Article(id=1190373733429773017, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1190332325088039709, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0891, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1725984000000, receivedDateStr=2024-09-11, revisedDate=1734537600000, revisedDateStr=2024-12-19, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1761736814123, onlineDateStr=2025-10-29, pubDate=1746979200000, pubDateStr=2025-05-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1761736814123, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-10-29, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1761736814123, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761736814123, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1190332325088039709, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2025', volume='60', issue='5', pageStart='1183', pageEnd='1572', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1761726941606, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761813457266, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1190695198163354009, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1190332325088039709, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1190695198163354010, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1190332325088039709, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1344, endPage=1353, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1190373733698208478, articleId=1190373733429773017, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress on the role of immune cells in pulmonary fibrosis, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a lung disease with a very poor prognosis that seriously affects the quality of life of patients and is characterized by scarring and thickening of the tissue surrounding the alveolar walls, ultimately leading to respiratory failure. Currently, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs for the treatment of PF include pirfenidone and nidazanib, however, these two drugs can only delay the progression of the disease but cannot achieve the reversal of PF, and their clinical application is limited due to high price and multiple adverse effects. The pathogenesis of PF has not been fully elucidated, and studies have demonstrated that aberrant immune cell activation and regulation play an important role in PF. This review aims to discuss the role of immune cell activation and regulation in PF in recent years. The aim of this review is to discuss recent advances in the study of the role of immune cells in the process of PF, with the aim of providing theoretical guidance for the development of novel immunotherapies.

, correspAuthors=Jian GAO, Xuan ZHANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2025 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Guang-li SHENG, Ya-ru SUN, Hong-liang DONG, Jian GAO, Xuan ZHANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1190373864338195294, articleId=1190373733429773017, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=免疫细胞在肺纤维化中的作用研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

肺纤维化(pulmonary fibrosis, PF) 是一类预后极差、严重影响患者生存质量的肺部疾病, 其主要病理特征是肺泡壁周围组织瘢痕形成及增厚, 最终导致呼吸衰竭。目前, 美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA) 批准的PF治疗药物包括吡非尼酮和尼达尼布, 然而这两种药物仅能延缓疾病进程, 无法实现PF的逆转, 且二者均因价格昂贵以及多种不良反应导致临床应用受限。PF发病机制至今尚未完全阐明, 研究证明, 免疫细胞的异常激活和调控在PF中扮演着重要角色。本综述旨在探讨近年来免疫细胞在PF进程中的作用研究进展, 以期为新型免疫疗法的开发提供理论参考。

, correspAuthors=高建, 张旋, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*高建, E-mail:
张旋, E-mail:
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This leads to the activation and differentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and the production of extracellular matrix, which leads to the thickening of the lung interstitium, and the production of ApoE is a negative feedback mechanism. Ly6G is a marker for neutrophils, and FPR-1 is expressed at high levels on the surface of neutrophils. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), a DNA reticulin may be directly or indirectly involved in the process of pulmonary fibrosis. SCF binds to the tyrosine kinase receptor c-Kit, phosphorylates c-Kit, and promotes the proliferation of MCs and the release of related cytokines. The expression level of CCR2 is decreased in NK cells, and the binding of PD-L1 to its receptor PD-1 results in the inhibition of NK cell activity. Th1 cells produce IFN-<i>γ</i>, which inhibits collagen deposition in fibroblasts and plays an antifibrotic role. Th2 cells produce IL-4 and IL-6 cytokines, which promote fibroblast proliferation and induce fibroblasts to differentiate into myofibroblasts. Th17 cells produce IL-17, which promotes fibroblast activation. The response of peripheral BCRs to antigenic stimulation is enhanced in PF patients, resulting in increased pulmonary B cell proliferation and release of relevant cytokines. TRM CD4<sup>+</sup> T cells have been shown to prevent pulmonary fibrosis, but their specific mechanism in pulmonary fibrosis is not fully understood. 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免疫细胞在肺纤维化中的作用研究进展
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盛光丽 1 , 孙亚茹 1 , 董红亮 2 , 高建 2, * , 张旋 1, *
药学学报 | 综述 2025,60(5): 1344-1353
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药学学报 | 综述 2025, 60(5): 1344-1353
免疫细胞在肺纤维化中的作用研究进展
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盛光丽1, 孙亚茹1, 董红亮2, 高建2, * , 张旋1, *
作者信息
  • 1.昆明医科大学药学院, 云南 昆明 650500
  • 2.上海交通大学医学院附属上海儿童医学中心, 上海 200127

通讯作者:

*高建, E-mail:
张旋, E-mail:
Research progress on the role of immune cells in pulmonary fibrosis
Guang-li SHENG1, Ya-ru SUN1, Hong-liang DONG2, Jian GAO2, * , Xuan ZHANG1, *
Affiliations
  • 1. School of Pharmacy, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
  • 2. Shanghai Children's Medical Center Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200127, China
出版时间: 2025-05-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0891
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肺纤维化(pulmonary fibrosis, PF) 是一类预后极差、严重影响患者生存质量的肺部疾病, 其主要病理特征是肺泡壁周围组织瘢痕形成及增厚, 最终导致呼吸衰竭。目前, 美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA) 批准的PF治疗药物包括吡非尼酮和尼达尼布, 然而这两种药物仅能延缓疾病进程, 无法实现PF的逆转, 且二者均因价格昂贵以及多种不良反应导致临床应用受限。PF发病机制至今尚未完全阐明, 研究证明, 免疫细胞的异常激活和调控在PF中扮演着重要角色。本综述旨在探讨近年来免疫细胞在PF进程中的作用研究进展, 以期为新型免疫疗法的开发提供理论参考。

肺纤维化  /  免疫细胞  /  作用机制  /  免疫激活  /  巨噬细胞

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a lung disease with a very poor prognosis that seriously affects the quality of life of patients and is characterized by scarring and thickening of the tissue surrounding the alveolar walls, ultimately leading to respiratory failure. Currently, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs for the treatment of PF include pirfenidone and nidazanib, however, these two drugs can only delay the progression of the disease but cannot achieve the reversal of PF, and their clinical application is limited due to high price and multiple adverse effects. The pathogenesis of PF has not been fully elucidated, and studies have demonstrated that aberrant immune cell activation and regulation play an important role in PF. This review aims to discuss the role of immune cell activation and regulation in PF in recent years. The aim of this review is to discuss recent advances in the study of the role of immune cells in the process of PF, with the aim of providing theoretical guidance for the development of novel immunotherapies.

