: Dipeptide repeat; SOD1: Superoxide dismutase 1; OPTN: Optineurin; PB1 domain: Phox1 and Bem1p domain; VCP: Valosin containing protein; UBQLN2: Ubiquilin 2; PFN1: Profilin 1; MTBD: Microtubule-binding domain; FUS: Fused in sarcoma; TDP-43: TAR DNA binding protein-43; LCD: Low-complexity domain; RRM1: RNA recognition motif 1; RRM2: RNA recognition motif 2; ALS: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; FTD: Frontotemporal dementia; SNCA: Alpha-synuclein; HTT: Huntingtin; PD: Parkinson's disease; HD: Huntington's disease; N/A: Not applicable

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Gene (protein)ChromosomeLLPS-linked domainAssociated diseaseFunction
FUS (FUS)16p11.2LCD, RBDALSRNA processing
TARDBP (TDP-43)1p36.2LCD, RRM1, RRM2ALSRNA processing
C9ORF72 (DPR)9q21-22DPRsALS, FTDRNA processing
SOD1 (SOD1)21q22.1Zn2+ binding regionALSAntioxidation
HNRNPA1 (hnRNPA1)12q13.1LCD, RBDALSRNA processing
OPTN (OPTN)10p13N/AALSMitophagy receptor
SQSTM1 (p62)5q35PB1 domain, IDR, UBA domainALSProtein degeneration
VCP (VCP)9p13.3N/AALSProtein quality control
UBQLN2 (UBQLN2)Xp11.21LCD, UBA domainALS, FTDProtein degeneration
PFN1 (PFN1)17p13.2N/AALSCytoskeleton
SIGMAR1 (Sigma-1)9p13.3N/AALS, FTDSignal transduction
MAPT (Tau)17q21.31LCD, MTBDFTD, ADRegulation of the dynamic equilibrium of microtubules
SNCA (α-synuclein)4q22.1Negative charge domainPDRegulation of synaptic functions and plasticity
HTT (huntingtin)4p16.3Polyglutamine repeat domainHDMultiple functions
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靶向生物分子凝聚物干预神经退行性疾病的研究进展
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陈思倩 1, 2 , 彭嫱 1 , 乔雨晴 1 , 李宁宁 1 , 王洪枫 1 , 谭建业 2, * , 应征 1, *
药学学报 | 专题报道: 前沿靶标发现与重大疾病分子药理学机制研究 2026,61(6): 1968-1984
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药学学报 |专题报道: 前沿靶标发现与重大疾病分子药理学机制研究 2026 , 61 (6) : 1968 -1984
靶向生物分子凝聚物干预神经退行性疾病的研究进展
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陈思倩1, 2, 彭嫱1, 乔雨晴1, 李宁宁1, 王洪枫1, 谭建业2, * , 应征1, *
作者信息
  • 1苏州大学苏州医学院药学院, 江苏 苏州 215123
  • 2澳门大学健康科学学院, 澳门 999078
通讯作者:
谭建业, Tel: 86-853-88224988, E-mail:
应征, Tel: 86-512-65883325, E-mail:
作者简介:

#

共同第一作者.

作者贡献:

陈思倩、彭嫱负责文献检索、插图绘制、论文撰写及修改; 乔雨晴参与文献检索; 李宁宁参与插图绘制; 王洪枫负责提供修改意见; 谭建业、应征负责指导论文撰写、修改并定稿。

Research progress on targeting biomolecular condensates for intervention of neurodegenerative diseases
Si-qian CHEN1, 2, Qiang PENG1, Yu-qing QIAO1, Ning-ning LI1, Hong-feng WANG1, Kin-yip TAM2, * , Zheng YING1, *
Affiliations
  • 1College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
  • 2Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macao 999078, China
出版时间: 2026-06-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1298
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神经退行性疾病相关病理蛋白形成各类难以降解的异常聚集体, 被认为是包括肌萎缩侧索硬化(amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ALS)、阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease, AD)、帕金森病(Parkinson's disease, PD) 和亨廷顿病(Huntington's disease, HD) 在内的神经退行性疾病共同的核心病理特征。近期研究表明, 这些疾病的发病机制与细胞内生物分子相分离和凝聚物的异常密切相关, 凝聚体的动态异常是神经退行性病变的可能驱动因素之一。本综述聚焦生物分子凝聚物的生理病理功能, 总结神经退行性疾病相关蛋白发生相分离的调控机制, 以及凝聚物在生理与病理状态下的改变, 讨论上述过程在神经元功能障碍与死亡中的作用, 最后总结目前靶向生物分子凝聚物干预神经退行性疾病的治疗策略。

相分离  /  生物分子凝聚物  /  神经退行性疾病  /  小分子药物  /  反义寡核苷酸

Abnormal aggregates with degradation-resistant properties are the core pathological hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Huntington's disease (HD). Emerging studies have revealed that the pathogenesis of these diseases is closely linked to abnormalities in biomolecular condensates within cells. This review aims to systematically outline the relevant physiological and pathological functions of biomolecular condensates, summarize the regulatory mechanisms underlying phase separation of disease-related proteins and their associations with biomolecular condensates under physiological and pathological conditions, reveal the roles of these proteins in mediating neuronal dysfunction and death, and finally summarize the current therapeutic strategies targeting biomolecular condensates for intervention in neurodegenerative diseases.

