Article(id=1308468545604576006, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308468301072458736, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1040, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1756742400000, receivedDateStr=2025-09-02, revisedDate=1759161600000, revisedDateStr=2025-09-30, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1789892811442, onlineDateStr=2026-09-20, pubDate=1765468800000, pubDateStr=2025-12-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1789892811442, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-09-20, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1789892811442, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1789892811442, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1308468301072458736, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2025', volume='60', issue='12', pageStart='3545', pageEnd='3798', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1765468800000', pubDateStr='2025-12-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1789892753141, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1789893218933, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1308470254842175559, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308468301072458736, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1308470254842175560, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308468301072458736, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=3605, endPage=3621, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1308468546556683016, articleId=1308468545604576006, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Advances in antagonists and PROTAC of the nuclear receptor PXR, columnId=1308468303916196849, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Special Reports: Current Pharmacological Research on Nuclear Receptors, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The pregnane X receptor (PXR) is a crucial member of the nuclear receptor superfamily and plays a pivotal role in regulating various biological processes. In recent years, significant progress has been made in the development of PXR antagonists and PXR-targeting proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC). This review systematically summarizes recent advances in the study of PXR antagonists and PXR PROTAC drugs, with the aim of providing valuable insights and references for novel drug development and the exploration of new therapeutic targets in related fields.

, authors=Hai-lin TAO, Xin-yi LI, Jun-kai XIE, Yong-tao LI*, authorsList=Hai-lin TAO, Xin-yi LI, Jun-kai XIE, Yong-tao LI, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Yong-tao LI, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2025 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1308468551623402261, articleId=1308468545604576006, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=靶向核受体PXR的拮抗剂和PROTAC研究进展, columnId=1308468304109134835, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道: 核受体药物药理研究进展, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

孕烷X受体(pregnane X receptor, PXR) 是核受体超家族重要的一员, 在调控多种生物过程中发挥着重要作用。近年来, PXR拮抗剂与基于蛋白质水解靶向嵌合体(proteolysis-targeting chimera, PROTAC) 技术的PXR PROTAC药物的研究取得了显著进展。本文系统总结了近年来PXR拮抗剂和PXR PROTAC药物的研究进展, 以期能为相关领域的新药研发及新靶点的挖掘提供有益的思路和参考。

, authors=陶海琳, 李馨怡, 谢君凯, 李永涛*, authorsList=陶海琳, 李馨怡, 谢君凯, 李永涛, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=李永涛, authorNote=

作者贡献:

陶海琳和李馨怡负责文献的收集及文章的撰写; 谢君凯负责文章图的制作及修改; 李永涛负责构思文章框架和指导文章撰写等工作。

, correspAuthorsNote=
李永涛, Tel: 15575160312, E-mail:
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Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol, 2023, 19: 807-828., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null)], funds=null, companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1308498482583929611, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1308498482592318220, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, companyId=1308498482583929611, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Molecular Medicine, School of Biomedical Sciences, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1308498482600706829, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, companyId=1308498482583929611, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=湖南大学生命医学交叉研究院, 湖南省动物模型与分子医学重点实验室, 湖南 长沙 410082)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1308498486585295660, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=V6miJcPaeI1uGPDHIZsHvQ==, figureFileBig=RAgtxh/2ZEZg3D42s9Z5yA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498486648210221, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=CN, label=Fig.1, caption=The structure of pregnane X receptor (PXR). A: Modular domains of PXR; B: Schematic diagram of 3D PXR structure (PDB: Protein Data Bank, 1ILH). AF: Activation function; DBD: DNA-binding domain; LBD: Ligand-binding domain, figureFileSmall=V6miJcPaeI1uGPDHIZsHvQ==, figureFileBig=RAgtxh/2ZEZg3D42s9Z5yA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498486748873518, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=j5fBpRG2ciss7EKTdmEEMw==, figureFileBig=iQGQqHhQmIMR5d/YeTYYWw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498486824370991, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=CN, label=Fig.2, caption=The crystal structure of PXR LBD with PXR antagonist or agonist. A: PXR antagonist SJPYT-310 (PDB: 8SVO); B: PXR agonist SJB7 (PDB: 5X0R); C: PXR agonist SJPYT-326 (PDB: 8SVR), figureFileSmall=j5fBpRG2ciss7EKTdmEEMw==, figureFileBig=iQGQqHhQmIMR5d/YeTYYWw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498486895674160, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=tggVIK/VKl4uWwbQswZK+A==, figureFileBig=CoCUezhvsscPLFJV2YhCTQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498486962783025, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=CN, label=Fig.3, caption=PXR activation functions and related diseases. MDR-1: Multidrug resistance gene-1; P-gp: P-glycoprotein; ABCG2: ATP-binding cassette transporter G2; CYP: Cytochrome P450; GLUT2: Glucose transporter-2; GCK: Glucokinase; G6Pase: Glucose-6-phosphatase; PEPCK: Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase; SREBP-1: Sterol regulatory element binding protein-1; FAE: Fatty acid elongase; SCD-1: Stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1; CD36: Cluster of differentiation 36; IL-6: Interleukin-6; TNFRSF12A: Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 12A; FGF21: Fibroblast growth factor 21; DDIs: Drug-drug interactions; HDIs: Herb-drug interactions; NAFLD: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; ALD: Alcohol-associated liver disease, figureFileSmall=tggVIK/VKl4uWwbQswZK+A==, figureFileBig=CoCUezhvsscPLFJV2YhCTQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498487034086194, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=aImCqETvs8HRcXlaR22nbA==, figureFileBig=NoDkA103iQeGHIZol3Apqg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498487101195059, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=CN, label=Fig.4, caption=The chemical structures of competitive binding antagonists of PXR, figureFileSmall=aImCqETvs8HRcXlaR22nbA==, figureFileBig=NoDkA103iQeGHIZol3Apqg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498487172498228, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=pRa4z86vPIZH3hDILHTysQ==, figureFileBig=McGAITEH+HaBr8FmZ/oYOA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498487235412789, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=CN, label=Fig.5, caption=The chemical structures of non-competitive and unknown mode of action antagonists of PXR. 23-25: Non-competitive antagonists; 26-31: Unknown mode of action antagonists, figureFileSmall=pRa4z86vPIZH3hDILHTysQ==, figureFileBig=McGAITEH+HaBr8FmZ/oYOA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498487310910262, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=lzKeqy8aEUsiQv3EEDzV6g==, figureFileBig=mfDW82HEbNMmselWPy+6TA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498487373824823, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=CN, label=Fig.6, caption=The chemical structure of PXR PROTACs. A: SPA70 and PXR PROTACs based on SPA70; B: JMV6845 and PXR PROTAC based on JMV6845, figureFileSmall=lzKeqy8aEUsiQv3EEDzV6g==, figureFileBig=mfDW82HEbNMmselWPy+6TA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308498487436739384, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
PXR antagonistMechanism of actionIC50 /μmol·L-1Ref.
SPA70Competitive0.5[16, 36, 59-61]
Compound 97Competitive0.5[17]
SJPYT-310Competitive0.009[62]
SJPYT-331Competitive0.007[15]
GSM2Competitive1.6[63]
FusidicacidCompetitive3.5[63, 64]
MI883Competitive3.6[65, 66]
MI891Competitive0.4[67]
BelinostatCompetitiveNT[68, 69]
NelfinavirCompetitive7.3[70-73]
A-792611Competitive2.[74, 75]
Compound 73CompetitiveNT[76]
Compound 100Competitive2.8[76]
PimecrolimusCompetitive1.2[77]
CoumestrolCompetitive11.6[78, 79]
SulforaphaneCompetitiveNT[80, 81]
SilybinCompetitive74.[82]
IsosilybinCompetitive135.[82]
Compound 20Competitive11.[83-85]
Compound 24Competitive14.[83-85]
Neogambogic acidCompetitiveNT[86]
Forsythiaside ACompetitiveNT[87]
KetoconazoleNon-competitive13.4[88, 89]
FLB-12Non-competitiveNT[90, 91]
PazopanibNon-competitive4.1[77]
MetforminUnknownNT[92, 93]
ET-743Unknown0.003[4, 85, 94-96]
ResveratrolUnknownNT[46, 97-99]
FucoxanthinUnknownNT[100, 101]
Allyl isothiocyanateUnknownNT[102]
CamptothecinUnknown0.6[23, 103]
), ArticleFig(id=1308498489131238201, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308468545604576006, language=CN, label=Tab.1, caption=

