Article(id=1190373727935234683, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1190332325088039709, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0197, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1740499200000, receivedDateStr=2025-02-26, revisedDate=1743350400000, revisedDateStr=2025-03-31, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1761736812814, onlineDateStr=2025-10-29, pubDate=1746979200000, pubDateStr=2025-05-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1761736812814, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-10-29, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1761736812814, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761736812814, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1190332325088039709, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2025', volume='60', issue='5', pageStart='1183', pageEnd='1572', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1761726941606, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761813457266, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1190695198163354009, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1190332325088039709, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1190695198163354010, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1190332325088039709, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1197, endPage=1207, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1190373728090423938, articleId=1190373727935234683, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Advances in engineered Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus for controlling bacterial infections, columnId=1190332325767516958, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Special Reports: Live biotherapeutic products based on engineered bacteria, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Bacterial infectious diseases persistently pose severe threats to human health, development of livestock and aquaculture industries, and ecological stability. The extensive use of conventional antibiotics has led to increasingly critical issues of bacterial resistance, making the development of novel and effective strategies for preventing and treating bacterial infections an urgent priority. Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus, as a genus of parasitic bacteria that prey on other bacteria, exhibits lytic activity against various pathogenic species and demonstrates potential for combating bacterial infections. However, the direct application of B. bacteriovorus suspensions or powders faces challenges including rapid clearance, susceptibility to immune system elimination, difficulty in maintaining their vitality, and poor user compliance. Recent advancements in engineered B. bacteriovorus technology have created new opportunities for more precise and efficient utilization of these predators in infection control. This paper reviews recent advances in engineered B. bacteriovorus for bacterial infection control, with particular emphasis on engineering strategies based on formulation design, surface modification, and genetic editing, along with their therapeutic applications. The review aims to provide valuable insights for advancing research on engineered B. bacteriovorus technologies.

, correspAuthors=Yan LIU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2025 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yan LIU, Xin-ke LI, Wen-jing CHEN), CN=ArticleExt(id=1190374081083048461, articleId=1190373727935234683, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=工程化蛭弧菌防治细菌感染的研究进展, columnId=1190332325914317601, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道: 基于工程化细菌的活体生物药, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

细菌感染性疾病一直严重威胁着人类健康、动植物养殖产业发展及生态环境稳定。传统抗生素的广泛使用, 导致细菌耐药性问题日益严峻, 开发新型有效的细菌感染防治策略迫在眉睫。蛭弧菌作为一类以捕食细菌为生的寄生型细菌, 对多种致病菌具有裂解作用, 展现出防治细菌感染的潜力。但是, 直接使用蛭弧菌菌液或菌粉, 存在易流失、易被免疫系统清除、蛭弧菌活力难保持、使用顺应性差等问题。近年来, 工程化蛭弧菌技术为更精准、高效地利用蛭弧菌防治细菌感染带来了新的契机。本文调研了近年来工程化蛭弧菌防治细菌感染的研究进展, 重点介绍基于制剂设计、表面修饰、基因编辑的蛭弧菌工程化技术及其治疗应用, 为工程化蛭弧菌的研究发展提供参考。

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*刘岩, Tel: 13522293252, E-mail:
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Editorial: pharmacological and immunological action of bacteriophages: focus on phage therapy [J]. 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Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1190694586742882343, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373727935234683, companyId=1190694586721910821, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.徐州医科大学, 江苏省新药研究与临床药学重点实验室, 江苏 徐州 221004)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1190694590995906636, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373727935234683, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=USJs/IrkzOmOPBRuGAHGJA==, figureFileBig=UrBhjhd0K9BeDqWmmOiJDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190694591109152845, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373727935234683, language=CN, label=Figure 1, caption= Predation strategy of <i>B. bacteriovorus</i>. <i>B. bacteriovorus</i> cells adopt an endobiotic strategy. They search for, and attach to the prey, followed by penetration into the prey periplasm, growth at the expense of prey biomass, and lysis of the prey cells. Adapted from Ref. 26 with permission. Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd , figureFileSmall=USJs/IrkzOmOPBRuGAHGJA==, figureFileBig=UrBhjhd0K9BeDqWmmOiJDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190694591352422478, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373727935234683, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=od29S9lguoaQtCSRQgpVJQ==, figureFileBig=3fht/wBq/WMSzFEk1Uw5TQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190694591713132623, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373727935234683, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= <i>B. bacteriovorus</i> delivery system for the treatment of bacterial infections. A: Dual-network <i>B. bacteriovorus</i>-loaded hydrogels (BG) were prepared for highly effective loading <i>B. bacteriovorus</i> and the treatment of bacterium-infected wounds. Adapted from Ref. 33. Copyright © 2022 Chinese Pharmaceutical Association and Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; B: Temperature- and ion-sensitive <i>in situ</i> hydrogels of <i>B. bacteriovorus</i> (BIG) were prepared for the treatment of drug-resistant bacteria-induced corneal infection. Adapted from Ref. 34. Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V; C: Illustration of cryomicroneedles (cryoMNs) for ocular delivery of predatory bacteria in treating eye infection. Adapted from Ref. 36. Copyright © 2021 The Authors; D: <i>B. bacteriovorus</i>-loaded poly(lactic-<i>co</i>-glycolic acid) (PLGA) large porous microspheres (BPMs) avoid alveolar macrophage uptake and eradicate drug-resistant bacteria from the lung by inhalation. Adapted from Ref. 35. Copyright © 2025 The Authors , figureFileSmall=od29S9lguoaQtCSRQgpVJQ==, figureFileBig=3fht/wBq/WMSzFEk1Uw5TQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190694592082231376, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373727935234683, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=JXNzqLZ83EMlzyFo2K4p6Q==, figureFileBig=VlG3Eo2L3kTG5a8RgSsukQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190694592304529489, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373727935234683, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= Scheme of ZnO@Bdello to eradicate plaque biofilm in periodontitis. <i>Bdellovibrio</i> undergoes "colliding, attaching, forming bdelloplast, filamentous growth and releasing <i>Bdellovibrio</i>" to lyse the prey. During the attack phase, due to the pressure generated by <i>Bdellovibrio</i> colliding with the host, the ZnO nanorods polarize and produce ROS. In periodontitis, ZnO@Bdello invades and removes subgingival biofilm, thereby alleviating gingival inflammation, and inhibiting the absorption of alveolar bone. Adapted from Ref. 40 with permission. Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd , figureFileSmall=JXNzqLZ83EMlzyFo2K4p6Q==, figureFileBig=VlG3Eo2L3kTG5a8RgSsukQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190694592451330130, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373727935234683, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=UNOnvN+Sjsw5G1zRlgxwNg==, figureFileBig=uexC35L7ocTIInhE9De+RA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1190694592669433939, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1190373727935234683, language=CN, label=Figure 4, caption= Schematic illustration of the manufacture of Ce-PEA@Bdello and its application as a multifunctional therapeutic for penetrating biofilms, killing bacteria, degrading DGRs and treating scald/burn wounds infected with <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i> to block bacterial drug-resistance dissemination. Adapted from Ref. 42. 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工程化蛭弧菌防治细菌感染的研究进展
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刘岩 1, 2, * , 李欣珂 1, 2 , 陈雯静 1, 2
药学学报 | 专题报道: 基于工程化细菌的活体生物药 2025,60(5): 1197-1207
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药学学报 | 专题报道: 基于工程化细菌的活体生物药 2025, 60(5): 1197-1207
工程化蛭弧菌防治细菌感染的研究进展
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刘岩1, 2, * , 李欣珂1, 2, 陈雯静1, 2
作者信息
  • 1.徐州医科大学药学院, 江苏 徐州 221004
  • 2.徐州医科大学, 江苏省新药研究与临床药学重点实验室, 江苏 徐州 221004

通讯作者:

*刘岩, Tel: 13522293252, E-mail:
Advances in engineered Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus for controlling bacterial infections
Yan LIU1, 2, * , Xin-ke LI1, 2, Wen-jing CHEN1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1. School of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
  • 2. Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
出版时间: 2025-05-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0197
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细菌感染性疾病一直严重威胁着人类健康、动植物养殖产业发展及生态环境稳定。传统抗生素的广泛使用, 导致细菌耐药性问题日益严峻, 开发新型有效的细菌感染防治策略迫在眉睫。蛭弧菌作为一类以捕食细菌为生的寄生型细菌, 对多种致病菌具有裂解作用, 展现出防治细菌感染的潜力。但是, 直接使用蛭弧菌菌液或菌粉, 存在易流失、易被免疫系统清除、蛭弧菌活力难保持、使用顺应性差等问题。近年来, 工程化蛭弧菌技术为更精准、高效地利用蛭弧菌防治细菌感染带来了新的契机。本文调研了近年来工程化蛭弧菌防治细菌感染的研究进展, 重点介绍基于制剂设计、表面修饰、基因编辑的蛭弧菌工程化技术及其治疗应用, 为工程化蛭弧菌的研究发展提供参考。

蛭弧菌  /  掠食性细菌  /  工程化细菌  /  细菌感染  /  生物防治

Bacterial infectious diseases persistently pose severe threats to human health, development of livestock and aquaculture industries, and ecological stability. The extensive use of conventional antibiotics has led to increasingly critical issues of bacterial resistance, making the development of novel and effective strategies for preventing and treating bacterial infections an urgent priority. Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus, as a genus of parasitic bacteria that prey on other bacteria, exhibits lytic activity against various pathogenic species and demonstrates potential for combating bacterial infections. However, the direct application of B. bacteriovorus suspensions or powders faces challenges including rapid clearance, susceptibility to immune system elimination, difficulty in maintaining their vitality, and poor user compliance. Recent advancements in engineered B. bacteriovorus technology have created new opportunities for more precise and efficient utilization of these predators in infection control. This paper reviews recent advances in engineered B. bacteriovorus for bacterial infection control, with particular emphasis on engineering strategies based on formulation design, surface modification, and genetic editing, along with their therapeutic applications. The review aims to provide valuable insights for advancing research on engineered B. bacteriovorus technologies.

Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus  /  predatory bacteria  /  engineered bacteria  /  bacterial infection  /  biological control
刘岩, 李欣珂, 陈雯静. 工程化蛭弧菌防治细菌感染的研究进展. 药学学报, 2025 , 60 (5) : 1197 -1207 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0197
Yan LIU, Xin-ke LI, Wen-jing CHEN. Advances in engineered Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus for controlling bacterial infections[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2025 , 60 (5) : 1197 -1207 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0197
长期以来, 细菌感染类疾病严重威胁着全球人类的生命健康[1]。在人类与细菌的斗争过程中, 抗生素的出现曾挽救了大量生命, 到目前为止依然发挥着重要作用。但是抗生素的滥用, 导致细菌耐药现象的出现[2]。虽然目前应用于临床的抗生素已不下200种, 而且仍以每年10种以上的速度在增长, 但是抗生素的研究与开发速度却远远跟不上细菌的耐药进化速度。一种抗生素的研发需要10年, 然而细菌产生耐药仅需要1~2年的时间, 多重耐药最终会导致细菌治疗的无药可用[3]。目前, 每年耐药菌引起的细菌感染死亡病例约70万, 而且数据呈逐年上升趋势, 预计到2050年耐药菌引起的死亡会升高至每年1 000万例[4]。除了对人类健康的危害, 细菌感染还威胁着动植物养殖产业的发展及生态环境的稳定。植物细菌性病害(如丁香假单胞菌、梨火疫病病原菌和野油菜黄单胞菌等) 给农业生产带来了巨大的经济损失[5]。另外, 水生动物约34%的疾病由细菌引起[6]。随着水产及畜禽养殖业的扩大发展, 特别是高密度、集约化养殖的发展, 导致细菌感染性疾病经常暴发, 引起养殖动物大量死亡。国内、外大多数国家和地区的养殖业者依靠各种抗菌药物治疗细菌感染。养殖业中抗菌药物的过度使用甚至是滥用导致抗菌药物耐药性的迅速发展, 促进了耐药基因的产生。畜禽粪便、污水回用农田或者直接排放到河流、湖泊, 使耐药基因从养殖动物源扩散到生态环境中,影响了生态环境的稳定[7]。因此, 寻找能替代抗生素的新型、有效的细菌感染防治方法成为科研领域的研究热点。
为了维持生态平衡, 自然界中存在着一些能够杀灭细菌的微生物, 如噬菌蛭弧菌(Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus), 简称蛭弧菌, 是掠食性细菌的一种[8]。蛭弧菌的发现, 为细菌感染的防治提供了新思路。蛭弧菌广泛分布于自然水体、污水及土壤等环境中, 具有独特的寄生和裂解细菌的生物学特性, 能够靶向裂解多种革兰阴性菌甚至部分革兰阳性菌[9, 10]。蛭弧菌作为一种新型的绿色微生态制剂已得到了初步的开发利用。然而, 蛭弧菌在实际应用中存在一些局限性, 如易失活、使用不便、对特定环境适应性不足等[11]。目前, 市售蛭弧菌产品多为蛭弧菌混悬液和蛭弧菌粉剂。蛭弧菌作为一种微生物, 需要适宜的生存条件; 其对环境较敏感, 如温度、湿度、pH值等均会影响其活性。蛭弧菌混悬液需冷链运输及储存; 粉剂要防潮保存, 使用时需现配现用。另外, 在应用时, 蛭弧菌在不同土壤类型或水体条件中的适应能力不同, 如在酸性土壤或碱性水体中难以存活。随着现代生物技术的蓬勃发展, 对细菌的工程化改造成为研究热点。工程化细菌是指通过制剂学、合成生物学、基因工程等技术手段, 对天然细菌进行定向改造, 使其具备特定功能或优化原有特性的微生物体系; 旨在突破天然特性的限制, 赋予细菌人工设计的功能。伴随着工程化细菌技术的不断发展, 工程化蛭弧菌应运而生, 通过对蛭弧菌进行制剂设计、表面修饰及基因编辑等, 有望克服其天然缺陷, 提升防治细菌感染的效果。本文系统总结了目前的蛭弧菌工程化改造技术, 以及工程化蛭弧菌在细菌感染防治方面的研究进展, 进一步讨论了工程化蛭弧菌疗法的优势和挑战, 以期为后续相关研究和应用提供参考。
掠食性细菌通过捕食其他微生物(如细菌、真菌或原生生物) 获取营养, 在生态系统中扮演调控微生物群落的关键角色。根据捕食机制和系统发育关系, 主要分为以下几类: ① Bdellovibrio (蛭弧菌属), 属于δ-变形菌纲, 通过侵入革兰阴性细菌的周质空间, 消耗宿主内容物并繁殖, 属于内寄生型[12]; ② Myxococcus (黏球菌属), 属于δ-变形菌纲, 通过群体运动(“狼群效应”) 分泌胞外酶分解猎物[13]; ③ Lysobacter (溶杆菌属), 属于γ-变形菌纲, 通过分泌抗菌蛋白破坏真菌或细菌细胞壁分解猎物[14]; ④ Vampirovibrio (吸血鬼弧菌属), 属于蓝藻门, 专性寄生蓝藻(如念珠藻), 通过吸附宿主表面摄取营养[15]; ⑤ Herpetosiphon (蛇形菌属), 属于绿弯菌门, 通过菌丝穿透猎物细胞, 释放酶类分解内容物[16]
