Article(id=1199783265222619784, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1199783256183898355, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0529, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1717344000000, receivedDateStr=2024-06-03, revisedDate=1718553600000, revisedDateStr=2024-06-17, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763980221323, onlineDateStr=2025-11-24, pubDate=1728662400000, pubDateStr=2024-10-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763980221323, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763980221323, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763980221323, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1199783256183898355, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2024', volume='59', issue='10', pageStart='2677', pageEnd='2896', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763980219168, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764225034160, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1200810084742844917, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1199783256183898355, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1200810084742844918, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1199783256183898355, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2677, endPage=2696, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1199783265566552730, articleId=1199783265222619784, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Bifunctional molecules from viewpoint of medicinal chemistry, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Small molecule drugs comprise multi-dimensional features, and drug creation has to meet requirements such as safety, effectiveness, stability, controllability, and patient compliance. These attributes can be summarized as pharmacological activity and druglikeness, which are implicit in the chemical structure of the drug. Pharmacological activity and adverse reactions are caused by the interaction between drug molecules and on-target or off-target protein. The microstructure of the drug determines the activity/toxicity intensity and selectivity. Pharmacokinetic and physicochemical properties are related to the macroscopic properties of the drug, and the microstructure and macroscopic properties are intertwined and integrated into the molecular structure. Conception and construction of bifunctional molecules are one of routes to achieve "unification of micro and macro" and structurally straighten out the relationship between pharmacodynamics-pharmacokinetics, drug efficacy-adverse reactions (selectivity). This article takes drugs that have been successfully marketed or under clinical trials as examples to explain the structural characteristics of bifunctional molecules from the viewpoint of medicinal chemistry. The productive technical methods include antibody-drug conjugate, proteolysis-targeting chimeras, molecular glues, peptide modifications, and so on. In addition, this overview also classifies covalently binding drugs, transition-state analogs, and prodrugs into the category of bifunctional molecules, emphasizing the importance of bifunctional groups in molecular design and structure optimization.

, correspAuthors=Zong-ru GUO, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Zong-ru GUO), CN=ArticleExt(id=1199783280296948125, articleId=1199783265222619784, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=药物化学视角的双功能分子, columnId=1190335349206389552, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专家论坛, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

小分子药物包含有多维属性, 新药创制须满足安全性、有效性、稳定性、可控性和患者顺应性等要求。这些属性可概括为药理活性和成药性, 都隐含在药物的化学结构之中。药理活性和不良反应是药物分子与向靶(on-target) 或脱靶(off-target) 蛋白分子间相互作用, 产生的活性(毒性) 强度和选择性是由药物的微观结构所决定。药代动力学和物理化学性质是由药物的宏观性质所决定, 微观结构与宏观性质交织融合在分子结构之中。构建双功能分子是实现“微观结构与宏观性质统一”的一个途径, 是从结构上理顺药效-药代、药效-不良反应(选择性) 关系的策略和方法。本文以成功上市或处于临床研究的药物为例, 对抗体偶联药物、蛋白靶向降解嵌合体、分子胶、多肽修饰等行之有效的技术方法从药物化学视角诠释双功能分子的结构特征。此外, 笔者将共价键结合药物和过渡态类似物以及前药也归纳到双功能分子范畴, 强调在分子设计和结构优化中功能基团双功能性的区分和重要意义。

, correspAuthors=郭宗儒, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*郭宗儒, E-mail:
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Drug Structure Drug Structure
Osimertinib
(2015, AstraZeneca)
Furmonertinib
(2018, Allist, China)
Dacomitinib
(2018, Pfizer)
Sunvozertinib
(2023, Dizal, China)
Mobocertinib
(2021, Takeda)
Pyrotinib
(2018, HengRui, China)
Neratinib
(2017, Puma)
Almonertinib
(2020, Hansoh, China)
), ArticleFig(id=1200142950261944905, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1199783265222619784, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Officially approved irreversible EGFR-TK inhibitors containing Michael group