The list of antagonists of PXR. GSM2: Gamma-secretase modulator 2; NT: Not tested

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
PXR antagonistMechanism of actionIC50 /μmol·L-1Ref.
SPA70Competitive0.5[16, 36, 59-61]
Compound 97Competitive0.5[17]
SJPYT-310Competitive0.009[62]
SJPYT-331Competitive0.007[15]
GSM2Competitive1.6[63]
FusidicacidCompetitive3.5[63, 64]
MI883Competitive3.6[65, 66]
MI891Competitive0.4[67]
BelinostatCompetitiveNT[68, 69]
NelfinavirCompetitive7.3[70-73]
A-792611Competitive2.[74, 75]
Compound 73CompetitiveNT[76]
Compound 100Competitive2.8[76]
PimecrolimusCompetitive1.2[77]
CoumestrolCompetitive11.6[78, 79]
SulforaphaneCompetitiveNT[80, 81]
SilybinCompetitive74.[82]
IsosilybinCompetitive135.[82]
Compound 20Competitive11.[83-85]
Compound 24Competitive14.[83-85]
Neogambogic acidCompetitiveNT[86]
Forsythiaside ACompetitiveNT[87]
KetoconazoleNon-competitive13.4[88, 89]
FLB-12Non-competitiveNT[90, 91]
PazopanibNon-competitive4.1[77]
MetforminUnknownNT[92, 93]
ET-743Unknown0.003[4, 85, 94-96]
ResveratrolUnknownNT[46, 97-99]
FucoxanthinUnknownNT[100, 101]
Allyl isothiocyanateUnknownNT[102]
CamptothecinUnknown0.6[23, 103]
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靶向核受体PXR的拮抗剂和PROTAC研究进展
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陶海琳 , 李馨怡 , 谢君凯 , 李永涛 *
药学学报 | 专题报道: 核受体药物药理研究进展 2025,60(12): 3605-3621
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药学学报 |专题报道: 核受体药物药理研究进展 2025 , 60 (12) : 3605 -3621
靶向核受体PXR的拮抗剂和PROTAC研究进展
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陶海琳, 李馨怡, 谢君凯, 李永涛*
作者信息
  • 湖南大学生命医学交叉研究院, 湖南省动物模型与分子医学重点实验室, 湖南 长沙 410082
通讯作者:
李永涛, Tel: 15575160312, E-mail:
作者简介:

作者贡献:

陶海琳和李馨怡负责文献的收集及文章的撰写; 谢君凯负责文章图的制作及修改; 李永涛负责构思文章框架和指导文章撰写等工作。

Advances in antagonists and PROTAC of the nuclear receptor PXR
Hai-lin TAO, Xin-yi LI, Jun-kai XIE, Yong-tao LI*
Affiliations
  • Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Molecular Medicine, School of Biomedical Sciences, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
出版时间: 2025-12-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1040
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孕烷X受体(pregnane X receptor, PXR) 是核受体超家族重要的一员, 在调控多种生物过程中发挥着重要作用。近年来, PXR拮抗剂与基于蛋白质水解靶向嵌合体(proteolysis-targeting chimera, PROTAC) 技术的PXR PROTAC药物的研究取得了显著进展。本文系统总结了近年来PXR拮抗剂和PXR PROTAC药物的研究进展, 以期能为相关领域的新药研发及新靶点的挖掘提供有益的思路和参考。

孕烷X受体  /  核受体  /  拮抗剂  /  蛋白质水解靶向嵌合体  /  代谢调控

The pregnane X receptor (PXR) is a crucial member of the nuclear receptor superfamily and plays a pivotal role in regulating various biological processes. In recent years, significant progress has been made in the development of PXR antagonists and PXR-targeting proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC). This review systematically summarizes recent advances in the study of PXR antagonists and PXR PROTAC drugs, with the aim of providing valuable insights and references for novel drug development and the exploration of new therapeutic targets in related fields.