掠食性细菌通过寄生、酶解或群体捕食等策略调控微生物群落, 在生态平衡、生物防治及药物开发中具有重要价值。蛭弧菌属研究最为深入, 其对革兰阴性菌具有广谱裂解活性, 且安全性较高[17]。蛭弧菌属的典型种为噬菌蛭弧菌(简称蛭弧菌), 因其高裂解效率及对哺乳动物低毒性而备受关注。例如, 蛭弧菌HD100可靶向铜绿假单胞菌、大肠杆菌等常见病原菌, 具有潜在生物防治价值[18]
蛭弧菌是一类以捕食细菌为生的寄生型革兰阴性细菌, 广泛存在于自然环境中, 包括淡水、海水、土壤、植物根际以及动物胃肠道。蛭弧菌体型微小, 呈弧状或者短杆状(长约1~2 μm, 宽约0.3~0.5 μm), 具有单极生鞭毛, 运动性强[19]。蛭弧菌的耐受温度10~37 ℃, pH 6~8, 严格异养需氧。蛭弧菌在寄生过程中通过分泌多种蛋白酶高效分解宿主细菌的蛋白质, 依赖宿主降解产物进行有氧呼吸。蛭弧菌的基因组较小(约3.7 Mb), 但能够编码大量水解酶(如肽酶、脂酶) 及趋化蛋白, 支持其寄生与运动能力[20]。例如, 蛭弧菌HD100基因组含20个鞭毛合成相关基因和150个水解酶基因, 凸显其高度特化的捕食策略[21]
蛭弧菌的宿主范围广, 能够裂解大部分革兰阴性菌(如大肠杆菌、铜绿假单胞菌、鲍曼不动杆菌、创伤弧菌等) 和一部分革兰阳性菌(如金黄色葡萄球菌), 具有独特的生物学特性——“寄生”和“裂解”宿主菌[22-24]。蛭弧菌几乎没有宿主抗性, 对宿主的侵染、裂解过程不受耐药性的影响, 在解决耐药细菌感染方面显示了良好的应用前景[25]。蛭弧菌的生命周期同时是杀菌过程(图 1)[26], 主要包括吸附、侵入、蛭质体形成、生长、分裂、成熟、释放过程, 可分为两个阶段: 攻击阶段(attack phase)——自由活动的蛭弧菌通过化学趋化性识别宿主, 利用鞭毛快速游动并撞击宿主细胞壁, 通过酶解作用侵入宿主周质空间(periplasmic space); 生长阶段(growth phase)——进入宿主后, 蛭弧菌分泌水解酶降解宿主细胞内容物, 在宿主内形成蛭质体(bdelloplast), 并通过二分裂产生多个子代, 最终裂解释放。
近年来, 蛭弧菌因其对病原菌的高效裂解能力及高的安全性, 被开发为新型生物防治制剂, 广泛应用于水产养殖业、农业、医疗等领域。例如, 蛭弧菌可以作为生物控制剂, 用于控制水产养殖中的有害细菌, 从而提高养殖动物的健康和产量。在养殖水体中添加蛭弧菌可显著降低对虾死亡率, 且无生态毒性[27]。在蛭弧菌清除铜绿假单胞菌生物膜的研究中, 蛭弧菌可穿透生物膜并减少细菌负载量, 为耐药菌感染提供潜在治疗方案[28]。蛭弧菌外用有预防某些外伤感染及动物角膜炎、结膜炎的效果[29]。蛭弧菌在健康人体肠道中数量众多, 维持着肠道微生态系统的平衡[30]。蛭弧菌还可作为抑制口腔革兰阴性菌的益生菌以达到预防牙周病的目的[31]
然而, 蛭弧菌的应用也存在一些问题, 如蛭弧菌对环境条件的敏感性和宿主范围的限制。蛭弧菌全身给药(如口服、注射), 其进入机体后会较快被免疫系统清除, 并不能有效到达感染部位, 限制了蛭弧菌在深部组织的应用。对于体表及浅表器官感染性疾病的治疗, 直接使用蛭弧菌悬液, 存在易流失、无法长时间滞留于感染部位的问题。因此, 需要采用一定的方法(如工程化手段) 对蛭弧菌进行设计改造, 以扩大其使用范围、提高其杀菌效率。蛭弧菌工程化改造技术包括蛭弧菌制剂设计、蛭弧菌表面修饰以及蛭弧菌基因编辑。
蛭弧菌制剂的设计旨在提高其环境耐受性和递送效率。目前用于水产养殖业的市售蛭弧菌产品主要是粉剂和悬浮剂, 但是由于蛭弧菌是活菌, 液体制剂存在难以长期维持蛭弧菌活性及不便储存和运输的问题。粉剂的制备方法一般包括喷雾干燥、烘干和冷冻干燥。蛭弧菌对热比较敏感, 所以制备蛭弧菌粉剂的方法只能选择冷冻干燥。传统的蛭弧菌冻干粉制备时虽然加入了冻干保护剂, 但是蛭弧菌的活性也难以很好地维持。使用明胶对蛭弧菌进行封装, 可将蛭弧菌的生存能力及其在室温下的稳定性延长至120天, 从而大大增加了蛭弧菌的可用性和保质期[32]