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Drug Structure Drug Structure
Osimertinib
(2015, AstraZeneca)
Furmonertinib
(2018, Allist, China)
Dacomitinib
(2018, Pfizer)
Sunvozertinib
(2023, Dizal, China)
Mobocertinib
(2021, Takeda)
Pyrotinib
(2018, HengRui, China)
Neratinib
(2017, Puma)
Almonertinib
(2020, Hansoh, China)
), ArticleFig(id=1200142950354219596, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1199783265222619784, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Drug MW Ki /nmol·L-1 ΔG /kJ·mol-1 ΔH /kJ·mol-1 -TΔS /kJ·mol-1
61 670.35 2.0 -53.5 13.0 -66.5
62 505.63 0.39 -55.2 -28.8 -26.4
63 547.66 0.004 5 -62.7 -53.1 -9.6
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Comparison of thermodynamic parameters of the three "navirs"

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Drug MW Ki /nmol·L-1 ΔG /kJ·mol-1 ΔH /kJ·mol-1 -TΔS /kJ·mol-1
61 670.35 2.0 -53.5 13.0 -66.5
62 505.63 0.39 -55.2 -28.8 -26.4
63 547.66 0.004 5 -62.7 -53.1 -9.6
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药物化学视角的双功能分子
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郭宗儒 *
药学学报 | 专家论坛 2024,59(10): 2677-2696
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药学学报 | 专家论坛 2024, 59(10): 2677-2696
药物化学视角的双功能分子
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郭宗儒*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 北京 100050

通讯作者:

*郭宗儒, E-mail:
Bifunctional molecules from viewpoint of medicinal chemistry
Zong-ru GUO*
Affiliations
  • Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2024-10-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0529
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小分子药物包含有多维属性, 新药创制须满足安全性、有效性、稳定性、可控性和患者顺应性等要求。这些属性可概括为药理活性和成药性, 都隐含在药物的化学结构之中。药理活性和不良反应是药物分子与向靶(on-target) 或脱靶(off-target) 蛋白分子间相互作用, 产生的活性(毒性) 强度和选择性是由药物的微观结构所决定。药代动力学和物理化学性质是由药物的宏观性质所决定, 微观结构与宏观性质交织融合在分子结构之中。构建双功能分子是实现“微观结构与宏观性质统一”的一个途径, 是从结构上理顺药效-药代、药效-不良反应(选择性) 关系的策略和方法。本文以成功上市或处于临床研究的药物为例, 对抗体偶联药物、蛋白靶向降解嵌合体、分子胶、多肽修饰等行之有效的技术方法从药物化学视角诠释双功能分子的结构特征。此外, 笔者将共价键结合药物和过渡态类似物以及前药也归纳到双功能分子范畴, 强调在分子设计和结构优化中功能基团双功能性的区分和重要意义。

双功能分子  /  抗体偶联药物  /  蛋白靶向降解嵌合体  /  分子胶  /  共价键药物  /  过渡态类似物  /  前药

Small molecule drugs comprise multi-dimensional features, and drug creation has to meet requirements such as safety, effectiveness, stability, controllability, and patient compliance. These attributes can be summarized as pharmacological activity and druglikeness, which are implicit in the chemical structure of the drug. Pharmacological activity and adverse reactions are caused by the interaction between drug molecules and on-target or off-target protein. The microstructure of the drug determines the activity/toxicity intensity and selectivity. Pharmacokinetic and physicochemical properties are related to the macroscopic properties of the drug, and the microstructure and macroscopic properties are intertwined and integrated into the molecular structure. Conception and construction of bifunctional molecules are one of routes to achieve "unification of micro and macro" and structurally straighten out the relationship between pharmacodynamics-pharmacokinetics, drug efficacy-adverse reactions (selectivity). This article takes drugs that have been successfully marketed or under clinical trials as examples to explain the structural characteristics of bifunctional molecules from the viewpoint of medicinal chemistry. The productive technical methods include antibody-drug conjugate, proteolysis-targeting chimeras, molecular glues, peptide modifications, and so on. In addition, this overview also classifies covalently binding drugs, transition-state analogs, and prodrugs into the category of bifunctional molecules, emphasizing the importance of bifunctional groups in molecular design and structure optimization.