pulmonary fibrosis  /  immune cell  /  mechanism of action  /  immune activation  /  macrophage
盛光丽, 孙亚茹, 董红亮, 高建, 张旋. 免疫细胞在肺纤维化中的作用研究进展. 药学学报, 2025 , 60 (5) : 1344 -1353 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0891
Guang-li SHENG, Ya-ru SUN, Hong-liang DONG, Jian GAO, Xuan ZHANG. Research progress on the role of immune cells in pulmonary fibrosis[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2025 , 60 (5) : 1344 -1353 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0891
肺纤维化(pulmonary fibrosis, PF) 是指由于炎症或损伤导致肺部组织或其周围细胞外基质蛋白(extracellular matrix, ECM) 的过度沉积。该过程中组织并非表现为结构重塑, 而是逐渐遭到破坏, 最终导致器官功能丧失[1]。引发PF的因素包括自身免疫性结缔组织疾病(如类风湿性关节炎或硬皮病)、药物(如抗心律失常胺碘酮或化疗用博来霉素)、辐射、职业性暴露(如煤或二氧化硅) 和过敏原(如鸽友肺) 等[2]。先前的研究揭示了PF在表观遗传学、microRNA (miRNAs)、代谢重编程、信号传导、细胞凋亡及自噬等多个分子细胞生物学方面的改变。尽管已有大量研究投入, PF的病因仍不明确。目前, 美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA) 批准的两种用于治疗PF的药物——吡非尼酮和尼达尼布, 已被证实能够延缓PF的疾病进程。然而, 即便在疾病稳定期持续数年后, 若停止药物治疗, 患者仍存在复发的风险。在临床试验中, 约有20%~30%的患者因不良反应(主要是胃肠道不良反应) 而无法长期耐受[3]
目前已有大量研究证实, 免疫功能失调在多种疾病的发生率和死亡率中都发挥着重要作用。在重症COVID-19患者中, 通常可以观察到显著的免疫系统变化, 包括淋巴细胞数量减少及血液中炎症标志物如C反应蛋白(C-reactive protein, CRP)、肿瘤坏死因子-α (tumor necrosis factor-α, TNF-α)、细胞介素-1β (interleukin-1beta, IL-1β)、细胞介素-8 (interleukin-8, IL-8) 和细胞介素-6 (interleukin-6, IL-6) 等水平的显著升高[4]。同样, PF作为COVID-19的并发症之一, 患者体内的免疫细胞对于维持正常的免疫应答至关重要, 一旦这种平衡被打破, 便可能触发PF的发生。
在PF的免疫细胞群体中, 促纤维化巨噬细胞占据主导地位。这些细胞与T细胞协同作用, 分泌促炎性细胞因子, 从而促进其他免疫细胞的聚集。此外, 研究还发现, B细胞在PF患者肺中聚集并产生针对自身抗原的抗体, 这表明自身免疫可能是该疾病的一个特征[5]。目前研究发现, 免疫细胞疗法, 如干细胞疗法和嵌合抗原受体T细胞(chimeric antigen receptor T cells, CAR-T) 治疗等, 在治疗PF方面展现出一定的潜力。间充质干细胞(mesenchymal stem cells, MSCs) 通过旁分泌信号传导机制以及其显著的分化能力, 具有很强的抗纤维化、抗炎和免疫调节功能, 尽管如此, 这些研究结果在临床应用上仍存在一定的局限性[6]。因此, 了解免疫细胞在PF中的作用机制对于开发新的治疗策略至关重要。本文旨在综述近年来关于免疫细胞在PF中的作用研究进展, 为疾病治疗寻找新的切入靶点提供理论依据。
巨噬细胞(macrophage, Mφ) 是肺部最丰富的免疫细胞之一, 在生理状态下, 组织驻留巨噬细胞(tissue resident macrophages, TR-AMs) 可分为肺泡巨噬细胞(alveolar macrophages, AMs) 和间质巨噬细胞(interstitial macrophages, IMs)。它们在功能、定位、表型以及转录组学等多个维度上都呈现出显著差异。在病理条件下, 循环中的单核细胞将会被招募至肺组织, 并在肺泡内分化为单核细胞衍生的巨噬细胞(monocyte-derived macrophages, mo-Macs), 展现出其特有的转录特征和功能[7]。AMs位于肺泡壁龛的管腔侧, 周围环绕着Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型肺泡上皮细胞、毛细血管内皮细胞及肺泡间质成纤维细胞, 这些细胞为AMs提供了丰富的细胞因子和结构支持[8]。长期以来, AMs一直是肺部巨噬细胞研究的热点, IMs的研究则相对较少, 这主要因为AMs相较于IMs, 在数量上更为丰富、易于获取和分离, 而IMs在体内分布较少, 其生物学特性可能更为复杂多变, 这使得对IMs的研究和理解更具挑战性[9]