针对常见的皮肤创伤感染、眼部感染、肺部感染, 军事医学研究院金义光团队构建了一系列蛭弧菌递送系统, 涉及的剂型有水凝胶、原位凝胶、多孔微球, 既能保证蛭弧菌的活力, 又符合每种疾病的病理特点及治疗需求[33-35]。选择生物相容性好的聚乙烯醇和海藻酸盐作为凝胶材料, 通过循环冻融结合离子交联的方法制备得到聚乙烯醇/海藻酸钙互穿双网络水凝胶, 冷冻干燥后得到聚乙烯醇/海藻酸钙干凝胶, 利用干凝胶的强吸水性将蛭弧菌载入凝胶中, 得到蛭弧菌水凝胶, 解决了直接使用蛭弧菌混悬液易流失的问题。用于创伤弧菌感染的海水浸泡伤, 蛭弧菌的杀菌作用与水凝胶的促愈合作用相协同, 显示出优于银敷料的治疗作用(图 2A)[33]。使用温敏型聚合物泊洛沙姆407和离子敏感型聚合物去乙酰结冷胶作为凝胶基质, 制备温度/离子双重敏感眼用蛭弧菌原位凝胶, 显著增加了蛭弧菌在眼部的滞留时间, 使用方便, 顺应性高, 对耐药铜绿假单胞菌感染性角膜炎显示出很好的治疗作用(图 2B)[34]。另有研究者利用冷冻微针(cryomicroneedle, cryoMN) 递送蛭弧菌来治疗眼部感染, 用甘油/PBS/蛭弧菌的悬浮液填充微针模具, 在-80 ℃下冷冻, 制备了一种新型cryoMN, 蛭弧菌可以在cryoMN中长期储存并保持活性在80%以上, cryoMN可以释放蛭弧菌发挥清除革兰阴性菌的效果(图 2C)[36]。选择生物相容性好的聚乳酸羟基乙酸共聚物[poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), PLGA] 作为微球主要成分, 明胶作为致孔剂, 十八胺作为电荷调节剂, 采用乳化溶剂挥发法制备带正电的PLGA多孔微球, 与蛭弧菌共孵育, 凭借多孔微球的电荷吸附效应和几何效应, 制备得到蛭弧菌多孔微球, 用作蛭弧菌贮库和“安全屋”, 既可使蛭弧菌不断释放, 又可避免蛭弧菌被巨噬细胞迅速清除。蛭弧菌多孔微球几何粒径较大, 空气动力学粒径较小, 肺部给药可实现全肺分布, 有效治疗普通及耐药铜绿假单胞菌肺炎(图 2D)[35]
活性微生物既可以作为治疗药物, 也可以作为药物递送载体[37]。但是活性微生物往往不耐受外界不利环境因素, 导致治疗效果下降。表面修饰不仅能提高活性微生物抵抗环境威胁的能力, 还赋予其外源性功能[38]。细菌表面具有各种官能团, 如巯基、羟基、羧基和氨基等, 可以根据细菌表面的官能团对细菌进行修饰, 常用的方法有共价偶联、原位聚合、静电作用、疏水相互作用等[39]。Tang等[40]研究人员提出了一种材料辅助微生物(material-assistant micro-organism, MAMO) 策略, 将具有高速碰撞能力的捕食者蛭弧菌与机械响应性ZnO纳米棒相结合, 以去除革兰阴性菌牙菌斑(图 3)。首先, 用HS-PEG2000-NHS对ZnO纳米棒进行修饰, 在其表面引入N-羟基琥珀酰亚胺(NHS) 基团, 再与蛭弧菌表面的氨基发生缩合反应, 得到了表面修饰有ZnO纳米棒的工程化蛭弧菌(ZnO@Bdello)。ZnO纳米棒是一种压电材料, 能够感知机械压力并产生活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)。在捕食期间, ZnO@Bdello游动非常快, 与猎物发生碰撞, 该碰撞引发ZnO纳米棒产生ROS, 增强了菌斑生物膜的清除。近期, 该团队又构建了抗生素脂质体修饰的蛭弧菌, 作为生物膜相关疾病的药物递送策略[41]。蛭弧菌能够捕食细菌, 穿透生物膜; 同时, 蛭弧菌的快速移动可增强抗生素脂质体向生物膜的递送, 促进抗生素的高效释放, 改善生物膜的清除效果。这种工程化活体抗生素策略有望成为治疗生物膜相关感染的新方法。
Rao等[42]研究人员通过对蛭弧菌进行工程化改造, 设计并制备了一种基于蛭弧菌的生物材料(Ce-PEA@ Bdello), 该材料具有杀灭细菌和降解耐药基因(drug-resistant gene, DRG) 的活性, 可阻断细菌耐药性的传播(图 4)。聚多巴胺(polydopamine, PDA) 通过共价键和氢键沉积在蛭弧菌Bdello表面, 得到PDA@Bdello。带正电荷的支化聚乙烯亚胺[poly(ethyleneimine), PEI] 通过静电相互作用被修饰到PDA涂层上, 然后与具有仿脱氧核糖核酸酶(deoxyribonuclease, DNase) 活性的铈(Ⅳ) [Cerium (IV), Ce] 离子络合, 构建出Ce-PEA@Bdello。Ce-PEA@Bdello可以游动并穿透耐卡那霉素铜绿假单胞菌生物膜, 通过蛭弧菌的捕食活性和表面沉积的PDA的光热效应捕食并杀死细菌, 而从死亡的耐药菌中释放出的DRGs可被Ce-PEA@Bdello中的Ce离子分解。
对细菌的表面修饰除了可以根据细菌表面的官能团使用物理化学的修饰方法, 还可以使用生物法, 如膜封装、配体-受体相互作用、荧光标记等方法。通过对细胞壁中肽聚糖(peptidoglycan, PG) 的荧光标记, 阐明了在蛭弧菌入侵的不同阶段, 捕食者和猎物细胞壁所经历的动态变化[43]。研究者用不同颜色的荧光D-氨基酸(fluorescent D-amino acid, FDAA) 对两个不同属的相互作用细菌的含PG细胞壁进行了不同标记, 揭示了捕食性细菌在胞质内生活时对猎物细胞壁和自身细胞壁进行的一系列动态分子修饰, 明确了蛭弧菌捕食的关键机制。通过对细菌单个细胞的修饰, 不仅可以维持细菌的生存和繁殖能力, 精准定植并获得更高的生物安全性, 还能整合所需的外源性功能, 以提高靶向能力、治疗效果, 甚至改进检测方法、阐明一些内在作用机制。作为一个新兴的研究领域, 细菌表面修饰特别是蛭弧菌表面修饰还存在很大的研究空间。