bifunctional molecule  /  antibody-drug conjugate  /  proteolysis-targeting chimeras  /  molecular glue  /  covalent binding drug  /  transition state analog  /  prodrug
郭宗儒. 药物化学视角的双功能分子. 药学学报, 2024 , 59 (10) : 2677 -2696 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0529
Zong-ru GUO. Bifunctional molecules from viewpoint of medicinal chemistry[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2024 , 59 (10) : 2677 -2696 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0529
新药创制目标应具有安全性、有效性、稳定性、可控性、可及性和患者顺应性等属性, 这些性质都是由化学结构和制剂决定的, 归根结底是分子结构涵盖了这些属性。由于分子结构的完整统一性, 为优化某一性质所做的结构变换, 往往引起其他性质的改变, 所以即使多轮优化和反复构效关系研究, 也很难使所有的属性都臻于最优化, 而往往优化到某个“折中”的预期目标, 没有短板就很不错了。
理想的药物是在体内预期的时段和组织器官发挥特定的效能, 即在规定的时空对靶标呈现活性和选择性以达到希冀的药效, 这是用药之目的所在; 结构中尽量排除因脱靶导致的不良反应, 避免引起安全性问题的因素, 这属于成药性问题。在体内的转运和在靶器官处存留时间, 例如吸收分布代谢排泄(ADME) 的药代动力学性质, 以及药物的溶解性、脂水分配性、过膜渗透性、荷电性、稳定性(化学结构与晶型) 等物理化学性质, 也属于成药性问题。活性是药物的核心, 成药性是载体, 辅佐药效的发挥, 二者相辅相成。
药理活性或不良反应是药物分子与向靶(on-target) 或脱靶(off-target) 蛋白分子间相互作用所致, 药物的微观结构决定活性(毒性) 的强度和选择性。微观结构系指分子中功能基的性质和空间分布、立体构型和构象等, 这些因素决定了药物与靶标的相互作用, 进而影响药理活性和不良反应。药物的宏观性质决定药代动力学(如吸收、分布、代谢、排泄) 和物理化学性质(如溶解度、稳定性、渗透性等), 这些性质影响了药物在体内的行为和命运。在理想情况下, 药物的微观结构应与其宏观性质协调共济, 交织融合, 以确保药物的有效性和安全性[1]
构建的药物化学结构要包括药理活性和成药性的全部内容, 这实属不易之事, 即使采取多轮优化或地毯式的变换骨架或基团, 也未必达到完美程度, 顾此失彼经常发生。
细胞和分子生物学以及结构生物学的发展, 促进了新药研究的理念、策略与方法, 本世纪以来涌现出多种技术和药物新结构类型, 突出体现在构建双功能分子解决药效-药代、药效-选择性的成功技术, 例如抗体偶联药物(ADC)、蛋白靶向降解嵌合体(PROTAC)、分子胶(MG)、多肽修饰等。此外, 笔者将共价键结合药物和过渡态类似物以及前药归纳为双功能分子范畴, 因为药物与靶标共价结合的基团与其他药效团的“使命”不同, 结合程度也有差异; 过渡态类似物模拟酶催化底物到产物的过渡态结构片段对结合贡献远大于其他药效团; 前药则是时间轴上的双功能性, 前药与活性原药的结构和功能之间的区分有时间次序和体内分布的不同。将这些特定功能的片段区分开来, 以双功能性视角处置, 得以突出结构变换和优化的要点, 当然, 这样的归纳见仁见智。本文拟以成功的实例(PROTAC处于III期临床) 诠释双功能药物的分子设计及其特征。