pregnane X receptor  /  nuclear receptor  /  antagonist  /  PROTAC  /  metabolic regulation
陶海琳, 李馨怡, 谢君凯, 李永涛. 靶向核受体PXR的拮抗剂和PROTAC研究进展. 药学学报, 2025 , 60 (12) : 3605 -3621 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1040
Hai-lin TAO, Xin-yi LI, Jun-kai XIE, Yong-tao LI. Advances in antagonists and PROTAC of the nuclear receptor PXR[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2025 , 60 (12) : 3605 -3621 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1040
孕烷X受体(pregnane X receptor, PXR) 是核受体(nuclear receptor, NR) 超家族重要的一员, 是一类配体依赖性的转录因子[1]。PXR发现于1998年, 基于其在核受体超家族中的分类被系统命名为NR1I2 (核受体亚家族1群Ⅰ成员2), 又因可被内源性孕烷类21-碳类固醇激活而被称为PAR (由孕烷激活的受体)[2], 人类PXR被称为SXR (甾体和异生物受体)[3]。PXR的异常激活与代谢紊乱、化疗耐药及炎症失衡等多种疾病密切相关[3, 4]。因此, 开发有效的PXR拮抗剂对于调控PXR功能、拓展疾病治疗新思路具有重要意义。近年来, 随着蛋白质水解靶向嵌合体(proteolysis-targeting chimera, PROTAC) 技术的兴起, 其也在靶向PXR药物开发中得到应用。
PXR主要在小肠、十二指肠、肝脏、直肠、结肠和胆囊等中含量高, 而在其他器官/组织中的表达比较低或无法检测到[5, 6]。PXR配体非常丰富, 包含多种临床药物和环境污染物等外源性物质, 以及孕烷、类固醇、胆汁酸等内源性物质[7, 8], 但是这些物质绝大部分是激动剂。当PXR与配体结合并被激活后, PXR从细胞质转移到细胞核中, 并与维甲酸X受体(retinoic acid X receptor, RXR) 形成二聚体[9], 招募一系列共激活因子, 从而结合到特异的DNA结合区域, 促使下游靶基因转录[10, 11], 参与机体内环境稳态的调控。大量研究显示PXR控制许多参与生物转化、运输、炎症、细胞周期阻滞、凋亡和氧化应激的基因, 当PXR被过度激活时就会引发代谢紊乱、药物相互作用、肿瘤生长、化疗耐药及炎症失衡等病理过程[1, 4]。
PXR拮抗剂和PXR PROTAC小分子药物在临床上的应用中具有潜在的、不可或缺的治疗价值[12]。近年来, PXR拮抗剂和PXR PROTAC的研究取得了显著进展, 特别是PXR拮抗剂蛋白共晶结构及调节机制的发现加快了靶向PXR药物的研发进程。然而, 截至目前, 尚未有相关药物成功上市。基于此, 本文旨在总结PXR拮抗剂和PXR PROTAC药物的研究进展, 以期为此类药物的研究方向提供参考, 帮助挖掘新型有效的PXR拮抗剂以及PXR PROTAC分子, 发挥PXR在疾病中的治疗潜能。
PXR与其他核受体具有类似的结构特征, 主要亚型(NM_003 889.4, 变体1) 由434个氨基酸(图1A) 组成[13], 包括N末端非配体依赖性活化结构域(activation function-1, AF-1), 高度保守的DNA结合结构域(DNA-binding domain, DBD), 一个较不保守的铰链结构域, C末端配体结合结构域(ligand-binding domain, LBD) 和激活功能2域(activation function-2, AF-2)[14]。PXR具有一个巨大、动态且柔性的LBD (> 1 600 Å3), 可以结合许多大体积的配体[12]。LBD被划分为疏水腔(hydrophobic cage)、极性边缘(polar rim)、疏水侧(hydrophobic side) 及极性通道(polar channel) 4个亚区域, 各区域通过协同作用调控配体结合特异性。其中, 疏水腔主要由Trp299、Phe288和Tyr306构成, 主要通过π-π堆积和边-面相互作用稳定配体结合; 极性边缘的Gln285和His407则通过氢键网络参与配体定向[13]。
配体与PXR LBD结合是激活PXR的关键步骤, 利用靶向LBD的小分子与配体竞争结合位点, 是PXR拮抗剂的药物设计策略之一。然而, 由于PXR配体结合空腔大且柔性, 导致靶向PXR LBD的拮抗剂研究进展非常缓慢。
PXR LBD激动剂的共结晶结构在2001年就已经被报道(图1B), 而PXR LBD拮抗剂(SJPYT-310) 的共结晶结构在2024年才首次被报道(图2A)[15]。PXR的激活功能-2域(AF-2), 尤其是α12螺旋, 是决定受体功能状态的核心区域。在2017年, Chen课题组[16]首次报道了具有种属特异性的hPXR拮抗剂SPA70, 并得到了SPA70类似物SJB7 (PXR激动剂) 与PXR的共晶结构(图2B)。相比之下, SJB7比SPA70更接近Helix 12区域, 甲氧基疏水基团与α螺旋12 (α12) 区域的相互作用是调控PXR激活状态的关键[17]。通过结构修饰获得了SJPYT-310、SJPYT-326和SJPYT-328等小分子, 这些分子的共晶结构分析进一步揭示了PXR构象调控的分子基础[15]。
拮抗剂SJPYT-310 (图2A) 通过AF-2域残基(如Met425、Leu428和Phe429) 破坏α12的活性构象, 导致PXR不能与共激活因子类固醇受体辅激活因子-1 (steroid receptor coactivator-1, SRC-1) 结合, 从而抑制转录激活。SJPYT-310的三唑环与Q285形成关键氢键, 其区域B进一步与π陷阱(Phe288、Trp299、Tyr306) 及亮氨酸笼(Leu206、Leu209、Leu239、Leu240) 产生疏水相互作用, 占据PXR LBD。SJPYT-310的作用模式与激动剂形成显著对比。激动剂SJPYT-326 (图2C) 的甲氧基等疏水基团与α12区域的Met425、Leu428及Phe429构成的疏水“热点”结合, 促使α12螺旋向共激活因子结合界面内收, 形成稳定的活性构象; 在SJPYT-328中引入甲氧基不仅增强了与疏水侧的相互作用, 还通过诱导α12螺旋的构象变化, 逆转了SJPYT-310的拮抗效应。
在分子机制层面, PXR的拮抗与激活可归结为AF-2域构象的动态平衡。拮抗剂通过占据LBD并诱导α12螺旋外移, 使AF-2域暴露于溶剂环境, 导致共激活因子结合界面的崩溃; 而激动剂则通过稳定α12螺旋的内收构象, 促进共激活因子复合物的组装。这种构象调控的“双向开关”特性在动力学模拟中得以验证: SPA70结合后, α12螺旋的摆动幅度显著增加, 其运动轨迹与共激活因子解离时间呈负相关。此外, 分子动力学分析揭示, 拮抗剂结合可增强LBD内部残基(如Leu240和Leu209) 的疏水簇稳定性, 进一步限制α12的构象自由度[15]。
关键氨基酸残基的功能研究, 进一步阐明了PXR配体识别的分子细节。比如, PXR LBD疏水腔Trp299A突变可以使SPA70的活性从抑制转化为激活[18], 将疏水腔Phe288替换为丙氨酸可显著降低激动剂的结合能力, 而Tyr306的羟基化则影响配体与极性边缘的氢键网络。将PXR的AF-2螺旋中的关键氨基酸残基(Met425、Leu428、Phe429) 点突变后使原本具有拮抗活性的SJPYT-310/331重新具有稳定AF-2螺旋构象的功能而转变为激动剂[15]。这些研究发现提示, 针对特定残基进行合理药物设计, 可精确调控PXR的活性状态。
PXR激活与多种疾病的发生发展相关, 如癌症、代谢性疾病、神经性疾病等。此外, PXR与药物相互作用密切相关, 是调控药物相互作用的靶点。下面简单介绍PXR拮抗剂治疗一些疾病及调控药物相互作用的潜力(图3)。
PXR是癌症转录调控的中心, 在许多人类癌症中发挥重要作用, 包括乳腺癌、前列腺癌、结肠癌、骨肉瘤、卵巢癌和子宫内膜癌等[3, 19]。本文重点阐述PXR在结直肠癌、乳腺癌和肝细胞癌中的作用机制。