由于灵活的可设计性和易操作性, 基因编辑已成为一项极具吸引力的技术。对于细菌递送系统, 通过基因编辑可以改变或赋予细菌一些特性, 定向设计细菌以满足诊断或治疗的需求。蛭弧菌的基因研究率先开展于1992年, 研究人员通过偶联法将质粒转移到蛭弧菌109J菌株中, 并确定IncQ质粒在蛭弧菌109J菌株中可以自主复制, 但一些IncP质粒(包括pVK100) 却不能自主复制。利用生物学技术可将蛭弧菌109J菌株的开放阅读框(open reading frame, ORF) 克隆到pVK100中, 并通过同源重组将其整合到蛭弧菌109J菌株的染色体DNA中[44, 45]。2004年, 蛭弧菌HD100菌株的完整基因组序列被报道[20]。随着全基因组序列的获得, 结合生物信息学和蛭弧菌生命周期不同时期的转录分析, 可以提出与特定功能相关的ORF。基于蛭弧菌的基因序列可以设计一种16S rRNA靶向、Cy3标记的寡核苷酸探针, 用于通过荧光原位杂交检测蛭弧菌[46]。通过在蛭弧菌中插入编码绿色荧光蛋白(green fluorescent protein, GFP) 的质粒, 使蛭弧菌成功表达GFP, 实现了蛭弧菌的可视化[47]。将表达tdTomato荧光报告蛋白的质粒pMQ414引入到蛭弧菌109J菌株中, 也使其变得可视化[48]。经编辑后的蛭弧菌能够在不同的生长条件、生物膜以及与人体上皮细胞结合的情况下被方便地实时监测, 减轻了对蛭弧菌传统培养技术的依赖, 解决了蛭弧菌难以观察及检测的难题。
由于蛭弧菌独特的生命周期, 目前能对其进行遗传操作的工具非常有限。合成核糖开关是人工设计或改造的RNA分子元件, 能够通过结合特定小分子(如代谢物、药物、金属离子等) 动态调控基因表达, 是合成生物学中精准控制基因表达的工具。利用合成生物学技术为蛭弧菌开发了一种合成核糖开关, 通过化学方法诱导基因的表达[49]。有研究者开发出了一系列专门为蛭弧菌设计的遗传工具, 其中包括一套基于分级组装克隆技术金标准(golden standard, GS) 的目的载体, 该载体可适配携带ori RSF1010的SEVA质粒, 以及一个由转座子Tn7介导的染色体插入系统, 用于在捕食者体内实现单拷贝基因表达[50]。上述研究拓展了严格控制蛭弧菌基因表达的可能性, 释放了该微生物作为多功能生物技术平台的新潜力。
抗生素的过度使用和滥用加速了致病菌对抗生素的耐药性演变, 世界卫生组织已将其视为人类健康面临的主要威胁之一[51]。由于耐药性的日益严重和新抗生素的短缺, 亟需寻求抗生素替代疗法, 而蛭弧菌是一种非常具有潜力的细菌感染治疗方法。蛭弧菌在浅表烧伤或伤口、眼睛和肺部显示出有效的抗感染作用[52-56]。虽然蛭弧菌是一种需氧捕食者, 但是能够耐受微需氧环境, 所以蛭弧菌还可以用于治疗胃肠道和牙周感染[57, 58]。但是传统的蛭弧菌制剂如蛭弧菌悬浮液和冻干粉, 存在给药不便、蛭弧菌易失活等不足。为了提高蛭弧菌的成药性, 需要通过制剂的手段或者采用物理化学、生物工程的方法对蛭弧菌进行制剂设计或修饰, 以满足不同感染部位的给药特点, 提高顺应性、增强疗效。
皮肤伤口处于暴露状态, 极易遭受细菌侵袭, 导致伤口感染, 所以需要抗菌和促伤口愈合合并治疗。水凝胶是常用的伤口敷料, 而且对细胞友好, 将蛭弧菌和水凝胶结合起来治疗伤口感染是一个不错的选择。载蛭弧菌的聚乙烯醇/海藻酸钠水凝胶不仅在体外表现出优异的抗创伤弧菌的效果, 而且在海水浸泡伤小鼠模型上显示出高效杀菌, 显著降低炎症反应, 促进胶原沉积、新血管形成和上皮再形成的作用, 是一种有前途的治疗感染伤口的局部生物制剂[33]。对于眼部感染的治疗, 直接使用蛭弧菌混悬液存在易流失和易失活的问题, 将蛭弧菌加入温度和阳离子双重敏感的原位水凝胶中制备成载蛭弧菌原位凝胶用于耐药铜绿假单胞菌角膜炎的治疗, 蛭弧菌原位凝胶在眼部环境中会迅速转化为不流动状态, 可在眼球表面长时间滞留; 在角膜炎大鼠模型中, 该蛭弧菌制剂有效杀灭并抑制了耐药铜绿假单胞菌的生长, 控制了眼部感染, 且没有出现角膜溃疡和炎症, 给眼部感染性疾病的治疗提供了参考[34]。为了长期保持蛭弧菌的活性, 可以将蛭弧菌制备成冷冻微针, 分别将该制剂应用于体外及啮齿动物眼睛感染模型中革兰阴性菌的生长抑制实验, 在经过2.5天的治疗后, 动物眼部的感染明显减轻了近6倍, 并且该制剂对角膜厚度和形态没有造成影响; 但是冷冻微针不易保存和运输, 有进一步改善的空间[36]
肺部感染是一种高发病率的传染性疾病, 尤其是在新冠疫情后, 呼吸道经常成为细菌病毒等病原微生物攻击的靶子, 且命中率居高不下。天然捕食者蛭弧菌成为治疗肺部细菌感染的新兴方法。直接肺吸入蛭弧菌, 具有非特异性防御功能的肺泡巨噬细胞会吞噬蛭弧菌, 使蛭弧菌不能充分发挥杀灭病原菌的作用。所以, 需要将蛭弧菌装载到适宜的载体中, 既能够肺吸入给药, 又可以保护蛭弧菌不被巨噬细胞吞噬, 如构建载蛭弧菌的大多孔微球[35]。蛭弧菌多孔微球具有好的生物相容性及体内安全性; 对耐美罗培南铜绿假单胞菌具有较好的杀灭作用。肺吸入该微球可明显改善普通和耐药铜绿假单胞菌肺炎小鼠的呼吸功能, 有效降低肺组织铜绿假单胞菌负荷量, 减轻NF-κB p65及炎症小体NLRP1介导的炎症反应, 降低促炎细胞因子TNF-α、IL-6的表达, 减少细胞凋亡。所制备的蛭弧菌多孔微球粉雾剂能够有效解决耐药菌肺部感染问题, 具有一定的临床应用潜力。