回顾药物化学和新药创制的历史, 作用于双(多) 靶标药物曾经颇受倡导, 但效果甚微。近年来虽然靶向激酶抑制剂不乏多靶标作用, 但由于结合位点多为ATP结合域, 有其共性, 大都为非设计之果。例如索拉非尼(1, sorafenib) 通过抑制c-Raf和b-Raf的丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶活性, 还抑制VEGFR-2、VEGFR-3、PDGFR-β、FLT3和c-KIT的酪氨酸激酶活性, 占据的都是ATP结合腔, 降低激酶受体的自身磷酸化, 发挥抗肿瘤和血管生成的作用[2]。多数多靶标激酶抑制剂并非设计而来, 如同大多数作用于中枢神经系统的多靶标药物一样。
理性设计双靶标药物有难度, 是由于药物与靶标的结合遵循质量作用定律, 两个靶标处于同样摩尔浓度的药物环境中, 所以要求药物的体外活性应相同相近, 何况两个靶标未必在同一组织内有相同密度, 分布上又造成差异, 因而优化两个靶标共用的药效团以达到协调的体外活性和体内疗效目标相当困难, 面临着用药剂量无过无不及的严格要求。例如多年来旨在研制消炎止痛的5-脂氧酶(5-LOX) 和环氧合酶-2 (COX-2) 双重抑制剂, 虽然两个酶的底物都是花生四烯酸, 但几十年来未见成功。
然而BMS公司研制的司帕生坦通过理性设计和应用药物化学原理, 得到了针对人体血管紧张素II受体(AT1) 和内皮素受体(ETA) 双靶标抑制剂, BMS从20世纪90年代发现萘磺酰胺(2) 的ETA拮抗作用, 经结构变换成联苯(3), 到4′-杂环取代物(4), 优化得到的只是抑制ETA的活性分子[3]
1997年赛诺菲公司上市的降压药厄贝沙坦(5, irbesartan) 是AT1抑制剂, 对ETA没有活性。5的化学结构与4有相近之处: 联苯的2-位都连接酸性基团, 分别是磺酰氨(4) 和四唑(5), 为了研制双靶标抑制剂, 研制者将5的螺二氢丁基咪唑酮移植到4的4′-位, 化合物6呈现双活性: 对ETA活性Ki = 39 nmol, AT1Ki = 4.7 nmol。进而在2′位引入极性链, 7的ETA Ki = 19 nmol, AT1 Ki = 6.0 nmol。多轮SAR后得到司帕生坦(8, sparsentan), ETA Ki = 9.3 nmol, AT1 Ki =0.4 nmol, 于2023年批准上市, 8是首创的ETA/AT1双重抑制剂, 更幸运的是与已有的降压药沙坦类(sartans) 和治疗肺动脉高压的生坦类(sentans) 不同, 临床用于治疗难治的原发性免疫球蛋白A肾病[4]
抗体偶联药物(antibody drug conjugate, ADC) 是将一定数目的细胞毒药物(payload) 通过连接基(linker) 共价连接在靶向肿瘤的单克隆抗体(antibody) 构成的单一分子。ADC可视作含有大分子的前药, 除了抗体部分产生一定的疗效外, ADC本身没有活性, 只有在胞内释放毒素药物后才呈现杀伤力。这与传统小分子抗癌药物分布次序相反, 小分子药物先接触正常细胞然后分布到肿瘤组织, 所以ADC对于肿瘤定点杀伤有一定的优势。
ADC的双功能性一是抗体作为导航载体, 既识别靶(肿瘤) 细胞表面抗原的导向功能和作为细胞毒药物的载体, 更着眼于肿瘤组织而不是分子靶标, 体现了特异性组织分布功能; 另一功能是细胞毒药物杀伤目标蛋白(或核酸); 抗体的导向和携带功能确保细胞毒药物选择性地富集于靶细胞内。图 1示意了ADC的结构中抗体、细胞毒药物和连接基三者的共价结合关系, 其中n是抗体接枝毒物分子的数目, 用(毒性) 药物-抗体比DAR表示。