在结直肠癌(colorectal cancer, CRC) 中, PXR的激活导致机体对CRC化疗药物伊立替康(irinotecan) 的活性代谢产物SN-38产生显著化疗抗性[20]。具体通过上调体内基因MDR-1、P-糖蛋白(P-glycoprotein, P-gp)、药物代谢酶细胞色素P450 3A4 (cytochrome P450 3A4, CYP3A4), 以及腺苷三磷酸结合盒转运蛋白G2 (ATP-binding cassette transporter G2, ABCG2) 的表达[21, 22], 使抗癌药物在机体内加快代谢而降低临床疗效。使用PXR拮抗剂萝卜硫素(sulforaphane, SFN) 和喜树碱(camptothecine, CPT) 可以阻断hPXR的激活来减少对CYP3A4的诱导, 从而提高CRC细胞对伊立替康的化疗敏感性[14, 23]。研究发现, 将中药复方制剂枫蓼肠胃康与CRC化疗药物5-氟尿嘧啶(5-fluorouracil, 5-FU) 联用后不仅能够抑制上述药物代谢相关蛋白活性, 还通过上调促凋亡蛋白Bax, 下调促增殖蛋白(如CyclinD1、CDK-4) 和抗凋亡蛋白Bcl-2的表达来抑制CRC细胞的增殖[22]。在Koustas等[24]对PXR激活与CRC的最新研究中发现, 随着CRC的进展, 机体的自噬活性也随之升高, 且伊立替康的使用加剧诱导自噬激活。而自噬会促进PXR的核转位(从细胞质转移到细胞核) 使其激活, 最终导致机体产生化疗抗性。这进一步佐证了PXR在CRC治疗中的关键作用。此外, 葡萄糖转运蛋白1 (glucose transporter-1, GLUT1) 在大多数癌症中高表达, Wang等[25]首次从PXR结合胞质mRNA的角度分析了葡萄糖代谢与CRC的联系。SLC2A1 (编码GLUT1) mRNA是PXR结合的主要靶点, PXR通过锌指结构域(zinc finger protein 2, ZnNF2) 结合并稳定SLC2A1 mRNA, 使GLUT1表达上升, 机体对葡萄糖的摄取增加, 为CRC细胞生长提供养料, 最终促进CRC细胞增殖。
乳腺癌存在多种分型, 因此PXR在不同乳腺癌亚型中发挥不同作用机制。Gautam等[26]使用甲基亚硝基脲(1-methyl-1-nitrosourea, MNU) 诱导的小鼠雌激素受体(estrogen receptor, ER) 阳性乳腺癌的研究中, PXR激动剂利福昔明(rifaximin) 激活PXR可上调促凋亡蛋白(BAD、caspase-3、caspase-8) 和下调抗凋亡蛋白(Bcl-2、Bcl-xL) 来诱导乳腺癌细胞凋亡, 并缓解MNU导致的小鼠氧化应激, 增强抗氧化酶活性, 抑制癌变进程。而在三阴性乳腺癌(triple-negative breast cancer, TNBC) 中, PXR激活产生的化疗抗性与该癌症的不良预后密切相关。PXR激活后上调药物代谢关键基因CYP3A4、GSTP1、UGT1A1、ABCC1等的表达, 加速TNBC化疗药物紫杉醇(paclitaxel, PTX) 在体内的清除, 导致TNBC耐药性强, 预后极差, 复发率高[27]。Wang等[28]揭示了TNBC耐药的新机制, 具体表现为, TNBC中Notch信号通路的关键酶γ-分泌酶被激活, 促进Notch的胞内结构域(Notch intracellular domain, NICD) 进入细胞核与PXR结合, 增强PXR的转录活性, 进一步促进耐药靶基因CYP3A4、MDR-1和BCRP的表达, 致使TNBC细胞对紫杉醇耐药, 而使用γ-分泌酶抑制剂可恢复癌细胞对紫杉醇的敏感性。这一发现为TNBC的治疗提供了新靶点。
PXR在肝细胞癌(hepatocellular carcinoma, HCC) 中具有双重作用。Kotiya等[29]用二乙基亚硝胺(diethylnitrosamine, DEN) 诱导小鼠肝细胞癌模型, 观察到PXR及其靶基因CYP3A11和GSTa2的表达下调, 而两种促炎细胞因子白细胞介素-6 (interleukin-6, IL-6) 和肿瘤坏死因子α (tumor necrosis factor-α, TNFα) 的表达上调。在人肝癌细胞HepG2中转染PXR后, 癌细胞的迁移、黏附和侵袭能力下降, 这一系列实验表明PXR的高表达对HCC具有抑制作用。在组成性雄甾烷受体(constitutive androstane receptor, CAR) 激活介导的HCC研究中发现, 当PXR被同时激活后, 肝脏会增加癌前病灶面积, 逐步演变为HCC。但在HCC中PXR的长期激活却可抑制上皮-间质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition, EMT) 来阻断癌症病灶的转移与侵袭[30]。在HCC治疗进程中仍存在PXR激活导致的化疗耐药, 其具体机制是通过TGF-β/ERK/ETS1/PXR轴抑制PXR活性后, 肝癌细胞对化疗药物索拉非尼(sorafenib) 和多柔比星(doxorubicin) 敏感性增强[31]。PXR在HCC中的复杂作用在目前的研究中还无法阐明, Bi等[32]提出细胞异质性可能是导致这种矛盾作用的关键因素, 不同的细胞类型对PXR激活表现出不同的反应。未来HCC的治疗可能需要根据HCC进展阶段和不同组织来选择合适的PXR调节剂。
PXR在不同的癌症组织中作用机制不同, 因此产生的影响效果也是复杂多变。但PXR作为体内药物代谢的调控枢纽之一, 在癌症中的共同作用主要是影响化疗药物的代谢, 产生药物抗性。如在前列腺癌中PXR的激活也会增强CYP3A4和MDR-1的表达, 减少癌细胞对抗癌药物紫杉醇和长春碱(vinblastine) 的敏感性, 使用PXR拮抗剂酮康唑(ketoconazole) 或通过RNAi敲低hPXR的表达后则可降低耐药性[33-35]。联合使用PXR拮抗剂SPA70与抗癌药物紫杉醇治疗晚期非小细胞肺癌(non-small cell lung cancer, NSCLC) 时, SPA70显著抑制P-糖蛋白的表达, 减少药物外排, 同时抑制耐药细胞A549/TR (tumor resistance, 肿瘤耐药性)、H460/TR的增殖、迁移和侵袭, 从而降低NSCLC对紫杉醇的耐药性[36]。由此可见, 临床上使用PXR拮抗剂能够克服化疗药物耐药性, 并为肿瘤治疗带来了良好的应用前景。
PXR与葡萄糖代谢、脂质代谢、内分泌稳态、胆汁平衡、维生素代谢和骨矿物盐稳态及炎症反应等密切相关, 是代谢性疾病的治疗靶点。本文仅简单介绍葡萄糖代谢、非酒精性脂肪肝病及酒精性肝病与PXR, 未详细总结各代谢性疾病与PXR的相关性。
PXR激活对全身葡萄糖稳态的调节具有不利影响, 并通过多种机制调节机体的葡萄糖代谢[37]。PXR激活后下调葡萄糖转运蛋白2 (glucose transporter-2, GLUT2) 和葡萄糖激酶(glucokinase, GCK) 的表达, 影响葡萄糖的运输和利用, 抑制胰岛素的生成, 最终导致血糖稳态失调[38-40]; 上调葡萄糖-6-磷酸酶(glucose-6-phosphatase, G6Pase) 与磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧激酶(phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, PEPCK) 的表达, 促进肝脏糖异生[41]。他汀类药物如阿托伐他汀(atorvastatin) 介导PXR及PXR靶蛋白CYP3A4的激活, 从而抑制HepG2细胞的葡萄糖消耗和摄取, 而PXR的敲低或使用PXR拮抗剂白藜芦醇(resveratrol, RES) 和酮康唑则逆转这种情况, 改善葡萄糖耐受。这表明他汀类药物引起的新发糖尿病风险可由PXR拮抗剂来控制[40]。
在研究苯甲酸(benzoic acid, BA) 对非酒精性脂肪肝病(non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, NAFLD) 的治疗潜力时发现, BA会通过抑制肝脏PXR-SLC13A5/ACLY轴, 显著下调与脂质代谢相关基因的转录来减轻肝脏脂质积累[42]。而当体内的PXR被激活后会诱导与脂肪生成相关蛋白的表达, 如甾醇调节元件结合蛋白1 (sterol regulatory element binding protein-1, SREBP-1)[43]、脂质合成关键酶硬脂酰辅酶A去饱和酶1 (stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1, SCD-1)、脂肪酸延长酶(fatty acid elongase, FAE) 和脂肪酸转运蛋白(cluster of differentiation 36, CD36)[44]; 并抑制脂肪酸β-氧化相关基因的表达[45], 从而加剧肝脏脂肪沉积导致NAFLD。PXR拮抗剂FLB-12改善了NAFLD小鼠模型中该疾病的标志物——肝细胞气球样变; PXR拮抗剂白藜芦醇可以下调其下游靶基因Cyp3a11和Mdr1a的表达, 减轻由抗病毒药物依非韦伦(efavirenz) 引起的肝脂肪变性和肝脏炎症[46]。这些研究均表明使用PXR拮抗剂能缓解NAFLD的进展, 达到治疗NAFLD的目的。