许多与临床相关的细菌都能产生胞外聚合物(extracellular polymeric substance, EPS), 从而形成复杂的联合网络, 这就是通常所说的生物膜[59]。与浮游生长过程相比, 生物膜创造了一个微环境, 为细菌的生长繁殖提供了有利条件[60, 61]。蛭弧菌具有穿透生物膜EPS层的能力和杀死生物膜形成细菌的潜力[62]。为了增强蛭弧菌对致病菌生物膜的清除效率, 构建了ZnO纳米棒辅助蛭弧菌治疗系统(ZnO@Bdello) 用于牙周炎的治疗[40]。蛭弧菌作为一种“活抗生素”, 能直接杀死大多数革兰阴性菌。此外, 蛭弧菌攻击阶段产生的压力触发ZnO纳米棒产生ROS, 进一步增强了抗生物膜效果。不同动物牙周炎模型表明, ZnO@Bdello能有效减轻牙龈炎症, 抑制牙槽骨吸收。16S rDNA测序结果验证了ZnO@Bdello可以改变龈下菌群的比例。该系统是一种很有前途的牙周炎治疗材料, 有望应用于临床。
通过对蛭弧菌的修饰改造, 构建出了一种工程化的蛭弧菌(Ce-PEA@Bdello), 可以游动并穿透耐药铜绿假单胞菌生物膜, 动物实验表明蛭弧菌的捕食作用协同聚多巴胺PDA的光热效应能够捕食并杀死致病菌, Ce离子的加入还可以裂解释放的耐药基因DRGs, 进而阻止耐药性扩散, 该工程化的蛭弧菌有效促进了耐药菌感染烫伤/烧伤伤口的愈合[42]。本研究为利用微生物开发多功能生物材料清除细菌生物膜及防止细菌耐药性传播提供了新的策略, 在相关生物医学领域具有广阔的应用前景。
除了医学领域, 蛭弧菌作为抗生素的一种可行替代品, 被用于水产养殖、畜牧业、食品加工中的生物控制剂。在食品加工过程中使用蛭弧菌可以解决食品降解问题。蛭弧菌可以控制保质期小于10天的肉类食品中的大肠杆菌及其他致病菌和腐败菌; 可以与改良气氛包装相结合, 延长保质期, 提高预包装鲜肉和肉制品的安全性[63]。此外, 蛭弧菌在环境领域得到应用, 如为了满足水体预处理的需要, 在使用基于紫外线的太阳能消毒技术之前, 可以使用蛭弧菌降低雨水中致病菌的浓度, 以增强消毒效果[64]
在水产养殖中, 蛭弧菌液体制剂目前已商业化作为水质改良剂, 以控制南美白对虾中的细菌病原体[27]。然而, 由于长期室温储存期间活细胞大量失活, 该液体制剂的功效显著受损。因此, 亟需新的蛭弧菌配方解决室温储存稳定性问题。通过制剂设计将蛭弧菌封装在明胶中, 制备成蛭弧菌粉末, 表现出良好的储存稳定性, 室温储存120天后细胞密度仍保持在3.5×107 PFU·g-1; 对养殖白对虾是安全的, 并表现出显著的抗菌作用。该研究采用了简单而实用的工程化技术, 很好地推动了蛭弧菌的应用转化[32]。目前, 对工程化蛭弧菌的应用研究比较有限; 但是, 随着对蛭弧菌基因组的深入研究, 通过基因编辑技术可以不断优化蛭弧菌的性能(如蛭弧菌可视化、增强捕食能力等), 使蛭弧菌得到更好的开发应用。
蛭弧菌不侵染真核细胞, 用蛭弧菌对小鼠、豚鼠和家兔等动物各种途径(包括肺吸入、静脉注射、腹腔注射) 侵染, 均无毒性, 安全性好[29, 65, 66]; 将其用于猴肾、HeLa细胞组织培养亦不引起任何细胞病变[67]。蛭弧菌不会引起全身或持续的免疫反应, 是由于它们的脂多糖结构特殊——缺乏典型的带负电的磷酸基团, 与人类免疫细胞病原体的脂多糖受体结合亲和力低[68, 69]。在蛭弧菌本身安全的基础上, 要想保证工程化蛭弧菌的安全性, 就要选择适宜的材料对蛭弧菌进行制剂设计、表面修饰等。使用聚乙烯醇/海藻酸钠、泊洛沙姆407/去乙酰结冷胶等材料制备蛭弧菌凝胶, 使用PLGA、明胶等制备蛭弧菌大多孔微球, 体内外实验证明所制备的蛭弧菌制剂均具有好的生物相容性和安全性[33-35]。使用ZnO纳米棒对蛭弧菌进行表面修饰, 将其口服给予大鼠一周后, 大鼠器官(心、肝、脾、肺、肾) 中没有发现明显的损伤区域, 表明该制剂的生物安全性好[40]
蛭弧菌没有宿主特异性, 这使得它们在对抗多重感染和控制整个生态系统的微生物量方面具有优势, 但也使它们有可能误食非目标共生微生物。引入的蛭弧菌可在果蝇肠道中存活并捕食, 导致肠道群落组成发生变化[70]。事实上, 蛭弧菌普遍存在于线虫、节肢动物、海绵和脊椎动物等多种宿主类群中, 并与宿主的微生物多样性相关[71]。因此, 了解蛭弧菌如何改变微生物群的目标成员及其对微生物功能的影响至关重要。反过来, 也可以利用工程化手段如基因工具来改造蛭弧菌[72], 从而实现对细菌病原体的精准治疗。蛭弧菌依赖宿主完成生命周期, 若环境中宿主数量不足, 蛭弧菌会进入休眠状态并逐渐失活。而被赋予新功能的工程化蛭弧菌的长期安全性需从生态影响、基因转移风险、宿主互作及遗传稳定性等多维度综合评估。通过多学科协同创新, 工程化蛭弧菌有望在安全可控的前提下, 得到更好的开发利用。