phase separation  /  biomolecular condensate  /  neurodegenerative disease  /  small molecule  /  antisense oligonucleotide
陈思倩, 彭嫱, 乔雨晴, 李宁宁, 王洪枫, 谭建业, 应征. 靶向生物分子凝聚物干预神经退行性疾病的研究进展. 药学学报, 2026 , 61 (6) : 1968 -1984 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1298
Si-qian CHEN, Qiang PENG, Yu-qing QIAO, Ning-ning LI, Hong-feng WANG, Kin-yip TAM, Zheng YING. Research progress on targeting biomolecular condensates for intervention of neurodegenerative diseases[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2026 , 61 (6) : 1968 -1984 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1298
液-液相分离(liquid-liquid phase separation, LLPS) 是驱动生物分子凝聚物形成的核心物理化学机制。这一过程由蛋白质、核酸等大分子间通过内在无序区域(intrinsically disordered region, IDR)、低复杂度结构域(low-complexity domain, LCD) 介导的多价弱相互作用所驱动, 并在翻译后修饰、分子伴侣、ATP酶活性及离子环境等多重因素的精密调控下, 达到组装-解聚的动态平衡。当分子局部浓度超过临界阈值时, 它们从均匀相溶液中分相, 自组装形成缺乏脂质膜包被但具备特定化学微环境与生物功能的动态凝聚结构, 此即生物分子凝聚物。
生物分子凝聚物是细胞内部通过物理化学原理自发组织形成动态的、功能化的无膜“微型器官”, 也是生命活动高度有序进行的关键, 其功能紊乱与多种重大疾病密切相关。在真核细胞中, 大部分细胞内RNA与RNA结合蛋白(RNA-binding protein, RBP) 共同组成核糖核蛋白(ribonucleoprotein, RNP) 颗粒, 包括应激颗粒(stress granule, SG)、P小体(P body)、核仁、RNA转运颗粒等。这些复杂生物分子凝聚体对RNA的分布与加工过程具有显著调控作用。对这一过程的认识最早源于2012年的一个偶然发现: 许多RBP中的LCD可以自组装成具有交叉β片层结构的纤维促进RNP颗粒的形成[1]。后续研究进一步证明RNA分子之间、RNA与RBP之间以及RBP与RBP之间的多价相互作用是驱动相变、介导RNP颗粒形成的关键。此外, 包括神经退行性疾病相关蛋白异质核核糖核蛋白A1 (heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1, hnRNPA1)、DNA结合蛋白-43 (TAR DNA binding protein-43, TDP-43) 和肉瘤融合蛋白(fused in sarcoma, FUS) 在内的多种RBPs, 这些蛋白的IDRs也被证实参与分子间多价弱相互作用[2-5]。当生物分子的相互作用达到“阈值”且呈瞬时性时, 会触发相分离形成具有流动性的液滴样凝聚体。而在神经退行性疾病状态下, 弱相互作用进一步增多或增强, 会改变浓缩相的物理属性使其转变为高黏度的凝胶样(gel-like) 的凝聚体, 甚至达到第二个“阈值”, 引发液-固相转变形成纤维化的异常凝聚体[6] (图1)。
不同的RNP颗粒在亚细胞定位、组成和大小上差异巨大, 反映了其在调控RNA代谢等方面的多样化功能(图2)。如核仁是核糖体生物合成的场所, RNA转运颗粒能介导神经元中RNA的运输, 且对神经元远端的局部蛋白质合成过程至关重要[7], 而对SG的研究更为广泛, 其通常被认为在细胞响应多种应激刺激时自发形成, 待压力撤去后发生可逆性解聚。值得注意的是, SG的组成与在某些细胞类型(如神经元远端隔室) 中自发形成的RNA转运颗粒组成高度重叠, 提示不同生物分子凝聚物之间也存在共同组分或发生组分的互换[8, 9]。在神经系统中, SG的形成被认为是神经元的一种保护性应答, 用以收纳翻译停滞的mRNA、核糖体组分和RBPs[10, 11]。文献表明, SG的组装可以减轻当细胞质RNA浓度突然升高(如多核糖体解聚时) 可能累积的不可逆RNA缠结的风险[12]。多年来, 来自遗传学、细胞生物学和病理学的证据已累积表明, RNA代谢紊乱是多种重要神经退行性疾病[尤其是肌萎缩侧索硬化(amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ALS)] 发生和发展的关键因素。这些紊乱在RNA代谢的多个层面(从细胞核内新生转录物的生物发生和剪接, 到细胞质中成熟RNA的转运和翻译) 均有被观察到。值得注意的是, 实验研究已将相变异常视为贯穿这些神经退行性疾病发生发展的共同机制。因此, 尽管ALS的完整致病过程是多因素的, 但证据表明, 相当一部分ALS是由RNP颗粒及其他生物分子凝聚体的性质紊乱所引起的, 这对RNA代谢的多个方面产生不利后果, 最终导致神经元功能障碍和死亡。
ALS作为一种致命性神经退行性疾病, 主要累及大脑和脊髓中的运动神经元。家族性ALS (占比10%) 与散发性ALS (占比90%) 在特征上基本难以区分, 均以上下运动神经元过早退变为主要特征。ALS发病年龄最早可至青少年期, 但一般在60岁左右(平均55岁) 被确诊。ALS患者通常会出现自主性、进行性的肌肉功能衰退, 症状出现后的3~5年通常进展成最终死亡。FTD遗传关联性更强, 表现为有家族病史的患者比例更高(可达50%)。其致病基因包括编码微管相关蛋白Tau的MAPT基因[13], 以及编码颗粒蛋白前体progranulin (PGRN) 的GRN基因[14], 这两种基因共占FTD病例的10%~20%[15]。