酒精相关性肝病(alcohol-associated liver disease, ALD) 是由过量饮酒引起的, 该病的发病率在雌性中更高[47]。Twum等[48]发现当雌性小鼠摄入乙醇后, 会引起体内代谢紊乱、氧化应激及炎症反应等相关基因的上调, 例如CYP2B6、TNFRSF12A、IL-6及FGF21[47], 且放大ERα、PXR/CAR的信号, 从而抑制下游的NRF2/AhR抗氧化解毒通路, 进一步加剧不良反应, 最终促使ALD进展。在卵巢切除的实验中, 这些情况受到明显抑制。因此PXR可能成为雌性ALD的治疗新靶点。
在脑部, PXR mRNA在下丘脑的表达参与对外源物和内源物的代谢调节[49]。PXR激活后增加了代谢酶CYP450的表达, 进而导致氧化应激, 对脑部神经产生影响。PXR激动剂阿特拉津(atrazine) 和化学品壬基酚(nonyl phenol, NP), 通过该机制使线粒体发生功能障碍与神经元细胞凋亡, 最终引起了鹌鹑和小鼠的神经毒性, 产生异常行为[50, 51]。研究发现, PXR激活会加剧中枢神经系统脊髓损伤(spinal cord injury, SCI) 的氧化应激水平以及SCI诱导的细胞凋亡, 而PXR缺乏则通过激活NRF2/HO-1信号通路抑制SCI后的氧化应激、细胞凋亡、组织损伤和炎症反应, 促进运动功能的恢复, 这为临床上使用PXR拮抗剂治疗SCI提供了有利的理论基础和数据支撑[52]。PXR在神经系统的作用机制为使用PXR拮抗剂治疗脑部疾病提供了新的思路, PXR拮抗剂在一定程度上可以保护机体神经系统。
PXR调控的细胞色素P450 (CYP) 酶系具有高效但底物广的代谢特性[53], 参与80%以上的临床处方药物在机体内的代谢[54], 是导致药物-药物相互作用(drug-drug interactions, DDIs) 的主要原因。比如利福平(rifampicin) 与咪达唑仑(midazolam, CYP3A4底物) 或罗格列酮(rosiglitazone, CYP2C8底物) 联合使用时, 咪达唑仑和罗格列酮的浓度-时间曲线下面积(area under curve, AUC) 大幅度降低, 失去药效作用[55]。孕妇体内内源性孕酮会激活PXR, 从而导致UGT1A1 mRNA的表达增加, 加速抗高血压药物拉贝洛尔的葡萄糖醛酸化代谢, 使其血浆暴露量急剧下降, 导致抗高血压作用丧失[56]。在DDIs中还存在一种自诱导现象, 如抗惊厥药物卡马西平既作为PXR激动剂, 同时也作为CYP3A4代谢的底物, 导致药物清除率增加[55]。中草药在临床上的使用衍生了新的药物相互作用概念, 即草药-药物相互作用(herb-drug interactions, HDIs)。圣约翰草(St. John's wort, SJW) 中的金丝桃素(hyperforin, HPF) 是PXR的强效激动剂, 能显著诱导CYP3A酶表达, 进而降低其他药物的血浆浓度[57]; 育亨宾(yohimbine) 中的吲哚生物碱是引起PXR诱导的主要活性物, 通过激活PXR影响药物代谢, 从而引发HDIs[58]。综上所述, PXR激活介导的DDIs/HDIs是临床用药的一道壁垒, PXR拮抗剂与其他药物联合用药能抑制CYP酶活性, 从而降低药物代谢的速度与DDIs/HDIs风险, 提高治疗效果。
作为配体依赖性核受体, 可以根据PXR拮抗剂与LBD的作用方式将其分为竞争性拮抗剂、非竞争性拮抗剂及其他作用方式的化合物(表1[4, 15-17, 23, 36, 46, 59-103])。
Lin等[16, 59]采用荧光素酶报告系统, 在稳转细胞系中筛选了16万个化合物, 发现SPA70 (图4, 1) 是一种高效且高选择性的hPXR拮抗剂, 在基于细胞的hPXR拮抗试验中IC50为0.5 μmol·L-1。时间分辨荧光共振能量转移技术(time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer, TR-FRET) 竞争性结合数据表明, SPA70是一种竞争性拮抗剂, 直接结合于hPXR LBD, 并阻碍激动剂(如利福平、SJB7) 与hPXR结合。从结构上看, SPA70会引起AF-2域失去稳定构象, 使hPXR无法招募共激活因子SRC-1和转录中介因子2 (transcriptional intermediary factor 2, TIF2), 反而增强与共抑制因子核受体辅阻遏物(nuclear receptor co-repressor, NCoR) 和类视黄醇与甲状腺激素受体沉默介导因子(silencing mediator for retinoid and thyroid hormone receptors, SMRT) 的结合, 这种机制导致hPXR的转录活性被抑制, 从而减少CYP3A4等药物代谢酶的表达[16]。SPA70在原代肝细胞、人源化小鼠及肿瘤异种移植模型中能显著抑制肿瘤生长, 克服化疗耐药性并已进入临床前毒性评估阶段[16, 36]。SPA70在多个模型中显示出鼓舞人心的疾病治疗效果, 比如保护免受出血性休克引起的肝损伤[60]。当前研究聚焦于开发SPA70衍生物以提升选择性和效力, 同时探索其在代谢性疾病治疗中的应用[61]。
对SPA70进行结构优化, 得到了只具有拮抗活性的化合物97 (IC50 = 0.5 μmol·L-1, 图4, 2)。该化合物与PXR的作用方式类似于SPA70, 与AF-2域无强作用[17]。进一步研究发现, SPA70的砜桥用酰胺键替换后仍然保持很好的活性及选择性。通过结构修饰, 最终找到了高选择性高亲和力的hPXR拮抗剂SJPYT-310 (图4, 3), 其拮抗活性相较于SPA70显著提升, IC50达到了0.009 μmol·L-1 [62]。关于SJPYT-310与PXR的作用方式, 在前文PXR拮抗剂的作用机制已做了详细描述。
以SJPYT-310为起始化合物, 将区域B的叔丁基改为酯基后可以得到化合物SJPYT-331 (图4, 4)[15]。该修饰增强了与PXR LBD的相互作用, 提高了结合亲和力和拮抗活性, IC50值达到0.007 μmol·L-1。从SPA70的发现到其衍生物共晶结构和作用位点的揭示, 为PXR小分子拮抗剂的设计合成及优化提供了有益的思路和参考, 但上述化合物的体内药效学特性还有待评估。
Lynch等[63]通过高通量筛选发现γ-分泌酶调节剂2 (gamma-secretase modulator 2, GSM2, 图4, 5) 和夫西地酸(fusidic acid, 图4, 6) 可以结合PXR LBD, 其能与关键氨基酸残基(如Ser247和Gln285) 发生氢键相互作用, 改变AF-2螺旋稳定构象, 阻止与共激活因子的结合, 从而抑制PXR的活性(GSM2的IC50 = 1.6 μmol·L-1, 夫西地酸的IC50 = 3.5 μmol·L-1)。GSM2是一种新型三唑并苯氮西平酮化合物, 作为非酸性γ-分泌酶调节剂, 通过高效降低中枢Aβ42水平, 展现出治疗阿尔茨海默病的潜力。PXR与神经性疾病有一定的关联, 可以进一步研究GSM2治疗阿尔茨海默病与抑制PXR活性之间是否有作用通路。近年来, 有研究显示夫西地酸在不同药物中影响药物代谢酶介导的药物相互作用, 这有可能与PXR有关, 夫西地酸临床联合用药的安全性与机制需进一步研究[64]。这两种化合物作为高通量筛选平台发现的苗头化合物, 对PXR活性的抑制能力有待提高, 需进一步的结构修饰。
Dusek等[65]通过对3-(1H-1,2,3-三唑-4-基)咪唑[1,2-a]吡啶结构优化得到一种氟化衍生物MI883 (图4, 7), 是双靶点CAR激动剂/PXR拮抗剂。通过PXR LBD的TR-FRET竞争实验和PXR LBD突变体实验, 发现MI883通过与LBD的Trp299、Tyr306和Phe288发生疏水相互作用, 从而与PXR LBD竞争性结合。MI883可以缩短AF-2螺旋中H12和H3的距离, 使其失去结合共激活因子的能力。MI883的IC50值为3.6 μmol·L-1, 可以阻断PXR介导的胆固醇关键合成通路——SREBP2-INSIGI-HMGCR轴的激活, 从而减少肝脏内胆固醇合成。PXR与CAR同时是心血管代谢疾病治疗的靶点, PXR的激活会诱发高血压、高胆固醇及动脉粥样硬化等疾病, 而CAR的激活却具有降低血糖、降压和血管保护等有益作用, 因此激活CAR并抑制PXR是代谢性疾病治疗的新方向[66], MI883为一些代谢性疾病的治疗提供了新型多靶点药物候选分子。