巨噬细胞在PF进展中的表征及功能状态的动态变化对于理解疾病机制和开发新的治疗策略具有重要意义。研究表明, 在对PF不同阶段的免疫细胞进行了单细胞RNA测序(scRNA-seq) 分析后, 发现巨噬细胞特异性表达的非转移性黑色素瘤糖蛋白B (glycoprotein non-metastatic melanoma protein B, Gpnmb) 和髓系细胞触发受体2 (triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-2, Trem2) 基因水平随着纤维化进展而上调[7], 这提示它们可能在PF中具有潜在重要作用。此外,载脂蛋白E (apolipoprotein E, ApoE) 也可能在PF中起到关键作用, ApoE水平在Mo-AMs中比TR-AMs高出近120倍, ApoE可以通过增加巨噬细胞对胶原蛋白的摄取, 加速PF的消退[10]。Wang等[11]发现, 甲基-CpG结合域蛋白2 (methyl-CpG binding domain 2, MBD2) 可特异性地与含SH2的肌醇5′-磷酸酶(SHIP) 启动子中的甲基化CpG DNA结合, 抑制SHIP表达并增强磷脂酰肌醇3激酶/蛋白激酶B (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B, PI3K/Akt) 信号, 促进巨噬细胞M2程序, 表明MBD2可能是对抗PF的有效靶点。近年来研究发现, 趋化因子在PF这一病理状态下也具有重要作用。在PF患者和小鼠支气管肺泡灌洗液(BALF) 中, 趋化因子配体1 [chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 1, CCL1] 显著升高, CCL1主要由Mo-AMs和T细胞分泌, 可以通过其特异性受体趋化因子受体8 [chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 8, CCR8] 招募肺成纤维细胞至损伤区域, 并与自分泌运动因子受体(autocrine motility factor receptor, AMFR) 结合激活这些细胞, 通过AMFR-细胞外信号调节激酶/p70核糖体蛋白S6激酶(ERK/p70S6K) 信号通路促进PF进展[12]
正常肺中通常存在SPP1hi、FABP4hi和FCN1hi巨噬细胞群[13]。分泌型磷蛋白1 (secreted phosphoprotein-1, SPP1) 在PF的巨噬细胞扩展亚群中起着重要作用, 其表达在PF中显著上升, 并且SPP1缺失会减少Ⅰ型胶原(type Ⅰ collagen, Col Ⅰ) 和基质金属蛋白酶2 (matrix metalloproteinase 2, MMP2) 的表达。Hoeft等[14]也识别出以Spp1、纤连蛋白(fibronectin, FN) 和精氨酸酶1 (arginase 1, Arg1) 表达为特征的促纤维化巨噬细胞群, 并且认为血小板因子4 (platlet factor 4, PF4) 是Spp1+巨噬细胞分化和器官纤维化的关键介质。脂肪酸结合蛋白4 (fatty acid-binding protein 4, FABP4) 高表达的巨噬细胞可诱导肥胖和动脉粥样硬化相关的炎症反应, FABP4表达水平的提升可能会加剧炎症反应, 从而推动肥胖和动脉粥样硬化等疾病的发展[15]。在健康样本和轻症患者中, 纤维蛋白原样蛋白1 (fibrinogen like protein 1, FCN1) 呈现显著的高表达现象[16], FCN1+巨噬细胞通过血液循环聚集于肺部, 以协助并加强机体的炎症反应。此外, 表达Fos相关抗原2 (Fos-related antigen-2, Fra-2) 的巨噬细胞会分泌成纤维细胞激活因子, 包括Ⅵ型胶原(type Ⅵ collagen, ColⅥ)。ColⅥ作为Fra-2的转录靶点, 在PF模型中上调, Fra-2/ColⅥ特异性控制巨噬细胞旁分泌促纤维化活性, 因此, Fra-2和ColⅥ的共表达可能比Ⅰ型胶原更适合作为PF的生物标志物[17]
在针对促纤维化巨噬细胞的治疗策略研究中, Singh等[18]发现, 促纤维化巨噬细胞甘露糖受体(CD206) 表达增加, 据此开发了甘露糖基化白蛋白纳米颗粒。实验显示这些颗粒能被CD206+巨噬细胞摄取, 并通过整合转化生长因子-β1 (transforming growth factor-β1, TGF-β1) siRNA, 实现对这些细胞的靶向干预。叶酸靶向TLR7激动剂(FA-TLR7-54) 具备将M2型纤维化诱导巨噬细胞重编程为抗纤维化巨噬细胞的能力[19], 该激动剂显著降低促纤维化细胞因子的释放, 减少羟脯氨酸(hydroxyproline,HYP) 的合成和胶原蛋白沉积。衣康酸盐及其衍生物OI通过抑制细胞介素4 (interleukin 4, IL-4) 下游的酪氨酸蛋白激酶1/信号传导及转录激活蛋白6 (Janus kinase 1/signal transducer and activator of transcription 6, JAK1/STAT6) 信号通路, 从而阻断M2极化[20]。地塞米松(DEX) 可能通过下调TGF-β1和血小板衍生生长因子-b (platelet-derived growth factor b, PDGF-b) 发挥抗纤维化作用, 同时通过促进结缔组织生长因子(connective tissue growth factor, CTGF) 的表达表现出促纤维化效应[21]。体内实验显示, 这两种作用可能相互抵消, 未明显改变PF程度。体外实验则表明促纤维化作用可能占主导, 导致糖皮质激素治疗促进了纤维化因子的表达。TD139作为一种高效的半乳糖凝集素-3 (galectin-3) 抑制剂, 能够以浓度依赖性的方式抑制肺泡巨噬细胞表面的galectin-3表达水平, 且在PF患者吸入后, 耐受性良好, 并未观察到与治疗相关的不良反应[22]