在ALS相关致病基因中, 四种基因(C9ORF72、SOD1、TARDBP、FUS/TLS) 的突变占家族性病例的50%以上[16]。其中, TARDBP编码的TDP-43是散发性ALS患者及最常见的FTD患者中的主要泛素化蛋白[17, 18]。神经元包涵体中检测出的纤维状TDP-43蛋白聚集体, 是几乎所有类型ALS的标志性特征[18]。FUS/TLS基因的突变参与额外约5%的家族性ALS病例[19]。后续研究证实, 在大多数不含TDP-43包涵体的FTD患者中, 其病理包涵体中存在FUS聚集体。C9ORF72基因重复扩增是ALS-FTD最常见的致病原因, 由该突变引发的ALS-FTD不仅具有RBP (如TDP-43) 聚集体沉积的典型病理特征, 还存在C9ORF72基因异常所特有的额外病理表现。目前在散发性ALS-FTD中, 已发现多个与家族性ALS-FTD相同致病基因的遗传变异。随着基因测序技术的进步, ALS-FTD相关基因列表从单一基因, 即1993年发现的SOD1基因[20]快速扩展至目前的至少20个。本研究总结了一系列与神经退行性疾病相关的重要基因, 并列出其介导相分离的关键结构域及基本的生物学功能(表1)。
蛋白质质量控制是通过多种分子机制确保细胞内蛋白质正确合成、折叠及降解的生物过程, 哺乳动物细胞通过多种蛋白水解系统清除错误折叠蛋白。蛋白质质量控制系统包括泛素-蛋白酶体系统(ubiquitin-proteasome system, UPS)、分子伴侣系统和自噬-溶酶体系统(图3)。其中, 自噬-溶酶体系统主要分为线粒体自噬(mitophagy)、分子伴侣介导的自噬(chaperone mediated autophagy, CMA) 及巨自噬。绝大多数错误折叠蛋白通过UPS降解, 泛素结合的底物在通过蛋白酶体的狭窄腔室时, 依次发生去泛素化、去折叠, 并被切割成小分子肽段被降解。在对神经退行性疾病的研究过程中, 人们发现多种蛋白质质量控制系统异常, 均与神经退行性病变密切相关[21, 22]。比如, 随着衰老进程, UPS、CMA及巨自噬的组分表达与活性均会下调, 这一清除过程会愈发困难[23, 24]。在阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease, AD)、帕金森病(Parkinson's disease, PD)、亨廷顿病(Huntington's disease, HD)、朊病毒病、ALS等多种神经退行性疾病的病变神经元中, 致病性蛋白聚集体还会进一步下调蛋白水解途径的活性[25, 26]。如PD相关的α-突触核蛋白(α-synuclein, α-syn) 寡聚体不仅会抑制蛋白酶体活性影响UPS, 还会导致溶酶体功能异常影响自噬功能[27]。与增殖细胞相比, 因终末分化的神经元无法通过细胞分裂稀释毒性物质[28], 其对细胞毒性蛋白蓄积更敏感, 且神经元拥有独特的细胞结构(树突与轴突高度延伸), 蛋白聚集体需被包裹进自噬泡, 再逆向运输至富含溶酶体的胞体才能降解[29, 30], 使其蛋白质量控制面临更大挑战。
其中值得一提的是p62 (又称sequestosome 1, SQSTM1) 对于异常蛋白聚集体和凝聚体具有较强的降解作用。p62作为自噬通路中的关键蛋白, 通过多结构域协同作用介导异常蛋白聚集体或凝聚体的降解, 也是细胞维持蛋白质稳态的重要调控因子[31, 32]。其N端PB1结构域可通过寡聚化形成多聚体, 增强对异常聚集体的结合与包裹能力; C端UBA (ubiquitin-associated) 结构域能特异性识别并结合异常蛋白聚集体上的泛素链(如神经退行性疾病中泛素化的TDP-43、α-syn聚集体), 实现对降解底物的精准锚定。而α-syn等蛋白的异常聚集与相变异常密切相关, p62对这类泛素化聚集体的识别是连接蛋白相变异常与降解通路的关键步骤[33]。同时, p62含有的微管相关蛋白轻链3 (microtubule-associated protein light chain 3, LC3) 结合结构域可与自噬体膜上的LC3蛋白结合, 将锚定的异常蛋白聚集体或凝聚体招募至自噬体中, 最终自噬体与溶酶体融合被彻底降解。此外, p62还可通过与UPS相关蛋白的相互作用, 在聚集体降解途径选择中发挥调控作用。因此, p62在蛋白质质量控制和对异常生物分子凝聚物的调控方面都发挥着关键作用, 是疾病干预的重要靶点。
TDP-43是一种广泛表达的多功能核酸结合蛋白, 在正常细胞中, 主要弥散分布于细胞核内, 但也可在核质之间穿梭, 参与包括转录调控、pre-mRNA剪接、mRNA稳定性维持及microRNA加工等多种RNA代谢过程。在神经元中, 作为RBP的TDP-43不仅参与SG、RNA转运颗粒等多种生物分子凝聚物的组装, 还通过与其他RBPs协同作用, 调控神经元中大量与突触功能、轴突运输及细胞存活相关基因的表达。约97%的ALS病例和约45%的额颞叶变性(frontotemporal lobe degeneration, FTLD) 病例中存在TDP-43蛋白病理特征, 表现为TDP-43从细胞核异常定位至细胞质, 并形成高度磷酸化及泛素化的病理性聚集体[34, 35], 导致TDP-43正常的核内RNA调控功能丧失(功能丧失机制), 同时获得胞浆毒性(毒性获得机制), 最终引发运动神经元死亡和神经退行性病变[36, 37]。TDP-43蛋白病变并不局限于ALS和FTLD, 在AD、PD、边缘主导的年龄相关TDP-43脑病等神经退行性疾病中也观察到TDP-43的异常聚集, 表明TDP-43蛋白病变可能是多种神经退行性疾病的共同病理基础[38]。
TDP-43蛋白结构包含两个N端的RNA识别模块(RNA recognition motifs, RRMs) 以及一个C端LCD, 这种结构特征赋予了其与核酸及蛋白质相互作用的多样性[39]。TDP-43的两个RNA识别模序不仅介导与RNA的结合, 还在相分离调控中表现出复杂且相互拮抗的功能。ALS相关的D169G致病突变位于RRM1结构域, 该突变通过影响RNA结合, 破坏了长链非编码RNA (long non-coding RNA, lncRNA) 与核旁斑组装转录本1 (nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1, NEAT1) 协同作用促进的TDP-43相分离和核体组装, 导致细胞应激时更多的TDP-43蛋白从核内转移至胞浆, 最终形成病理性聚集体。TDP-43的C端LCD在相分离过程中发挥核心作用。其内在无序性和多价相互作用的特性, 能够通过动态的弱相互作用驱动液-液相分离[40-43]。研究表明, TDP-43 LCD中包含的淀粉样核心序列是病理性积聚和包涵体形成的关键区域。值得注意的是, TDP-43 LCD中的十个高度保守的甲硫氨酸残基在调节相分离动态中扮演特殊角色。这些残基的氧化状态可逆地调控TDP-43液-液相分离和最终淀粉样纤维形成, 而ALS相关的M337V突变则破坏了这一氧化还原敏感性, 导致相分离异常[44]。此外, RNA分子及多种分子伴侣蛋白也是调控TDP-43相分离的关键因子。如CAG重复RNA中的N1-甲基腺苷修饰可强烈促进TDP-43的胞浆错误定位和凝胶样聚集体的形成。热休克蛋白B1 (heat shock proteins B1, HspB1) 则通过直接结合TDP-43并进入其液滴, 抑制TDP-43纤维的组装, 并且在应激状态下促使液滴分解, 其在ALS患者神经元中的耗竭提示其关键的保护作用[45]。