近期, Kamaraj等[67]发表了进一步结构优化得到的选择性PXR拮抗剂MI891 (图4, 8)。该化合物与MI883相比, 唯一不同之处在于咪唑并吡啶的结构上具有两个间位氟原子, 从而使MI891失去CAR激动活性。6,8-二氟取代导致MI891失去与CAR LBD的Cys202和Tyr326残基的疏水相互作用, 从而抑制了CAR的转录激活。MI891的氯苯基占据PXR LBD的疏水口袋(Trp299、Phe288、Tyr306) 及亮氨酸笼(Leu206、Leu209、Leu239、Leu240); 酰胺氯苯基则进一步与Ala280主链形成氢键, 稳定PXR的拮抗构象, 同时解除了与AF-2螺旋中Met425、Leu428和Phe429的相互作用, 失去与共激活因子的稳定结合, 随后抑制PXR转录活性(IC50 = 0.4 μmol·L-1)。该化合物选择性较高, 仅拮抗于hPXR, 对其他核受体没有显著的激动或拮抗活性。
贝利司他(belinostat, 图4, 9) 是一种小分子组蛋白脱乙酰酶抑制剂, 于2014年获美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA) 批准上市, 用于治疗复发或难治性外周T细胞淋巴瘤[68]。有研究发现, 贝利司他可以通过与hPXR LBD形成氢键和疏水相互作用, 竞争性地结合到hPXR LBD上, 并且通过与Lys259、Glu427等关键氨基酸的氢键相互作用直接结合到AF-2螺旋上, 阻碍共激活因子SRC-1的结合, 发挥hPXR拮抗活性。贝利司他在人原代肝细胞和人结肠癌细胞(LS174T) 中可以抑制hPXR靶基因的表达, 抑制利福平诱导的CYP3A4和MDR-1的基因表达, 以及它们各自的蛋白活性, 从而拮抗hPXR激动剂诱导的化疗耐药性[69]。
奈非那韦(nelfinavir, 图4, 10) 是一种已获批的人类免疫缺陷病毒蛋白酶抑制剂, 广泛用作治疗获得性免疫缺陷综合征的抗感染剂[70]。通过分子对接模拟发现奈非那韦可以结合PXR LBD, 主要通过π-π堆积、疏水作用力及氢键网络产生作用。奈非那韦能抑制核受体共激活因子2 (nuclear receptor coactivator 2, NCOA2) 募集, 但无直接证据表明奈非那韦与PXR AF-2螺旋有相互作用, 可能是由于奈非那韦与PXR的作用方式对AF-2螺旋构象的影响较小, 从而使奈非那韦表现出部分激动/竞争性拮抗的功能, 其拮抗活性为IC50 = 7.3 μmol·L-1 [71]。此外, 奈非那韦在人类PXR转基因小鼠中显著抑制血栓形成[72]。奈非那韦可以通过拮抗PXR活性, 逆转PXR驱动的耐药机制, 在恢复癌细胞的化疗敏感性方面发挥关键作用, 有助于联合治疗高度耐药性肿瘤[73]。
Healan-Greenberg等[74]在研究中发现A-792611 (图4, 11) 可以显著下调CYP3A4的表达, 进一步研究发现A-792611可以拮抗PXR的活性(IC50 = 2 μmol·L-1), 下调PXR靶基因CYP3A4、CYP2B6、CYP2C8和CYP2C9的表达, 对CAR、法尼醇X受体(farnesoid X receptor, FXR)、维生素D受体(vitamin D receptor, VDR)及过氧化物酶体增殖物激活型受体(peroxisome proliferator activated-receptors, PPARs) 不具有活性。此外, 该课题组发现A-792611通过拮抗PXR, 可以有效地逆转乳腺癌中PXR激动剂利福平导致的有机阴离子转运蛋白多肽1A2 (organic anion-transporting polypeptide 1A2, OATP1A2) 的表达。PXR与OATP1A2之间的相互作用可能是导致乳腺癌的发病机制之一, 因此成为乳腺癌治疗的潜在靶点之一[75]。
Mustonen等[76]通过分子对接技术, 从Tübingen激酶抑制剂库(TüKIC) 中筛选出以苯氨基苯并环庚酮为骨架的4个新型PXR拮抗剂, 其中化合物73 (图4, 12) 和化合物100 (图4, 13) 在苯并环庚酮核心结构上的取代基分别为甲基和氟原子, 后以苯氨基连接苯酰胺结构。这种伸展性结构使其可以竞争性占据PXR LBD, 拮抗PXR活性, 影响SRC-1的招募, 呈浓度依赖性地抑制激动剂利福平诱导的CYP3A4表达, 并在高浓度下明显降低激动剂的最大效应(Emax), 其中化合物100的PXR拮抗活性最为显著(IC50 = 2.8 μmol·L-1)。这些结果证明了PXR和蛋白激酶双重抑制剂的可能性, 在一定程度上有助于癌症的治疗。
Burk等[77]采用基于细胞的高通量筛选方法以寻找PXR拮抗剂。在人肝癌HepG2细胞系瞬时共转染PXR表达质粒与CYP3A4报告基因系统中, 通过检测利福平诱导的PXR激活效应及药物干预效果, 筛选出已批准的药物吡美莫司(pimecrolimus, 图4, 14) 为新型的PXR拮抗剂(IC50 = 1.2 μmol·L-1)。吡美莫司具有双重作用机制, 既结合于LBD, 又可以通过单个氢键与AF-2螺旋有直接作用, 可广泛抑制利福平诱导的CYP3A4、CYP2C8、ABCB1等8种PXR靶基因表达(AKR1B10除外)。但是吡美莫司在PXR LBD和AF-2螺旋上的结合位点还尚未阐明。
香豆雌酚(coumestrol, 图4, 15) 是来源于豆科植物中的香豆素类植物雌激素, 因其结构中含有酚环可与雌激素受体ER结合, 进而发挥雌激素样活性[78]。香豆雌酚作为激动剂对除ER外的核受体均无激动作用, 但是对PXR却表现出拮抗活性。研究发现香豆雌酚可以与PXR的LBD和AF-2螺旋的表面位点结合, 进而阻断SRC-1招募, 拮抗PXR激动剂对CYP3A4和CYP2B6基因表达的诱导。香豆雌酚对PXR的拮抗活性IC50 = 11.6 μmol·L-1, 但是存在物种差异。在香豆雌酚与药物代谢的研究中, 香豆雌酚能显著延长人源化PXR小鼠中利福平介导的2, 2, 2三溴乙醇麻醉剂作用时间, 对野生型小鼠却无作用, 表明香豆雌酚仅作用于hPXR[79]。
Zhou等[80]的研究发现, 萝卜硫素(图4, 16) 是作用于人类PXR的天然拮抗剂, 可以作用于hPXR的LBD (Ki = 16 μmol·L-1), 抑制hPXR与共激活因子的相互作用来阻断利福平诱导的hPXR活性以及CYP3A4基因的表达。此外, SFN对PXR的抑制作用具有物种选择性, 对人类PXR效果显著而对小鼠和大鼠PXR效果微弱。Poulton等[81]在此研究基础上进一步探索了体内SFN的PXR拮抗作用。通过人体临床试验却发现SFN在人体内未能成功拮抗利福平诱导的PXR激活, 同样的在人源化PXR小鼠研究中, SFN也未能拮抗利福平对CYP3A11 mRNA及活性的诱导。因此, SFN在体内可能存在着脱靶, 还需更多数据支撑SFN对PXR的拮抗作用。
Mooiman等[82]筛选了一系列癌症相关的补充和替代药物对PXR的作用, 发现乳蓟提取物能显著抑制利福平等诱导的CYP3A4的表达。乳蓟中抑制PXR介导的CYP3A4表达的主要成分是水飞蓟宾(silybin, 图4, 17, IC50 = 74 μmol·L-1) 与异水飞蓟宾(isosilybin, 图4, 18, IC50 = 135 μmol·L-1)。综合分子对接实验、TR-FRET PXR竞争结合实验以及定量逆转录聚合酶链反应(quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, qRT-PCR) 实验结果, 发现水飞蓟宾和异水飞蓟宾能与PXR LBD直接结合, 其作用于PXR的AF-2结构域中的关键氨基酸Phe429A, 干扰PXR的活性构象, 进而拮抗PXR, 导致无法转录激活CYP3A4基因的表达。水飞蓟宾和异水飞蓟宾对PXR的活性有助于更全面地利用这一天然药物。