巨噬细胞和其他先天免疫细胞一样, 具备获得免疫记忆的能力。在卡介苗(BCG) 初次刺激机体后, 巨噬细胞再次暴露于相同病原体或其他二次刺激时, 其炎症反应明显增强[23]。BCG的刺激会加剧小鼠的系统性硬化症(systemic sclerosis, SSc), 经过免疫训练的巨噬细胞能够激活T细胞和B细胞, 分泌过量的细胞因子诱导成纤维细胞分化。然而, 向小鼠体内反复注射脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS) 可诱导免疫耐受, 导致巨噬细胞减少促炎细胞因子的产生, 从而抑制炎症及纤维化的发展。此外, Kang等[24]发现, 若用β-葡聚糖(β-glucan) 对小鼠进行全身预处理, 可诱导中性粒细胞在肺中积累, 进而增强AMs的吞噬功能及消退素D1 (resolvin D1, RvD1) 的表达水平, 而RvD1的释放可诱导肺上皮细胞中沉寂信息调节因子1 (silent information regulator 1, SIRT1) 的表达, 增强其对细胞损伤的抵抗能力。同时, β-glucan预处理也上调了AMs中IL-4R/IL13R的表达, 证明β-glucan诱导抗炎和促溶表型, 从而保护肺组织。
综上所述, 巨噬细胞在PF中的作用机制是一个涉及多因素的复杂过程, 涵盖了炎症反应、免疫调节及组织修复等多个层面。深入理解巨噬细胞在PF中的功能, 对于研发新的治疗策略具有重要的科学意义。
中性粒细胞(neutrophils, NEs) 是血液中最丰富的免疫细胞之一, 也是抵抗病原体入侵的首要防线, 该细胞类型能够识别多种炎症、组织损伤及肿瘤信号, 并激活相应的防御机制以清除病原体[25]。在体循环中, 中性粒细胞的平均寿命仅为6~8 h, 其更新速率之快往往导致scRNA-seq难以进行高通量分析。相比之下, 肺毛细血管内的中性粒细胞数量较体循环中更为丰富, 这有助于它们对肺组织中的感染和炎症做出快速反应。在小鼠模型中, 淋巴细胞抗原6G (lymphocyte antigen 6 complex, locus g, Ly6G) 作为一种关键的标志物, 被广泛用于识别中性粒细胞。中性粒细胞能够通过释放炎症介质、产生活性氧物质和蛋白酶等途径, 对肺组织造成损伤, 并促进纤维化的进程。
Lin等[26]通过GEO数据库分析了PF患者与健康个体间基因表达的差异, 发现asporin (ASPN, 一种小分子量的富含亮氨酸重复蛋白)、分泌型卷曲相关蛋白2 (secreted frizzled-related protein 2, SFRP2)、溶质载体有机阴离子转运蛋白家族成员4A1 (solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 4A1, SLCO4A1) 3个基因与中性粒细胞有关, ASPN和SFRP2的表达与Ly6G呈显著负相关, 而SLCO4a1则呈现相反趋势。此外, 甲酰肽受体1 (formyl peptide receptor 1, FPR-1) 也在中性粒细胞表面高表达, FPR1–/–小鼠免受博来霉素(bleomycin, BLM) 诱导的纤维化, FPR-1在中性粒细胞中发挥着独特的器官特异性功能, 对于肺部病理组织的重塑过程具有至关重要的作用[27]。趋化因子配体3阳性(CCL3+) 的中性粒细胞在二氧化硅(silicon dioxide, SiO2) 处理的肺组织中显著增加, 抑制CCL3与CCR1 (CCL3的受体) 的结合能够缓解SiO2致PF小鼠模型中的组织损伤和胶原沉积[28]。尼达尼布(nintedanib) 可通过下调PF中性粒细胞中Ly6G和趋化因子受体2 (CXCR2) 的表达水平, 同时上调G蛋白偶联受体激酶2 (G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 2, GRK2) 的表达, 减弱中性粒细胞趋化性从而发挥治疗作用[29]