在疾病状态下, TDP-43被富集并隔离在神经元胞质中的RNP颗粒(如SG) 内, 最终导致这种剪接因子从主要的核定位逐渐重新分布至胞质聚集灶[46, 47]。动态性差的RNP颗粒也会促进TDP-43等蛋白质发生“液-固相转变”稳定或不可逆地形成纤维样聚集体。在培养的神经元中, 可通过光遗传学诱导“持续性SG”形成并促进这些颗粒演变为与ALS-FTD患者晚期病理特征一致的不可溶的包涵体[48]。在ALS-FTD的终末期, 除了“生物分子凝聚体功能紊乱直接引发的损伤”之外, 这些具有神经毒性的异常蛋白质聚集体甚至可能通过“类朊病毒机制”在细胞间传播, 导致原本健康的神经元被感染进一步加剧疾病进程。
FUS是一种重要的DNA/RNA结合蛋白, 广泛表达于中枢神经系统, 在RNA代谢、转录调控及DNA修复等基础细胞过程中发挥着核心作用[49]。该蛋白由多个功能结构域组成, 包括N端LCD、RRM以及C端的核定位信号(nuclear localization signal, NLS) 和富含精氨酸-甘氨酸-甘氨酸(arginine-glycine-glycine, RGG) 的重复区域。在特定亚型的ALS-FTD患者中, 细胞质内出现的FUS蛋白异常聚集体被视为关键的神经病理学标志。统计数据显示, FUS基因突变约占家族性ALS病例的2%~8%, 且多表现为快速进展的重症临床表型[50]。迄今已鉴定出超过50个与ALS相关的FUS突变位点, 其中绝大多数集中于其核定位信号NLS编码区域。与TDP-43类似, FUS在生理状态下主要定位于细胞核内, 参与调控RNA代谢等关键细胞过程。然而, 疾病相关的突变会破坏其核-质分布平衡, 诱发FUS蛋白发生胞质错误定位并形成不可溶性的异常聚集体, 这构成了ALS-FUS的核心病理特征[50-52]。这些病理性聚集不仅干扰FUS的正常核质分布与RNA结合功能, 还会通过获得性毒性作用损害神经元内稳态, 最终导致选择性神经元功能障碍与退化, 推动神经退行性病变的进程。
FUS蛋白的致病性与其发生液-液相分离的能力密切相关, 这一过程主要由其LCD和RGG结构域驱动。这些区域具有重复的氨基酸序列和特定的结构基序, 尤其是酪氨酸和精氨酸残基的富集, 使得FUS能够通过多价相互作用发生液-液相分离。近年研究发现, FUS的LCD中存在的两个串联(S/G) Y (S/G) 基序对形成高度可逆的淀粉样蛋白原纤维至关重要[5, 53]。FUS蛋白的相分离过程受到多种机制的精密调控, 其中最为重要的是核转运蛋白-1 (transportin-1/karyopherin-β2) 的分子伴侣功能和精氨酸甲基化翻译后修饰。核转运蛋白-1通过与FUS的C末端核定位信号高亲和力结合, 进而建立多个分布式弱相互作用, 有效阻断FUS的自发聚集。当ALS相关的NLS突变削弱了这种结合时, 核转运蛋白-1的“分子伴侣”活性就会降低, 导致FUS的相分离和SG分配异常[51, 52]。精氨酸甲基化作为另一种关键调控机制, 对维持FUS相分离的动态平衡至关重要。在生理状态下, 适当的精氨酸甲基化水平能够抑制FUS的过度相分离和凝胶化, 维持其动态液体特性。然而在FTD-FUS患者中, 精氨酸甲基化水平的降低会显著促进FUS的相分离和凝胶化, 诱导FUS凝聚形成稳定的、富含β-片层的凝胶结构, 这些结构会破坏RNP颗粒功能并损害神经元末梢的新蛋白质合成[54]。此外, 研究表明热休克蛋白Hsp27等分子伴侣也参与调节FUS的相分离过程, Hsp27通过其磷酸化状态的切换在抑制FUS液-液相分离和淀粉样聚集两方面均发挥作用[55]。在应激条件下Hsp27被磷酸化, 其对抗FUS相分离的能力随之增强, 这种调控机制为细胞在应激状态下维持蛋白质稳态提供了重要保障。
生物分子凝聚体通过隔离mRNA来控制核糖体结合与翻译过程中mRNA的局部可利用性, 即便这些凝聚体的动态性仅发生轻微紊乱, 也可能导致转录组改变, 进而对突触活动产生严重影响[56]。ALS-FTD致病突变相关的FUS突变[4]和TDP-43突变引发的动态性异常的SG和RNA转运颗粒, 与神经元的局部翻译受损相关。
C9ORF72基因位于人类9号染色体的9p21-22区域, 是目前已知ALS最常见的遗传致病基因, 其内含子中GGGGCC六核苷酸重复扩增突变, 可解释约40%~50%的家族性ALS及5%~10%的散发性ALS病例[57]。具体而言, C9ORF72基因相关ALS-FTD的神经病理特征包括两点: 一是在细胞核内形成含C9ORF72基因重复扩增转录本的RNA焦点(RNA foci)[58, 59]; 二是C9ORF72基因重复扩增转录本在多个阅读框中通过非传统的“重复相关非AUG翻译”(RAN翻译) 产生大量的二肽重复蛋白, 包括poly-PR、poly-GR、poly-PA、poly-GP、poly-GA。在这些DPR中, 富含精氨酸的poly-PR和poly-GR最早形成沉积[60, 61], 在ALS-FTD动物模型中毒性极强[62-65], 且与患者脑内变性区域的关联最为密切[66]。
研究发现, 与疾病相关的RNA即使在无蛋白质存在的情况下也能通过RNA-RNA相互作用发生LLPS形成凝聚体[67], 即核内含G4C2重复序列的RNA可自主形成RNA foci。RNA foci由正义或反义重复的mRNA链组成[58, 68, 69], 并已被证明可结合RBP, 干扰正常RNP颗粒组装, 导致转录组异常[28, 70, 71]。蛋白质组学研究发现, poly-PR和poly-GR与多种RBP的LCD能通过π-阳离子相互作用、电荷-电荷相互作用甚至π-π相互作用与精氨酸结合的残基直接结合, 包括TDP-43、FUS和hnRNP1[72], 渗入多个生物分子凝聚物(如SG、RNA转运颗粒、核仁和核孔复合物) 中[73-75]。此外, 研究发现poly-PR和poly-GR的存在会显著降低这些RBP形成凝聚体所需的LLPS浓度阈值, 并改变凝聚体的物理特性[72, 76-79], 这提示poly-PR和poly-GR通过干扰凝聚体的动态属性促进细胞内异常的、不可逆“老化”的生物分子凝聚物的产生, 进而产生毒性损伤神经元。同时也提示这些异常生物分子凝聚物的存在, 可能是在ALS病理状态下观察到的核质运输障碍[64, 75, 80]、RNA剪接异常[81]、RNA转运颗粒运输受损[82]及翻译功能障碍[83]的潜在原因。