蛭弧菌作为一种捕食性细菌, 能够特异性侵染并裂解其他革兰阴性菌。近年来, 通过工程化手段改造蛭弧菌以增强其治疗潜力成为抗感染领域的研究热点。噬菌体疗法作为细菌感染的另外一种生物防治策略, 也是应对抗生素耐药性感染的一种潜在解决方案, 得到越来越多的关注[73]。与蛭弧菌不同, 噬菌体作为一种病毒, 对宿主菌的识别与感染具有高度特异性, 抗菌谱窄; 噬菌体主要依赖扩散渗透细菌生物膜, 对生物膜的清除能力弱; 由于病毒颗粒比较稳定, 噬菌体会在环境中留存较长时间[74]。蛭弧菌的宿主范围包括大部分革兰阴性菌和一部分革兰阳性菌, 抗菌谱广; 蛭弧菌能分泌EPS水解酶, 生物膜清除能力强; 蛭弧菌具有强的宿主依赖性, 在裂解宿主后自然消亡, 减少了长期定植风险。通过各种制剂技术构建的蛭弧菌递送系统可以有效维持蛭弧菌在复杂应用环境中活性, 避免蛭弧菌的损失, 实现靶向递送, 使蛭弧菌的杀菌作用得到充分发挥。蛭弧菌的自我复制特性使其能够在感染部位扩增, 单次给药可能实现持续抗菌效果。根据不同疾病特点或应用场景, 可以灵活设计蛭弧菌制剂类型, 以提高使用顺应性, 推动其临床转化。另外, 根据蛭弧菌的表面结构, 可以采用物理化学或生物的方法对蛭弧菌进行表面修饰, 以附加外源性功能, 与蛭弧菌协同发挥抗菌作用。随着基因工程技术的不断发展, 对蛭弧菌的基因改造逐渐被关注。通过基因编辑, 蛭弧菌可以实现功能定制化(如可视化), 从根本上解决野生型蛭弧菌在应用过程中存在的一些局限性。
虽然工程化蛭弧菌作为“活体抗生素”的抗菌研究取得了一些成果, 但是依然存在需要解决的问题。天然蛭弧菌对宿主有选择性, 需通过基因改造扩展其靶向范围(如革兰阳性菌)。缺乏标准化模型评估活菌疗法的动态效果与宿主互作, 还需要更多的研究来证明它们在体内的功效; 最佳治疗剂量、频次及递送方式(口服、局部或静脉) 需进一步探索。工程化活菌制剂被归类为“基因工程生物”, 面临严格的生物安全审查, 其可能引发的生态风险(如非目标菌群失衡) 和基因水平转移问题, 需要深入探究。另外, 临床转化还存在许多障碍, 包括放大生产、长期储存以及运输条件的优化等。随着技术和方法的不断发展, 工程化蛭弧菌疗法也会进一步发展, 突破重重障碍, 最终实现临床应用。
近年来, 随着抗生素耐药性问题的日益严重, 传统抗生素在治疗细菌感染方面的效果越来越差, 这使得人们开始寻求新的治疗方法。噬菌蛭弧菌作为一种新型的抗菌剂, 因其能够特异性地侵染并杀死多种革兰阴性菌, 而受到了广泛关注。然而, 蛭弧菌在应用过程中存在的一些局限性, 如缺少适合的给药剂型、易失活、不便给药、检测方法有限等, 影响了蛭弧菌制品的推广使用。因此, 通过工程化技术对蛭弧菌进行改造, 以开发其不同的剂型、增加稳定性、拓宽检测方法、提高杀菌效率, 成为了当前研究的热点。
目前, 通过制剂设计、表面修饰及基因编辑等方法, 成功地将蛭弧菌工程化。这些工程化的蛭弧菌不仅稳定性增加、给药顺应性提高、靶向性增强, 还能够拥有附加功能(如光热效应、耐药基因降解能力、可视化), 大大提高了治疗效果, 增加了应用范围。工程化蛭弧菌在防治细菌感染方面的研究已经取得了一定的进展, 并展现出广阔的应用前景。然而, 这一领域仍然面临着诸多挑战, 例如如何提高工程化蛭弧菌的安全性、如何优化体内递送系统等。未来的研究需要进一步探索这些问题, 推动工程化蛭弧菌从实验室走向临床应用。
作者贡献: 刘岩负责文献调研、整理归纳、系统分析和文章撰写; 李欣珂和陈雯静负责文献补充和文献资料分析。
利益冲突: 本文所有作者声明不存在利益冲突关系。
  • 江苏省自然科学基金(BK20241044)
  • 徐州医科大学优秀人才科研启动基金(D2023009)
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2025年第60卷第5期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0197
  • 接收时间:2025-02-26
  • 首发时间:2025-10-29
  • 出版时间:2025-05-12
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  • 收稿日期:2025-02-26
  • 修回日期:2025-03-31
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江苏省自然科学基金(BK20241044)
徐州医科大学优秀人才科研启动基金(D2023009)
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    1.徐州医科大学药学院, 江苏 徐州 221004
    2.徐州医科大学, 江苏省新药研究与临床药学重点实验室, 江苏 徐州 221004

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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