中性粒细胞胞外陷阱(neutrophil extracellular traps, NETs) 的过度释放与多种器官纤维化有关。Brinkmann等[30]首次提出, 中性粒细胞会释放含有颗粒状抗菌蛋白的染色质, 该过程可以限制细菌传播, 消除细菌, 增强免疫系统抗感染能力。这个细胞外染色质结构被称为NETs, 这一过程称为NETosis。NETs的形成可由多种刺激因素引发, 包括微生物及其产物、细胞因子、免疫复合物、自身抗体、晶体、化学物质和血小板等[31]。研究证明, 在BLM诱导的PF模型中, NETs表达主要局限于肺部, 这表明由BLM引发的炎症反应促进了中性粒细胞的迁移以及肺部NETs的形成, 肽基精氨酸脱亚胺酶(peptidylarginine deiminase, PAD) 抑制剂氯脒(Cl-amidine) 可通过抑制PAD4的表达减少NETs形成, 进而缓解PF进展[32]。另一项研究则发现, 邻苯二甲酸丁苄酯(benzyl butyl phthalate, BBP) 暴露会增加肺损伤和纤维化的风险, BBP通过促进中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网的生成, 增加了肺组织的损伤[33]。而NETosis可以直接驱动上皮-间质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition, EMT), 这也是SARS-CoV2感染后, 中性粒细胞介导的炎症导致PF的重要致病因素[34]
中性粒细胞在PF的发病过程中发挥了重要作用, 它们不仅可以直接损伤肺组织, 还可能通过形成NETs等方式间接参与PF的进程, 这些都为PF的预防和治疗提供了新的思路。
肥大细胞(mast cells, MCs) 作为机体的固有免疫细胞, 它们通过分泌特异性蛋白酶、组胺、白三烯、前列腺素和细胞因子等在组织环境中发挥作用。肥大细胞与多种纤维化疾病之间存在着紧密的关联, 但目前对于它们在疾病中的具体作用机制尚未明确。在PF患者肺组织中, 肥大细胞主要位于纤维化病灶和肺泡Ⅱ型上皮细胞附近。当受到过敏原、病原体或其他因素刺激时, 肥大细胞会被激活, 并通过脱颗粒作用释放其内部预先合成的颗粒, 这些颗粒含有多种生物活性介质, 其中包括羧肽酶A3 (carboxypeptidase A3, CPA3)[35]。CPA3作为肥大细胞最为丰富的蛋白酶之一, 在PF患者肺中的表达水平显著上调, 其在肥大细胞中的具体功能包括参与蛋白质的降解和代谢机制的调控[36]
肥大细胞外泌体可作为促纤维化物质来源, 肺成纤维细胞通过特定的膜受体识别并摄取肥大细胞外泌体, 外泌体被肺成纤维细胞内化, 可增强TGF-β信号通路的活性, 从而上调胶原蛋白的合成[35]。此外, 将从PF患者和健康个体分离的肺成纤维细胞分别与人肥大细胞LAD2共培养, 可发现前者IL-6和肝细胞生长因子(hepatocyte growth factor, HGF) 水平显著升高[37], 这表明肺成纤维细胞和肥大细胞之间的相互作用, 可能通过释放IL-6和HGF等细胞因子来加剧炎症反应, 影响肺部组织的结构和功能重塑。
Overed-Sayer等[38]发现PF患者肺部肥大细胞的增加, 可能是由于肺部重组干细胞因子(stem cell factor, SCF) 水平升高引起的, SCF是肥大细胞的关键存活因子, 它可以通过酪氨酸激酶受体c-Kit发挥作用。而尼达尼布作为一种酪氨酸激酶抑制剂, 可以完全抑制c-Kit的磷酸化, 从而抑制肥大细胞增殖和相关细胞因子的释放。临床研究表明, 在特发性PF急性加重(acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, AE-IPF) 期间, 肥大细胞密度与多个临床参数存在相关性, 具体而言, 女性患者、伴有弥漫性肺泡损伤的患者及吸烟患者显示出较低的肥大细胞密度。这也说明, 肥大细胞可能在疾病的不同阶段发挥不同的作用[39]
NK细胞也称自然杀伤细胞(natural killer cell), 主要分布于骨髓、外周血、肝、脾、肺和淋巴结, 能够产生促炎细胞因子, 并在第一时间发现并启动免疫防御功能。NK细胞被定义为CD3-CD56+细胞, 可根据CD56和CD16的表达差异, 进一步划分为两大亚群。其中, CD56dimCD16+亚群的NK细胞展现出显著的细胞毒性, 而CD56brightCD16-亚群的NK细胞则主要负责分泌促炎细胞因子, 并表达部分组织驻留标志物[40]。在PF肺组织中, NK细胞的功能通常受到严重损害, 而NK细胞数量或激活状态的改变往往与多种疾病的发生有关, 包括肺动脉高压、系统性硬化症或PF等。研究结果显示, PF患者的肺NK细胞中CCR2表达水平降低, 导致NK细胞无法有效响应趋化因子的招募信号, 进而引起肺部NK细胞比例下降[41]。而Fra-2作为NK细胞分化过程中的负向调节因子, 其过表达会导致从共同淋巴祖细胞(common lymphoid progenitor, CLP) 到NK细胞前体(preNKP) 的分化缺陷, 从而引起全身性NK细胞数量减少[42]。在疾病状态下, 间充质干细胞(MPC) 在PF中能够通过程序性死亡配体-1 (programmed cell death ligand 1, PD-L1) 等机制实现免疫逃逸。PD-L1与其受体程序性死亡蛋白1 (programmed cell death protein 1, PD-1) 结合后, 导致T细胞和NK细胞等免疫细胞的活性受到抑制, 从而减少了对MPC的杀伤作用[43]。因此, 阻断PD-1/PD-L1的相互作用可能是限制MPC介导纤维化进展的一种有效手段。
由此可见, 通过应用免疫调节剂及细胞因子以激活NK细胞, 或针对肺部微环境中的特定分子进行干预以缓解对NK细胞功能的抑制, 理论上可作为治疗PF的有效策略, 然而, 在实际临床应用中, 该策略仍面临诸多挑战, 亟需开展深入研究及临床试验以验证其安全性和有效性。