最新的研究发现利用光遗传学技术, 在培养的人类运动神经元等细胞可实现空间和时间上的控制二肽重复蛋白poly-PR凝聚体形成。在没有光驱动时poly-PR便能诱导TDP-43聚集体形成, 长时间光照刺激下在细胞质可形成poly-PR聚集体, 进而诱导SG形成并选择性将TDP-43隔离进SG, 形成更固化的生物分子凝聚物。因此研究认为, poly-PR凝聚伴随核内TDP-43功能障碍可能是C9ORF72-ALS/FTD早期的病理事件[84]。
超氧化物歧化酶1 (superoxide dismutase 1, SOD1) 属于Cu-Zn超氧化物歧化酶家族的一员, 作为一种重要的抗氧化酶, 也是生物体内抗氧化防御系统的关键组成部分。SOD1在细胞质中广泛表达, 尤其在肝脏和肾脏组织中表达水平较高。值得注意的是, SOD1蛋白内的4个半胱氨酸残基尤其Cys57和Cys146形成分子内二硫键, 对维持蛋白结构的稳定性至关重要[85]。研究者已在ALS患者中鉴定出超过185种不同的SOD1突变体, 在全球范围内, SOD1基因最常见的突变是D90A, 携带者通常表现为从下肢开始向上蔓延的缓慢进展性瘫痪, 并伴随膀胱功能障碍等非典型症状[86]。突变型SOD1触发运动神经元损伤的机制尚存争议, 但目前更多证据支持毒性增益功能假说。具体来说, 突变的SOD1诱导蛋白质构象与功能改变, 通过异常蛋白互作引发包括兴奋性毒性、内质网应激、活性氧上调介导的氧化应激、线粒体功能障碍及朊病毒增殖等一系列级联反应[87]。值得注意的是, SOD1基因敲除小鼠随时间推移也会出现肌肉去神经支配和线粒体氧化应激, 这表明慢性SOD1活性丧失可能协同参与疾病进程。因此, SOD1相关ALS的神经毒性可能是功能丧失和毒性增益共同作用的结果[39, 88]。
SOD1蛋白发生相分离的能力与其特定的结构域和序列特征密切相关。研究发现, 构成SOD1纤维核心的是其N端(3~55氨基酸) 和C端(86~153氨基酸)。这些区域在生理条件下维持SOD1的稳定结构, 但在特定条件下会发生构象变化, 驱动相分离和后续的纤维形成[85]。也有研究揭示锌离子(Zn2+) 在调节SOD1相分离中的关键作用, 锌缺失会导致SOD1两个环区域的结构紊乱, 进而触发SOD1的液-液相分离和淀粉样蛋白聚集的形成。相反, 向金属游离的SOD1或严重的ALS突变体I113T添加外源锌, 可以稳定环结构并减弱SOD1的相分离和聚集倾向[88]。氧化应激是诱导SOD1相分离和聚集的重要因素, 这一过程与Cys111和Trp32残基密切相关。由相分离途径形成的SOD1淀粉样聚集体对神经细胞具有明显的毒性作用, 导致蛋白质稳态网络失衡或诱导细胞内线粒体形态及功能的紊乱。此外, SOD1聚集还可能通过朊病毒样传播机制, 在细胞间传播毒性, 扩大神经损伤范围。
AD是一种以脑内β淀粉样蛋白沉积形成老年斑及Tau蛋白过度磷酸化形成神经原纤维缠结为主要病理特征, 以进行性认知功能下降和行为损害为核心临床表现的神经退行性疾病[89]。其中, Tau蛋白不仅参与蛋白聚集体的形成, 也参与生物分子凝聚物(如SG) 的组装、解离与功能的调控。
Tau蛋白由MAPT基因编码, MAPT基因通过选择性剪接可产生6种独特的Tau剪接异构体, 有研究表明, 3R和4R异构体可相互抑制对方的纤维化, 因此在一些Tau蛋白病(tauopathies) 中, 这两种异构体的失衡可能会增加Tau蛋白的聚集倾向[90]。在蛋白结构上, Tau蛋白属于非典型蛋白质, 缺乏明确的二级和三级结构[91]。作为微管相关蛋白家族的成员, Tau蛋白包含N端结构域、富含脯氨酸结构域(proline-rich domain, PRD)、微管结合结构域(microtubule-binding domain, MTBD) 和C端结构域。Tau蛋白的MTBD可介导其与α-微管蛋白和β-微管蛋白异二聚体的氨基酸残基结合[92], 同时也是自增殖形成纤维样聚集的关键结构域。在生理状态下, Tau蛋白介导着对微管组装与解聚的调控, 而这一过程对神经突生长、细胞内物质运输及轴突健康维持具有重要意义。MTBD上的突变会破坏上述相互作用, 导致微管异常不稳定以及Tau蛋白与微管的解离。因此, 在疾病状态下, 微管组装与解聚失衡, 游离Tau蛋白的生成增加, 进一步促进具有毒性的Tau蛋白聚集体形成和对神经元的损伤。
Tau蛋白上述的生理与病理行为也受多种翻译后修饰的调控, 包括磷酸化、泛素化、乙酰化等[93]。其中Tau蛋白的磷酸化是目前研究最为充分的修饰方式, 可发生在80多个氨基酸残基上, 主要集中在PRD和MTBD。多项研究指出, 在AD Braak分期早期即可检测到可溶性p-Tau217和p-Tau356的组装[94]。这表明Tau蛋白的异常磷酸化在疾病早期(甚至症状出现前) 就已开始蓄积。在疾病中期, 可溶性Tau聚集体通过跨突触传播, 磷酸化位点转移至p-Tau202/205 (AT8表位), 进而形成稳定的神经纤维缠结(neurofibrillary tangles, NFTs)[95]。疾病晚期, NFTs破坏轴突运输并诱发神经炎症, 加速神经退行性病变的进程。目前已发现多种可磷酸化Tau蛋白的激酶调控Tau蛋白的磷酸化与去磷酸化平衡, 进而参与上述的疾病进程, 如糖原合成酶激酶3β (glycogen synthase kinase 3β) 等。Tau蛋白的Thr231和Ser202位磷酸化, 与Tau蛋白早期寡聚化相关, 尤其在突触前和突触后末梢中, 会导致突触功能障碍和神经元损伤[96]。AD早期阶段, 病理性Tau蛋白主要存在于内嗅皮层神经元中, 随后在内嗅皮层内侧区域逐渐扩散并加重, 最终在新皮层区域形成Tau聚集, 提示NFTs呈广泛性扩散趋势[97]。研究者提出假说: Tau病理可通过隧道纳米管传播, 或通过外泌体[98]等囊泡形式释放到细胞外空间。对Tau转基因小鼠模型或人诱导多能干细胞的研究也证实, Tau蛋白可存在于脑脊液中[99], 并能被释放到培养神经元的培养基内[100]。培养基中的Tau蛋白可通过结合硫酸乙酰肝素蛋白多糖附着于细胞表面, 进而通过巨胞饮作用被受体细胞摄取[101], 进入受体细胞后的Tau蛋白可作为“种子”, 通过模板化构象改变诱导内源性Tau蛋白单体形成纤维化聚合体, 并在新的细胞中刺激产生更多异常的Tau聚集体, 损伤健康神经元并进一步加剧疾病的发展[96, 100, 102, 103]。体外实验中, 与RNA共同孵育的Tau凝聚体具有可逆性, 且可在15 h内不发生纤维化[104, 105]。其他研究也显示, 体外重构的Tau凝聚体在数天内会自发形成硫代黄素S (thioflavin-S) 阳性的纤维化的Tau聚集体, 以此模拟细胞内Tau聚集的“种子”形成过程[106]。