所罗门甾醇A和B是从海洋海绵Theonella swinhoei中分离出的天然甾体化合物, 已被证实是PXR的选择性激动剂[4, 83, 84]。而Hodnik等[85]以所罗门甾醇A和B为天然先导, 找到了具有拮抗活性的化合物20 (图4, 19, IC50 = 11 μmol·L-1) 和化合物24 (图4, 20, IC50 = 14 μmol·L-1)。其能与PXR LBD形成类似于所罗门甾醇A和B的相互作用, 但是由于使用羟基取代了所罗门甾醇A和B结构上原有的硫酸酯基团, 使其不能稳定AF-2螺旋构象, 从而导致拮抗活性。
最近, Yang等[86]对新藤黄酸(neogambogic acid, NGA, 图4, 21) 增强NSCLC细胞对特效药阿美替尼(almonertinib) 敏感性的机制做了深入研究, 发现将新藤黄酸与阿美替尼联合使用时, 新藤黄酸可以通过结合PXR LBD, 阻断PXR与共激活因子的相互作用, 进而抑制利福平对PXR的活化, 下调有关药物代谢的靶基因(CYP3A4、P-gp、BCRP) 转录, 减缓了NSCLC细胞对阿美替尼的耐药性。阿美替尼作为国内首个上市的表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor receptor, EGFR) 靶向自研药, 涵盖NSCLC的早中晚期全线治疗, 但它的耐药性成为临床用药的最大阻碍。NGA通过抑制PXR活性来提升癌细胞对这个靶向药的敏感性, 极大地提升了该药的效力及应用潜力, 并进一步佐证了PXR在癌症药物耐药性中起到关键作用。
Pu等[87]在通过检测PXR蛋白表达来评估连翘酯苷(forsythiaside A, FA, 图4, 22) 减轻对乙酰氨基酚引起的药物性肝损伤的可能机制时, 发现连翘酯苷与PXR LBD直接结合并形成氢键, 进而抑制PXR活性, 下调CYP1A2与CYP3A11的表达, 随后降低对乙酰氨基酚毒性代谢物N-乙酰基对苯醌亚胺的产生, 缓解细胞损伤。此外, 连翘酯苷对PXR活性的抑制减弱了对乙酰氨基酚诱导的氧化应激、内质网应激和细胞凋亡, 从而起到保肝作用。由此可见, PXR作为药物代谢的关键调节因子, 其活性与药物性肝损伤密切相关, PXR是药物性肝损伤潜在的治疗靶点。
Maurice等[88]发现抗真菌药酮康唑(图5, 23) 是一种CYP3A4的强选择性抑制剂, 随后Wang等[89]进一步发现酮康唑并非直接作用于PXR LBD而是依赖于唑环结构与AF-2区域的靶向结合, 进而阻断共激活因子招募, 抑制PXR下游药物代谢基因(如CYP3A4、CYP2B6、MDR-1等) 的转录激活, 是典型的PXR变构抑制剂。酮康唑对人肝细胞中利福平诱导的CYP3A4 mRNA具有明显的抑制作用(IC50 = 13.4 μmol·L-1)。
针对酮康唑不良反应(如皮质醇合成、肝脏毒性) 进行结构优化形成新型唑类类似物FLB-12 (图5, 24)[90]。与酮康唑相比, FLB-12是一种咪唑基团缺失的酮康唑的氟化衍生物, 显著降低了肝毒性和脱靶效应[91]。FLB-12的作用机制类似于酮康唑, 可以在体外消除PXR介导的结肠癌细胞对dn-38的耐药性, 在体内减弱PXR介导的对乙酰氨基酚的肝毒性[90]。FLB-12对PXR活性的抑制能力低于酮康唑, 还需进一步的结构修饰。
帕唑帕尼(pazopanib, 图5, 25) 是一个仅与PXR AF-2螺旋相互作用的PXR拮抗剂[77]。在AF-2域, 帕唑帕尼磺酰胺部分与Lys252侧链之间形成盐桥, 并与Lys252骨架羰基部分形成额外的氢键。在LBD突变体PXR中, 并不影响帕唑帕尼对PXR活性的抑制, 证实帕唑帕尼对PXR的拮抗作用不依赖于对LBD的占据, 是非竞争性变构拮抗剂(IC50 = 4.1 μmol·L-1)。
Krausova等[92]研究发现二甲双胍(metformin, 图5, 26) 可以抑制肝细胞中PXR介导CYP3A4的表达, 进一步研究表明二甲双胍并不作用于PXR LBD, 而是通过破坏PXR与共激活因子SRC-1的相互作用。此外, 二甲双胍有可能通过PXR抑制, 介导了AMPK和JNK信号通路的激活参与对羧酯酶的抑制作用, 从而治疗2型糖尿病[93]。这些发现表明PXR拮抗剂具有潜在的治疗2型糖尿病的作用, 但是其临床试验还需要进一步的研究。
曲贝替定(ET-743, 图5, 27), 是一种从加勒比海被囊动物红树海蛸(Ecteinascidia turbinata) 体内分离提取出来的天然四氢异喹啉生物碱, 能够抑制PXR激动剂介导的CYP3A4及MDR-1激活[85, 94]。ET-743能够阻断被紫杉醇等激动剂激活的hPXR, 从而抑制下游靶基因, 其拮抗活性IC50 = 0.003 μmol·L-1 [4, 95]。但是关于ET-743对PXR的作用机制及作用位点, 目前尚无更多的研究报道[94]。ET-743具有强烈的细胞毒性, 在2015年被美国FDA批准, 应用于治疗不可切除或转移性脂肪肉瘤或平滑肌肉瘤[96], 但是其作为PXR拮抗剂的临床应用需要进一步探索。
白藜芦醇(图5, 28) 可以减弱PXR诱导的CYP3A酶的活性[97]。在报告基因转染细胞中, 白藜芦醇显著抑制了PXR对CYP3A4启动子的转录激活及利福平诱导的CYP3A4的mRNA和蛋白表达, 尤其在过表达PXR的细胞中抑制效果更为强烈。另外, 有研究表明, 白藜芦醇可以通过mmu-miR-599/PXR通路改善营养性脂肪性肝炎[98], 以及通过抑制PXR激活和减少炎症来减轻依非韦伦诱导的小鼠肝脂肪变性和高胆固醇血症[46]。这些数据表明, PXR可作为治疗脂肪性肝炎和高胆固醇血症的潜在靶点。此外, 白藜芦醇作为PXR拮抗剂, 会导致食品-药物相互作用的潜在风险, 需要注意食物和红酒中白藜芦醇对药物的影响[99]。
岩藻黄质(fucoxanthin, FX, 图5, 29) 在人肝癌细胞系HepG2和结肠腺癌细胞系LS174T中, 可以通过减弱PXR介导的CYP3A4启动子激活和PXR与共激活剂之间的相互作用来降低利福平诱导的CYP3A4和MDR-1表达[100]。此外, 有研究证明岩藻黄质可通过诱导细胞凋亡、抑制多药耐药蛋白和代谢酶, 使耐药癌细胞对多柔比星敏感[101]。目前, 岩藻黄质与PXR的具体作用位点还需进一步的探索。岩藻黄质的化学性质极不稳定, 容易降解, 且生物利用度低, 有待进一步开发。
Lim等[102]发现异硫氰酸烯丙酯(allyl isothiocyanate, AITC, 图5, 30) 对利福平诱导的细胞毒性具有保护作用, 瞬时转染实验表明异硫氰酸烯丙酯能够有效减弱利福平对人PXR活性的激动作用。此外, 硫氰酸烯丙酯可以通过干扰PXR与RXRα、SRC-1、肝细胞核因子4α (hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α, HNF4α) 和过氧化物酶体增殖受体γ辅激活因子1α (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α, PGC-1α) 等共调节因子的相互作用来抑制PXR活性, 但并未有确切实验结果表明AITC对PXR的拮抗机制是作用于LBD和AF-2螺旋及其他PXR结构位点。AITC作为PXR拮抗剂, 有待进一步挖掘抗炎和抗癌能力, 具有保护人类健康的潜力。
Chen等[23]研究发现, 喜树碱(图5, 31) 可以通过阻断SRC-1与PXR的结合来发挥拮抗作用(IC50 = 0.6 μmol·L-1), 而不是直接作用于LBD和AF-2螺旋。喜树碱通过抑制PXR, 进而减少了CYP3A4诱导的药物代谢, 这有助于减少药物间相互作用以及提高治疗过程药物敏感性[103]。
PROTAC是一种靶向目标蛋白(protein of interest, POI) 的新兴蛋白质降解技术, PROTAC分子通过连接子连接两个可以分别识别目标蛋白和泛素连接酶(E3) 的配体, 并招募E3泛素连接酶促进POI通过泛素-蛋白酶体系统(ubiquitin-proteasome system, UPS) 降解[104]。