T细胞(T lymphocytes, T cell) 根据T细胞受体(T cell receptor, TCR) 结构的不同可分为适应性免疫细胞(αβT) 和天然免疫细胞(γδT)。在抗感染和纤维化反应相关的免疫机制中, αβT细胞占据主导地位。依据细胞表面的蛋白表达特征, αβT细胞可进一步划分为CD4+ T细胞和CD8+ T细胞[44]。这两种类型的T细胞在免疫应答中扮演不同的角色, CD4+ T细胞主要作为辅助细胞, 而CD8+ T细胞则主要执行细胞毒性功能。CD4+ T细胞能够识别主要组织相容性复合体Ⅱ类分子(major histocompatibility complex Ⅱ, MHCⅡ) 呈递的抗原肽。这些细胞可分化成多种辅助性T细胞亚群, 包括Th1、Th2、Th17、Treg等。这些亚群通过分泌特定的细胞因子来调节免疫应答, 协助B细胞产生抗体, 增强CD8+ T细胞活性, 并在免疫耐受与炎症反应中发挥调节作用[45]。CD8+ T细胞能够识别由主要组织相容性复合体Ⅰ类分子(major histocompatibility complex Ⅰ, MHCI) 呈递的抗原肽, 当识别到受病毒或其他病原体感染的细胞时, CD8+ T细胞将启动细胞毒性反应, 直接杀伤被感染的细胞, 阻止病原体在细胞内的复制与扩散[46]
研究发现, T细胞在PF患者的支气管肺泡灌洗液及肺组织中广泛聚集, 特定的T细胞相关基因和蛋白, 如CD28和淋巴细胞特异性酪氨酸激酶(lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase, LCK) 等, 已经被视为PF的预后生物标志物[47]。针对T细胞在PF中的作用机制, 可从不同亚型的视角进行深入探讨。
辅助性T细胞1 (T helper 1, Th1) 主要是在受到抗原刺激及细胞因子环境影响下, 由初始CD4+ T细胞分化而来。其分泌的细胞因子干扰素γ (interferon-γ, IFN-γ)、细胞介素-12 (interleukin-12, IL-12) 等已被研究证实具有一定的抗纤维化功能[48]。而辅助性T细胞2 (T helper 2, Th2) 的激活通常是由特定的环境信号触发的, 这些信号可以是直接来自抗原呈递细胞(antigen-presenting cells, APC) 的信号, 也可以是通过与其他细胞的相互作用间接产生的, IL-4、IL-6等Th2细胞因子可以促进成纤维细胞的活化和胶原蛋白的合成, 推动纤维化的发生和进展[49]
Th1细胞的分化主要受转录因子T-bet (T-box expressed in T cells) 的调控, 它能促进Th0细胞向Th1细胞的分化并增强IFN-γ的表达[50]。GATA结合蛋白3 (GATA-binding protein 3, GATA3) 是Th2细胞分化的关键转录因子, 它在Th2细胞的形成和功能中发挥着重要作用。艾蒿提取物能够显著增强T-bet和IL-12的表达水平, 并对GATA3的表达起到抑制作用[51]。甲磺司特(suplatast tosilate) 可以有效抑制多种Th2型细胞因子释放, 这一作用可能与GATA3的转录调控特异性密切相关[52]。B细胞白血病/淋巴瘤11B (B-cell leukemia/lymphoma 11B, Bcl11b) 基因通过蛋白质-蛋白质相互作用与GATA3结合, 并共定位于Th2细胞中的多个关键顺式调节元件上[53], 这表明, Bcl11b在Th2细胞中对GATA3介导的基因激活与抑制过程具有调控作用。
近年来新发现的一类组织驻留型固有免疫细胞, 即2型固有淋巴样细胞(group 2 innate lymphoid cells, ILC2), 被视为Th2细胞的先天细胞替代物, 它不仅分泌相同细胞因子, 而且在细胞起源和调节因子方面与CD4+ T细胞有着一定的联系[54]。神经纤毛蛋白-1 (neuropilin-1, Nrp1) 作为ILC2的特异性标记, 通过调控可溶性生长刺激表达基因2 (soluble growth stimulation expressed gene 2, ST2) 的表达水平, 调节肺ILC2的活化强度, 并且使用靶向Nrp1的小分子抑制剂治疗小鼠PF可以显著减少肺部胶原沉积和减缓PF的进程[55]
综上所述, Th1/Th2细胞平衡是PF发展的重要机制之一, 并且可作为评估疾病进程及预后的重要生物标志。这些研究成果对于PF的个性化治疗策略的开发具有重要意义。
辅助性T细胞17 (T helper 17, Th17) 主要通过分泌细胞因子(如IL-17A、IL-17F、IL-21和IL-22等) 参与免疫反应。Th17细胞的数量和活性在PF早期显著增加, 这些细胞通过分泌IL-17A激活肺成纤维细胞, 促进纤维化进程。辐射诱导的纤维化与Th17细胞比例的增加存在相关性, 主要是通过激活IL6-TGF-β-IL17和Th17信号通路, 使多形核白细胞(polymorphonuclear leukocyte, PMN) 浸润到肺部, 诱导对辐射暴露的严重纤维化反应[56]