有研究表明, Tau蛋白带有负电荷的N端结构域和C端结构域, 与含有带正电荷的氨基酸的PRD, 一起构成了Tau蛋白的这种电荷不对称的特性。这种特性对Tau与其他蛋白和核酸分子的相互作用至关重要, 参与蛋白自身的折叠与相分离过程。有一项采用光遗传学方法的研究发现, 在SH-SY5Y细胞中, 全长Tau蛋白(1N4R异构体) 在光诱导下形成细胞质的凝聚颗粒比较困难, 而在培养的皮层神经元中, 可轻易观察到这类Tau凝聚体的大量形成。短时间光照时凝聚颗粒大多具有可逆性, 但经长时间或反复光照后Tau凝聚体颗粒会变得稳定不易解聚。研究者还发现, Tau蛋白寡聚化会导致与N6-甲基腺苷RNA (N6-methyladenosine RNA, m6A) 相关的RBP (hnRNPA2B1) 向细胞质转运。他们提出, 寡聚化的Tau蛋白与hnRNPA2B1及m6A形成的复合物可调控RNA翻译并应对压力刺激, 促进SG的形成。这一发现与Tau蛋白病的病理过程具有潜在关联, 因为在AD脑组织中, 与寡聚化Tau蛋白结合的m6A-hnRNPA2B1复合物水平显著升高[107]。除了hnRNPA2B1之外, 也有研究报道在TauP301L转基因小鼠脑组织以及17号染色体相关额颞叶痴呆伴帕金森综合征患者脑组织中, Tau的异常聚集与生物分子凝聚物SG的病理模式密切相关。多域核糖核结合蛋白T细胞抑制抗原-1 (T-cell inhibitory antigen-1, TIA-1) 能结合磷酸化Tau蛋白, 且过表达TIA-1可诱导形成含磷酸化Tau蛋白的包涵体, 促进Tau蛋白错误折叠并增强其毒性。研究指明在疾病早期Tau包涵体不与TIA-1阳性的SG共定位, 但随着疾病进程的发展逐渐与Tau包涵体融合。这些数据表明, SG的形成可能会促进Tau蛋白的病理生理过程[108]。此外, 核斑(nuclear speckle) 是正常情况下参与前体mRNA剪接的生物分子凝聚物, 而Tau聚集体会改变核斑的结构与动态[109]。Tau聚集体在核斑中富集这一发现也表明核内相关生物分子凝聚体可能参与Tau异常聚集的毒性过程。这些效应可能通过改变核内mRNA的加工过程从而参与AD及相关神经退行性疾病的病理机制。
PD被公认为第二大常见的神经退行性疾病[110, 111], 隶属于一组异质性疾病, 即“突触核蛋白病”。这类疾病的共同病理标志是α-syn (由SNCA基因编码) 在神经元、神经突、神经胶质细胞及突触前末梢的异常聚集[112]。在PD中, α-syn以包涵体形式聚集, 形成路易小体和路易神经突, 二者统称为路易病理[113-115]。研究表明, 可溶性α-syn可通过LLPS形成液滴, 这一过程由其带负电区域与环境中带正电分子之间的相互作用驱动[116]。这些液滴可能是α-syn从天然状态向疾病相关聚集状态转化的中间产物。随着时间推移, 液滴会发生液-固相转变, 最终形成包裹着寡聚体和纤维的凝胶样结构[116-118]。翻译后修饰也介导α-syn的相分离调控: 如S129磷酸化会加速α-syn的相分离及其淀粉样转变[117, 119]; 相反, N端乙酰化会提高蛋白质溶解度延缓α-syn的相分离。此外, 与带负电脂质的结合会促进α-syn折叠成更紧密的构象, 进而导致纤维快速形成和相分离发生[120]。尽管α-syn的异常相分离及其淀粉样转变已被认为是病理发生的潜在因素, 但其毒性背后的机制仍不明确。近期有研究提出, 生理条件下, 液滴的形成可能受到细胞机制的严格调控; 相反, 在疾病易发生的环境中, 蛋白质稳态的改变可能触发不可逆的异常相分离, 进而导致后续的聚集和病理发生。
有研究团队发现, 细胞受外源性α-syn原纤维或寡聚体感染后, Parkin蛋白水平会降低, 同时伴随线粒体损伤[121, 122]。此外, α-syn寡聚体会诱导氧化应激和亚硝化应激, 导致Parkin发生翻译后修饰, 进而使其发生自泛素化和降解[123]并加剧线粒体损伤。后续研究也表明, Parkin的失活或功能障碍可能不仅影响自噬, 还会导致异常液-液相分离[119, 124, 125], 且可能是影响蛋白质聚集体正常自噬降解的重要调控因素[126]。
HD是一种常染色体显性遗传的神经退行性疾病, 由HTT基因中外显子1区域内CAG三核苷酸重复序列的异常扩增引起[127]。亨廷顿基因中的CAG重复序列翻译成亨廷顿蛋白(huntingtin, HTT) N端多聚谷氨酰胺(polyglutamine, polyQ) 序列延长段。而polyQ的扩增突变通常被认为是获得HD细胞毒性的功能表现。这一突变导致编码的HTT出现异常延长。正常人群中, HTT基因的CAG重复次数通常低于35次, 而当重复次数超过37次时, 将导致HD的发病[128, 129]。HD的典型临床表现包括不自主的舞蹈样动作、认知功能减退和精神行为异常三大主征, 病情呈进行性恶化, 通常在发病后15~20年内导致患者死亡[130]。突变亨廷顿蛋白(mutant HTT, mHTT) 的致病机制主要通过两大途径实现: 功能获得(gain-of-function) 和功能丧失(loss-of-function)[131]。在功能获得方面, mHTT的异常聚集形成毒性聚集体, 干扰细胞内多种生理过程, 包括蛋白质稳态系统、线粒体功能、转录调控和轴突运输等[132, 133]。研究表明, mHTT可与超过50种蛋白质发生异常相互作用, 扰乱细胞正常功能。在功能丧失方面, mHTT导致正常HTT蛋白的神经保护功能受损。野生型HTT在神经元发育、囊泡运输、突触传递和转录调控中发挥重要作用, 而mHTT则通过显性负效应或单倍体不足机制干扰这些正常功能。近年来研究发现, 相分离在mHTT的聚集过程和神经毒性发挥中起着关键作用。当polyQ长度超过病理阈值(约36个谷氨酰胺残基) 时, 其构象灵活性显著增加, 更倾向于形成反平行β-折叠片层结构[127]。这种结构为分子间多价相互作用提供了广泛的可能性, 使得mHTT分子能够通过polyQ区域相互纠缠, 形成密集的交联网络, 这种结构不仅增强了mHTT分子间的相互作用, 还创造了淀粉样蛋白形成的结构基础。
生物分子凝聚物在生理与病理状态下存在本质区别, 其核心差异在于动态平衡的维持或丧失。
在生理状态下, 特定蛋白质与核酸通过IDR、LCD、RBD以多价、可逆方式发生相互作用并组装形成凝聚物, 凝聚物表现为动态可逆的液体, 其形成、维持与解聚受到分子伴侣、翻译后修饰及RNA结合等机制的精密调控。它们作为功能性隔室, 通过对RNA代谢等关键生化反应进行有效的时空调控, 对神经元适应环境变化至关重要。
在神经退行性疾病状态下, TDP-43、α-syn等蛋白因突变、修饰异常或毒性分子侵入, 其相分离过程失控, 发生不可逆的“液-固相变”。这导致凝聚物从功能性液体转变为固化、静态的凝胶或固体聚集体。这些病理性凝聚物通过扣押功能性蛋白和RNA造成“功能丧失”, 并通过形成毒性聚集体干扰细胞稳态、抑制降解通路并实现细胞间传播, 从而获得直接细胞毒性, 最终成为驱动多种神经退行性疾病早期病理的核心事件。