Chen团队[105]通过降解标签(degradation tag, dTAG) 系统, 构建了一种PXR PROTAC高通量筛选系统, 通过筛选发现SJPYT-195 (图6A, 32) 能有效降低PXR蛋白水平(DC50 = 0.3 μmol·L-1, DMax = 85%)。进行TR-FRET测定发现SJPYT-195与PXR LBD的结合能力很弱, 表明该化合物并非通过高亲和力结合PXR LBD诱导其降解, 而是通过降解翻译终止因子GSPT1, 间接降低了PXR的表达。在此研究基础上, 该团队[106]进行进一步的PROTAC设计。首先通过配体与PXR LBD结合的晶体结构分析, 选择在与PXR LBD结合后, α螺旋12 (α12) 位点具有暴露在溶剂中的linker接口的配体, 并进一步优化其结构, 使用荧光探针技术确定接口与linker的结合能力。最终选择PXR拮抗剂SPA70的衍生物SJPYT-312与SJPYT-331作为连接PXR的配体, 通过linker连接VH032, 分别得到PXR PROTAC化合物SJYHJ-026 (图6A, 33, DC50 = 0.09 μmol·L-1, DMax = 66.4%) 和SJYHJ-040 (图6A, 34, DC50 = 0.09 μmol·L-1, DMax = 63.9%), 都能有效地特异性降解PXR蛋白。通过蛋白质组学分析发现SJYHJ-026与SJYHJ-040具有很高的选择性, 除PXR之外的蛋白都未显示出明显的降解效果, 且对其他核受体也具有很高的选择性, 表明这两种化合物是具有高选择性的hPXR PROTACs。在动物实验中, SJYHJ-040显示出有效的PXR拮抗活性, 并能显著增强紫杉醇的抗癌活性。
此外, Kamaraj等[67]基于SPA70设计并合成的降解剂MI1013 (图6A, 35, DC50 = 0.09 μmol·L-1, DMax = 82%), 具有更好的选择性和降解作用。PXR LBD的晶体结构与SPA70的对接研究显示, SPA70与Phe429和His407相互作用, 且SPA70暴露在溶剂中的叔丁基苯基结构被认为是接头进入位点。CRBN的组织表达广泛, 与配体泊马度胺(pomalidomide) 亲和力高(Kd = 0.2 μmol·L-1), 使用一种信息驱动的灵活对接方法HADDOCK (high ambiguity driven protein-protein DOCKing) 进一步优化PXR/CRBN接头长度至18.6 μmol·L-1, 促进E3连接酶与PXR接近。基于这个距离将SPA70的叔丁基部分作为与聚乙二醇连接子的作用位点, 后与N-甲基炔丙基泊马度胺相连形成PROTAC三元复合物。MI1013可以抑制PXR控制的ADME基因(如CYP3A4、CYP2C9、CYP2C8、CYP2B6和ABCB1等) 的表达。此外, MI1013下调参与肝细胞糖异生、胆固醇稳态、胆汁酸合成和增殖的几个关键基因的表达, 表明它们在代谢性疾病中的潜在治疗应用。
Bansard等[107]基于PXR激动剂JMV6845设计并合成了能有效降解PXR的PROTAC。JMV6944与PXR LBD结合的晶体结构分析发现, JMV6944结合PXR LBD后H2'螺旋明显移位, 使氨基庚基链能够从LBD内部延伸至蛋白表面, 为PROTAC linker提供接口。且链末端与表面残基Cys207形成氢键, 进一步稳定与PXR LBD的结合(IC50 = 0.7 μmol·L-1)。最终选择沙利度胺(thalidomide) 作为靶向E3连接酶的配体, 得到PROTAC分子JMV7048 (图6B, 36)。JMV7048能有效降解内源性PXR蛋白(DC50 = 0.4 μmol·L-1, DMax = 62%), 并能提高细胞对5-氟尿嘧啶和SN38等化疗药物的敏感性, 延缓结肠癌复发。这表明基于激动剂设计PROTACs是一个药物设计策略之一。
靶向PXR设计PROTAC降解剂是克服传统PXR拮抗剂局限性的有效策略之一, 有助于挖掘与PXR抑制有关的疾病治疗潜力。未来, PXR PROTAC可以用在营养压力(例如高脂肪饮食) 下的动物模型的研究, 或者当配体或基因突变激活PXR导致的肥胖、代谢综合征、肝脂肪变性、高胆固醇血症、与高血糖相关的胰岛素抵抗降低或出血性休克引起的肝损伤时的研究。
目前PXR PROTAC的研究还有很大的进步空间。Florke Gee等[108]发现一种非传统型的E3泛素连接酶F-box蛋白44, 该酶通过FBA结构域与PXR LBD直接作用来诱导PXR降解, 是否能够作为PXR PROTAC的E3酶还需要更深入的机制探索。利用激酶抑制剂设计开发PROTAC已经有了很大的进展[109], 将具有PXR拮抗活性的激酶抑制剂用于PXR PROTAC的开发也是一个研究方向。PXR PROTAC的非特异性降解具有潜在的毒性, 同时PXR PROTAC分子质量大, 溶解性差, 如何提高组织特异性和体内生物利用度也是亟待解决的问题。未来可将PXR PROTAC开发纳米递送等创新型递药系统, 同时引入响应性化学基团, 在特定的肿瘤微环境中激活, 以实现组织精准性给药和利用[110]。
生活中, 人们被无数不同种类的分子(如化妆品、农药、微塑料、药物、化合物、天然产物等) 包围。PXR作为外源物质和内源物质的感受器, 这些化学分子很多都会在人体内激活PXR, 影响药物代谢酶、转运蛋白和其他代谢相关蛋白质的表达。比如, 在2021年对Tox21化合物库10 000个分子进行PXR活性筛选, 发现存在着20%的化合物会激活PXR[111]。因此, PXR的长期激活可能会产生一些不良后果。
临床上, 为了提高疗效, 医生通常会开具多种药物以进行有效治疗。随着年龄的增长, 患者需要同时治疗各种疾病, 使得使用多种药物变得更加普遍。据统计, 约40%的65岁以上成人需要同时服用5种或更多药物, 12%的人至少服用10种药物[112]。当使用多种药物时, 特别是其中一种药物是PXR激动剂时, 就需要慎重考虑PXR的影响。在目前这些治疗方案中, 药物之间的相互作用非常常见, 所以这些药物联用都有可能受益于代谢调节剂。治疗药物与代谢改变药物的直接组合在临床上已经取得成功。例如, SARS-CoV-2药物Paxlovid就是直接作用病毒的药物和CYP3A抑制剂利托那韦的组合[112]。因为PXR可以在源头上防止整个药物代谢程序的上调, 而不是抑制单个酶, 因此PXR拮抗剂具有很大的潜在临床应用价值。
随着核受体PXR与人类健康关系的研究深入, 发现PXR与代谢紊乱、化疗耐药及炎症失衡等多种疾病密切相关。特别是化疗药物的耐药与PXR之间存在着紧密关系, PXR的表达会干扰化疗药物的敏感性和代谢, PXR激活通过上调CYP3A4等药物代谢酶, 诱导细胞中MDR-1、多药耐药相关蛋白3 (multidrug resistance-associated protein 3, MRP3) 和P-糖蛋白的表达, 加速紫杉醇、多西他赛等化疗药物的清除, 显著降低细胞内药物浓度, 导致多药耐药。PXR拮抗剂在多种慢性疾病中已经展现出潜在的疗效, 如癌症、代谢性疾病、神经性疾病等。尽管近年来的实验研究初步证实了PXR拮抗剂在疾病治疗领域蕴藏着巨大的潜力, 有望成为攻克多种疑难病症的关键靶点, 但是目前尚无候选化合物进入临床试验阶段。
PXR拮抗剂的开发非常缓慢, 这可能归因于PXR进化倾向, 即PXR可以通过被多种多样的分子激活, 提高代谢以保护身体免受毒理学伤害。PXR拮抗剂仍面临着诸多严峻挑战, 为进一步推进PXR拮抗剂的研究与开发, 未来的科研工作仍需要对现有方法进行改进和探究, 同时结合学科前沿技术积极开发PXR拮抗剂发现的新方法。伴随着学科交叉的深入及各领域技术的更新, 未来必将会有更多的PXR拮抗剂在疾病治疗中得以应用, 推动PXR等核受体领域的发展。

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2025年第60卷第12期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1040
  • 接收时间:2025-09-02
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  • 收稿日期:2025-09-02
  • 修回日期:2025-09-30
基金
作者信息
    湖南大学生命医学交叉研究院, 湖南省动物模型与分子医学重点实验室, 湖南 长沙 410082

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李永涛, Tel: 15575160312, E-mail:
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https://castjournals.cast.org.cn/joweb/yxxb/CN/10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-1040
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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