研究发现,胆碱酯酶抑制剂多奈哌齐(donepezil) 可以通过阻断α7烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体/酪氨酸蛋白激酶2/信号传导及转录激活因子3 (alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor/Janus kinase 2/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, α7nAChR/JAK2/STAT3) 通路, 抑制Th17细胞的分化和浸润, 防止PF的发展[57]。茶碱(theophylline) 通过抑制核受体相关因子γt (retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor γt, RORγt) 和干扰素调节因子4 (interferon regulation factor 4, IRF4) 等转录因子的表达, 减少IL-17的产生, 抑制Th17细胞的分化[58]。同样, 使用瑞香素(daphnetin) 也显著降低Th17细胞中IL-17A和RORγt的mRNA和蛋白表达水平[59]。Liu等[60]发现甘露聚糖结合凝集素(mannose-binding lectin, MBL) 通过抑制芳香烃受体(aryl hydrocarbon receptor, AhR)/STAT3信号轴, 进而抑制Th17细胞的活化, 减弱二氧化硅诱导的肺部炎症和纤维化进展。吡非尼酮(pirfenidone, PFD) 也能够抑制二氧化硅诱导的细胞因子(IL-6和TGF-β) 的分泌, 并通过抑制STAT3磷酸化来减少Th17细胞的分化和IL-17A的分泌[61]
细胞毒性T淋巴细胞(cytotoxic T cell, CTL) 通常称为CD8+ T细胞, 是适应性免疫系统的关键组成部分, 它们在免疫系统抵御病原体中发挥着重要作用[62]。研究发现, 在急性感染后期, CD8+ T细胞在肺组织中持续存在, 并分泌高水平IFN-γ和TNF-α, 激活局部巨噬细胞。这些被激活的巨噬细胞随后持续释放IL-1β, 引发炎症级联反应, 并形成异常的免疫-上皮祖细胞生态位, 阻碍了正常的肺泡再生, 最终导致纤维化的发生[63]
Tan等[64]通过加权基因共表达网络分析(WGCNA) 发现NUAK家族激酶1 (NUAK1) 在PF的病理过程中与CD8+ T细胞表现出显著的正相关性。而肺移植前PF患者不能正常地对供体抗原做出免疫反应, 这主要与PF患者外周血单个核细胞(PBMC) 端粒长度缩短及CD8+ T细胞对同种异体抗原增殖反应受损有关[65]
在针对PF的治疗中, 通过疫苗激活CD8+ T细胞的策略被证明是有效的。Sobecki等[66]设计了靶向解整合素金属蛋白酶12 (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase-12, ADAM12) 和胶质瘤相关癌基因同源物1 (GLI family zinc finger 1, Gli1) 的疫苗, 这些疫苗能够激活CD8+ T细胞, 促使其分化为能够特异性识别ADAM12+或Gli1+纤维化细胞的效应CD8+ T细胞, 从而实现对PF的治疗效果。此外, 疫苗与其他免疫调节剂的联合使用, 如IL-12, 也被证实能够增强疫苗诱导的CD8+ T细胞的免疫应答, 对PF的治疗具有积极的辅助作用[67]
组织驻留记忆细胞(tissue resident memory T cells, TRM) 是一类特殊的T细胞, 主要以C型凝集素(CD69) 和整合素(CD103) 的表达来界定, 它们并不参与血液循环, 而是长期驻留在特定的组织或器官中[68]。在肺组织中, CD4+和CD8+ TRM对于预防流感病毒感染至关重要[69]。TRM能够迅速对局部组织的免疫应答作出反应, 并在二次感染中发挥重要作用。这些细胞在肺部长期驻扎, 执行免疫监视功能, 一旦检测到肺部受损或者感染, 它们就会迅速响应并启动炎症和纤维化反应, 产生IFN-γ、TNF-α和TGF-β等细胞因子, 导致PF发生。
真菌感染可诱导PF, 在肺组织中存在两个功能不同的CD4+ TRM群体: 致病性CD69hiCD103loCD4+ TRM和免疫抑制CD69hiCD103hiFoxp3+CD4+ Treg, 前者产生效应细胞因子, 促进烟曲霉慢性暴露诱导的炎症和纤维化反应, 而后者则表达高水平的整合素亚基alpha E (integrin alpha E, Itgae) 和叉头盒P3蛋白(forkhead box protein P3, Foxp3), 抑制真菌抗原诱导的炎症PF反应[70]。此外, 使用CD8、PD-1和CD103对对照组或PF患者的肺部进行染色, PF肺中共表达PD-1或CD103的CD8+ TRM和CD8+ T细胞增加[71], 这表明CD8+ TRM也可能参与PF的发展。Feng等[72]研究发现, 趋化因子CCL18在体外能够上调TRM标志物的表达, 在体内介导TRM募集并诱导PF, 阻断趋化因子受体CCR8能够有效阻止CD8+ TRM细胞的募集, 靶向CCL18/CCR8/CD8+ TRM细胞轴可能是一种潜在的治疗策略。TRM细胞在PF中起到了关键作用, 这也为PF的预防和治疗提供了新的靶点。