靶向生物分子凝聚体的治疗策略, 是近年来神经退行性疾病研究的重点方向之一。越来越多的证据表明, 许多神经退行性疾病相关蛋白(如α-syn、Tau、SOD1、HTT) 及C9ORF72重复扩增的RNA产物会形成异常凝聚体, 导致细胞稳态破坏与神经元功能障碍[134-136]。因此, 针对凝聚体形成及维持过程的分子干预, 成为延缓或逆转神经退行性疾病进展的关键策略(图4)。
靶向生物分子凝聚体的治疗策略可通过干预相分离驱动的早期聚集过程来阻断病理聚集体的形成, 小分子药物是最早进入临床开发的凝聚体调控手段。以PD为例, α-syn形成可逆的生物分子凝聚体后可进一步转变为不可逆的纤维化聚集体。小分子药物minzasolmin (UCB0599) 可通过稳定α-syn的生理折叠构象, 阻断液态凝聚体向纤维化聚集体的转变, 减少病理性凝聚体的形成[137], 为干预病理性凝聚体提供了可行的策略。
在小分子药物靶向调控蛋白构象的策略中, 另一个典型案例是有研究团队通过人工智能驱动的从头蛋白设计技术(de novo protein design technology) 开发出高亲和力结合剂抑制TDP-43聚集[138]。该结合剂可高亲和力并特异性结合TDP-43 LCD聚集核心, 稳定TDP-43的α螺旋构象, 在体外和细胞模型中均实现了对TDP-43病理性聚集的高效抑制, 为神经退行性疾病的靶向治疗提供了全新策略。同时, Dewpoint Therapeutics (全球首家研究相分离生物技术、生物分子冷凝物与疾病之间的关系的药物研发公司) 与田边三菱制药公司合作开发的TDP-43靶向小分子凝聚体调节剂c-mod, 可选择性分离TDP-43并恢复其核定位, 已在动物模型中证明能改善神经元健康及ALS相关生物标志物。2024年12月, Dewpoint Therapeutics宣布已与田边三菱制药公司达成战略研究合作协议, 双方将共同推进小分子凝聚体调节剂c-mod的临床开发, 有望为面临这种毁灭性疾病的患者带来希望。
有文献报道对于Tau蛋白凝聚体, 亚甲基蓝(methylene blue) 通过影响Tau凝聚体的液态属性, 可以阻止Tau凝聚体向不可逆的纤维化聚集体发展, 从而减少Tau的异常聚集[139]。在TauP301L转基因小鼠中, 亚甲基蓝处理显著降低异常Tau的积累, 减轻Tau相关的细胞毒性[140]。这一研究表明, 小分子药物不仅能够稳定蛋白构象或干预已形成的凝聚体, 还能在病理聚集体形成之前调控其动态稳态, 从而实现对神经退行性病理进程的早期干预。
小分子干预不仅可以通过调控蛋白构象影响凝聚体, 还能通过调节凝聚体内部相互作用来干预病理性凝聚体的形成。以小分子ISRIB为例, 该小分子可以变构性调节磷酸化的SG组分蛋白真核起始因子2α (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α, eIF2α) 与真核起始因子2B (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2B, eIF2B) 的结合, 通过调控凝聚体内部eIF2α与eIF2B相互作用网络, 阻断SG形成并促进其解聚, 从而恢复蛋白质翻译起始复合体的功能[141, 142]。这种策略不依赖于直接降解病理蛋白, 而是通过干预凝聚体内部的相互作用, 实现功能性恢复。还有研究报道, 硫辛酰胺及其衍生物硫辛酸通过其羧基与凝聚体蛋白形成氢键和离子相互作用, 同时脂肪链提供疏水作用, 从而调节SG的氧化还原特性, 破坏凝聚体完整性并抑制聚集[143]。此外, 硫辛酰胺可在SG形成后增强含FUS的SG液态属性, 且不影响FUS本身在核内的正常分布。实验结果证明在ALS动物模型中, 硫辛酰胺显著改善SG的聚集, 改善神经元形态, 并恢复由FUS和TDP-43突变体表达引起的运动缺陷[144], 这显示其通过调节凝聚体物理状态和内部相互作用来干预ALS相关病理的潜力。
小分子化合物还可通过调节凝聚体微环境干预病理性凝聚体形成。如小分子化合物trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) 可以作为一种“拥挤剂”, 通过占据空间并减缓分子动力学提高生物分子的有效浓度, 从而影响蛋白的LCDs或IDRs的折叠和功能[145, 146]。一方面, TMAO可增强TDP-43等RBP形成的生物分子凝聚物的液态属性。另一方面, TMAO通过排斥体积效应干扰TDP-43无序区缠结, 抑制其纤维形成, 从而防止ALS-FTD病理状态下毒性TDP-43聚集体的生成[147, 148]。这一机制显示, 小分子化合物不仅能调控凝聚体动力学, 还可通过改变聚集微环境, 从而实现对病理性蛋白聚集的干预。
小分子干预不仅可通过调节凝聚体中的蛋白构象来干预病理聚集, 还能特异性靶向RNA或DNA二级结构来调控相关凝聚体。G-四链体(G-quadruplex) 结合小分子能够选择性识别C9ORF72基因相关的G4C2重复序列形成的RNA二级结构, 干扰其作为SG和二肽重复蛋白聚集支架的能力[149]。机制上, 这些小分子通过稳定或改变G-quadruplex构象, 减少RNA foci形成, 从而抑制二肽重复蛋白生成并改善下游神经毒性。在体外细胞模型和C9ORF72转基因小鼠中, 这类小分子显著缓解了RNA foci形成、二肽重复蛋白累积以及由此引起的神经元形态异常和行为缺陷[150], 展示其通过靶向RNA结构调控病理性凝聚体的潜在治疗策略。
RNA靶向干预策略通过从源头切断致病分子的产生, 能有效阻断凝聚体形成病理聚集体的过程。这类疗法不仅展示了在神经退行性疾病中的广泛适用性, 也为未来开发多靶点、可编程的核酸药物奠定了坚实基础。近年来, 靶向RNA的反义寡核苷酸(antisense oligonucleotide, ASO) 疗法被视为从源头干预病理性凝聚体形成的关键策略[151]。ASO通过与靶mRNA序列互补配对, 诱导mRNA降解或阻断蛋白翻译, 从而降低特定致病蛋白的表达水平。这种机制不仅可减少凝聚体形成所需的关键分子, 还能长期维持细胞内蛋白稳态。目前, ASO类药物在多种神经退行性疾病模型及临床试验中均表现出显著疗效, 成为靶向生物分子凝聚体的重要治疗方向之一。
有研究报道, 靶向Tau蛋白mRNA的ASO药物BIIB080, 在Ib期临床研究中显示, 对46名轻度痴呆症的AD患者给予不同剂量的BIIB080或安慰剂, 可以看到BIIB080剂量依赖性地减少Tau在脑脊液中的浓度, 并在影像学下观察到患者脑中明显的Tau聚集体的减少。这种RNA靶向策略通过控制蛋白合成的源头, 能够有效延缓Tau相关聚集体的形成, 为AD的精准治疗提供新的思路[152]。目前BIIB080已进行到Ⅱ期临床研究阶段, 预计将于2026年收集数据并做进一步分析。对于安全性方面, 目前的报告显示BIIB080最常见的不良反应是头痛、背痛、四肢疼痛、腰椎穿刺后综合征和手术疼痛, 且所有不良反应均被认为是轻度或中度。
靶向SOD1蛋白的ASO药物tofersen通过与SOD1的mRNA特异性结合并诱导其降解, 从而显著降低突变蛋白的积累。Tofersen作为目前全球唯一一个针对ALS病因治疗的药物, 在2023年4月获得美国食品药品监督管理局(FDA) 批准上市, 并在2024年10月获得我国国家药监局批准上市。临床试验表明, tofersen可针对病因, 延缓ALS患者的运动功能退化[153]。但是tofersen也存在一定的不良反应和疗效限制。研究显示, tofersen的主要不良反应包括头痛、肢体疼痛、背痛和跌倒。由于tofersen靶向的仅仅是SOD1基因突变型ALS (这种类型的患者只占全部ALS患者的2%), 对疾病早期就干预且疾病进程相对缓慢的患者才呈现较好的治疗效果。但无论如何, tofersen都是靶向生物分子凝聚体相关的RNA干预策略在临床转化中的成功范例。HTTRx作为ASO药物的一种, 可通过降低HTT的mRNA水平减少突变蛋白合成, 在早期HD患者的临床试验中, HTTRx可以显著降低脑脊液中HTT水平[154], 显示出延缓神经退行性疾病进程的潜力, 具有巨大的临床应用潜力。在表达C9ORF72基因且含有450个G4C2重复序列的转基因小鼠中, 一次性注射针对含有重复序列RNA的ASO, 也能够减少RNA foci和二肽重复蛋白的形成, 并且改善由C9ORF72基因重复序列引起的焦虑行为和认知功能障碍等行为缺陷[155]。TDP-43缺失会触发STMN2基因pre-mRNA的隐性剪接, 从而减少轴突再生所必需的微管解聚蛋白(stathmin-2, STMN2) 的水平。针对STMN2基因隐性剪接位点的ASO能够抑制异常剪接恢复STMN2蛋白表达, 从而改善TDP-43缺失的人类运动神经元的轴突再生及溶酶体运输功能。此外, 研究还显示在携带人类STMN2隐性剪接/多腺苷酸化序列的基因编辑小鼠模型中, 将ASO注入脑脊液可纠正前体mRNA的加工异常, 恢复STMN2水平[35]。这一策略通过干预TDP-43相关RNA凝聚体的病理效应, 体现了ASO靶向蛋白-核酸相互作用、恢复神经元功能的潜力, 是靶向凝聚体治疗的重要方向。
基于计算设计和高通量筛选的合成小分子为干预病理性聚集体提供了新的策略。早前已有研究开创性地提出基于自噬小体绑定化合物的药物研发原创概念, 并巧妙地通过化合物芯片和前沿光学方法的筛选, 发现了特异性降低HD致病蛋白的小分子化合物。该团队发明了一种小分子“胶水” (小分子绑定化合物, ATTEC), 能够直接靶向含有过长polyQ的HTT并牢牢地将LC3与其粘在一起, 将致病蛋白包裹进自噬小体中进行降解[156]。在上千种化合物中研究人员找到两种化合物可以跨过血脑屏障, 并通过低剂量腹腔给药可直接降低HD小鼠大脑皮层及纹状体的mHTT水平, 改善疾病相关的表型, 为HD口服或注射药物的研发提供切入点。为了干预C9ORF72相关的ALS-FTD, 研究人员基于荧光共振能量转移的G-四链体熔解实验筛选了138种化合物, 发现了44种能够提高C9ORF72的RNA重复序列熔解温度的化合物[157], 其中3种二苯并咪唑衍生物(DB1246、DB1247和DB1273) 可以通过π-堆叠稳定RNA结构, 高亲和力结合RNA, 显著减少患者诱导多能干细胞(induced pluripotent stem cells, iPSC) 来源的运动神经元中的RNA foci, 也能降低二肽重复蛋白水平, 并在果蝇模型中提高生存率[149, 158]。也有研究报道, 利用计算模拟和高通量筛选设计的多功能合成小分子化合物能够靶向Zn2+诱导的Tau蛋白凝聚体, 通过配位Zn、疏水作用、π-π堆叠、静电-偶极相互作用及氢键调节Tau凝聚体[159]。研究显示, 这些基于计算设计和高通量筛选的小分子可有效抑制Tau蛋白凝聚体从液体向纤维态的转化, 并且其抑制作用具有浓度依赖性和可逆性, 即使在已形成Tau-Zn液滴的条件下仍然有效[160, 161]。值得一提的是, 上文提到的靶向TDP-43的高亲和力结合剂的开发[138], 也是基于计算实现小分子的设计, 最后功能试验验证对异常TDP-43聚集体的抑制。这些结果表明, 基于计算设计和高通量筛选的合成小分子能够提升靶向凝聚体的选择性和效力, 为干预病理性聚集体提供新策略。
本文系统总结神经退行性疾病中异常生物分子凝聚物的致病机制及靶向干预策略。文中指出疾病状态下由异常相分离驱动的“液-固相变”所形成的纤维化凝聚物或难以降解的蛋白聚集体, 是多种神经退行性疾病的共同病理核心。而疾病的治疗策略需从传统的单一靶点转向针对凝聚体网络及凝聚体理化特性的整体调控, 并依托物理学、合成生物学与纳米技术等学科交叉, 开发能精准调控凝聚体形成的新型制剂。尽管初步研究已经证实靶向异常相分离过程或蛋白聚集体能有效下调疾病标志物水平、延缓疾病进程, 但其临床转化效能仍是该领域面临的关键性挑战。例如, 如何建立可靠的基于相分离动态特征的早期生物标志物诊断体系, 如何突破体内的递送瓶颈确保对聚集体的靶向性, 实现疾病的早期诊断和病后干预, 都是未来亟待解决的问题。综上, 将生物分子凝聚体视为可调控的潜在治疗靶标, 不仅有望成功干预神经退行性疾病的发生发展, 还可能推动该领域治疗理念的革新。

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2026年第61卷第6期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1298
  • 接收时间:2025-11-04
  • 首发时间:2026-09-21
  • 出版时间:2026-06-12
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  • 收稿日期:2025-11-04
  • 修回日期:2026-01-07
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    1苏州大学苏州医学院药学院, 江苏 苏州 215123
    2澳门大学健康科学学院, 澳门 999078

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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