B细胞(B lymphocytes, B cells) 是一类源自骨髓的多功能干细胞, 在抗原的刺激作用下可分化为浆细胞。浆细胞的主要功能是合成和分泌抗体, 从而在机体的体液免疫反应中发挥关键作用[73]。B细胞的激活过程既可以依赖T细胞, 也可以独立于T细胞进行。该过程涉及B细胞抗原受体(B-cell receptor, BCR) 与特定抗原的结合与识别, 以及CD4辅助T细胞(CD4+ helper T cell) 所提供的共刺激信号[74]。布鲁顿酪氨酸激酶(Bruton's tyrosine kinase, BTK) 作为BCR信号转导途径中的关键激酶, 对B细胞的增殖、分化及凋亡过程具有重要作用[75]。在PF患者的外周血中, BCR对抗原刺激的反应性增强, 这可能与抗免疫球蛋白诱导的BTK磷酸化及其底物磷脂酶Cγ2 (phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase Cγ2, PLCγ2) 在PF患者初始B细胞中的增加有关[76]。泽布替尼(zanubrutinib) 可靶向BTK, 进而抑制B细胞介导的炎症和纤维化[77]。Cargnoni等[78]首次提出, 羊膜间充质基质细胞(human amniotic mesenchymal stem cell, hAMSCs) 可显著减少肺部B细胞的募集, 有助于减弱肺部炎症过程的慢性化, 从源头上减少了纤维化的诱因。
CD20是一种位于B细胞表面的跨膜蛋白, 通常以非糖基化的磷酸化蛋白质形式存在。它是调节B细胞信号转导的重要分子。在小鼠和人类肺组织中, CD20 B细胞主要聚集于纤维化病灶的显著区域。抗CD20治疗后, CD19和CD138浆细胞在肺内大量积累, 而硼替佐米(bortezomib) 可有效消耗浆细胞, 显著降低BLM诱导的小鼠PF水平[79]。B10细胞是一种可分泌IL-10的调节性B细胞(regulatory B cell, Breg) 亚群, 它可以通过多种方式介导纤维化的发生, 研究证明, B10细胞的耗竭可减轻辐射性PF (radiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis, RIPF) 的发生, 抗CD22治疗可以通过减少小鼠模型中的B10细胞数量从而有效地减轻RIPF的严重程度[80]。此外, 在PF患者中, 微生物抗原可能通过激活B细胞表达的各种模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptor, PRR) 来调节免疫反应。微生物抗原对PRR的急性或慢性刺激可能导致正常环境改变为炎症或促纤维化环境, 从而促进纤维化的发展[81]。综上所述, 针对B细胞的治疗策略, 包括运用药物调控B细胞活性或采用基因编辑技术以改变B细胞基因表达, 正处于持续发展与完善阶段。然而, B细胞在PF中的作用机制尚未完全阐明, 亟需进一步的研究以证实。
在PF的发病机制中, 免疫细胞发挥着关键作用。它们的异常激活和功能紊乱都可能对PF的发病和进展产生影响。中性粒细胞与巨噬细胞、淋巴细胞在PF中展现出协同作用。NK细胞、CD4+ T细胞、CD8+ T细胞和B细胞等也能够通过调控炎症反应和纤维化过程, 进而影响疾病的发展。Th1和TRM CD4+ T细胞则具有保护作用(图 1)。因此, 通过调节巨噬细胞的极化、抑制T淋巴细胞的活化以及阻断与纤维化相关信号通路等方法, 有望延缓PF的进展, 改善患者的预后。综上所述, 深入理解免疫细胞在PF中的作用机制对于PF的预防和治疗具有重要的科学意义。
作者贡献: 盛光丽负责文献、资料的收集整理及初稿的撰写; 孙亚茹参与文献资料的分析整理; 董红亮对综述内容进行了指导和修改; 张旋和高建为文章提供总指导和思路。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明无任何利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(82260727)
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(82473987)
  • 云南省科技厅-昆明医科大学基础研究联合项目(202101AY070001-010)
  • 昆明医科大学科技创新团队建设项目(CXTD202203)
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2025年第60卷第5期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0891
  • 接收时间:2024-09-11
  • 首发时间:2025-10-29
  • 出版时间:2025-05-12
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  • 收稿日期:2024-09-11
  • 修回日期:2024-12-19
基金
国家自然科学基金项目(82260727)
国家自然科学基金项目(82473987)
云南省科技厅-昆明医科大学基础研究联合项目(202101AY070001-010)
昆明医科大学科技创新团队建设项目(CXTD202203)
作者信息
    1.昆明医科大学药学院, 云南 昆明 650500
    2.上海交通大学医学院附属上海儿童医学中心, 上海 200127

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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