ADC的作用机制是抗体识别癌细胞表面抗原, 通过蛋白-蛋白互作结合成复合物, 经受体介导吞饮而内化, 在溶酶体或其他酶促或化学作用下, ADC发生降解, 游离出的细胞毒药物就地损伤蛋白或核酸, 阻断肿瘤细胞的增殖。某些释放出的毒性分子具有穿越细胞膜进入周围细胞的能力, 杀伤周围癌细胞, 即所谓的旁观者效应(bystander effect)。
全球已上市16个ADC, 都是抗肿瘤药物。所用的抗体也都是已经批准上市的单抗, 毒性分子多为强细胞毒性的天然物质或改构物, 连接基大都是可降解的链状结构。每个抗体分子连接的毒性药物分子数(药物-抗体比值, DAR) 2~8不等。其中日本第一/三共制药在2019年上市的德喜曲妥珠单抗(9, trastuzumab-deruxtecan, DS8201), 已在全球至少获批5项肿瘤适应症: HER2阳性乳腺癌、胃癌、胃食管交界处癌、HER2低表达乳腺癌和非小细胞肺癌, 堪称迄今最佳的广谱抗肿瘤ADC药物。
9的结构特征是: ①抗体是HER2蛋白的单克隆抗体, HER2蛋白高表达于许多恶性肿瘤; ② DAR值为8, 抗体有较高的毒性分子(弹头) 载量, 但并不影响单抗对抗原的结合, 所以效率高; ③细胞毒性分子是德喜替康, 具有中等强度的拓扑异构酶I抑制活性, 而不是剧毒分子; ④连接基的独创性, 组成中的Gly-Gly-Phe-Gly-四肽, 是非常容易酶切的片段; 此外与德喜替康连接的片段是-NH-CH2-O-, sp3杂化碳单键连接两个杂原子, 在微酸性环境下极易发生不可逆断裂(同时游离出甲醛); 连接基中没有疏水性片段, 避免了疏水聚集可能导致的抗原性; ⑤德喜替康有明显旁观者效应[5, 6]
肽受体放射核素疗法(peptide receptor-radionuclide therapy, PRRT) 是指通过放射性核素连接的肽类配体与靶标蛋白发生特异性结合, 向肿瘤细胞递送辐射源的治疗(或诊断) 方法。借助受体-肽配体的靶向识别作用, PRRT富集到肿瘤细胞, 继而将放射性核素内化导入肿瘤组织, 核素在细胞内释放高能量的β射线, 杀灭肿瘤细胞, 所以PRRT也可视作“靶向内照射治疗”。
神经内分泌肿瘤和小细胞肺癌细胞表面高表达生长抑素受体2 (SSTR2), 是为了结合并摄入生长抑素(10, somatostatin, SST) 到癌细胞内, 促进细胞生长增殖。SST是由14个氨基酸组成的环肽, 是机体的正常成分, 具有抑制生长激素释放的作用, 但半衰期很短(t1/2 = 2~3 min)。结构简化成七肽奥曲肽(11, octreotide), 与SST有相同的药理作用, 半衰期显著延长, t1/2 = 90 min, 静脉注射对生长激素释放的抑制作用强于SST 70倍。
成功的PRRT药物是2018年诺华公司上市的奥曲肽镥-177 (12, 177Lu-dotatate) 和奥曲肽镓68 (13, 68Ga-dotatate), 一对姊妹药分别治疗和诊断肠道神经内分泌瘤, 分子结构上是将放射性核素177Lu或68Ga与螯合剂四羧甲基四氮杂环癸烷(DOTA) 形成强效螯合物, 后者与Tyr3-奥曲肽经连接基共价结合而成。奥曲肽作为导向载体携带着被螯合的放射性镥或镓, 浓集并结合于肿瘤表面受体上, 经细胞吞噬而内化, 12实现肿瘤细胞内的β射线放射治疗, 13用于正电子成像(PET) 或CT造影, 作为诊断剂[7, 8]
2020年日本盐野义公司上市的头孢地尔(14, cefiderocol) 对有氧革兰阴性细菌具有强效广谱抑制活性, 14的双功能性是铁的导向和菌体摄入, 杀伤细菌功能的是头孢菌素对转肽酶的抑制。革兰阴(阳) 性细菌生长增殖所需的铁元素是从人体细胞中摄取的, 借助细胞壁上的载铁蛋白摄入菌体内。研制者利用该蛋白的嗜铁属性, 将含有儿茶酚和氨基噻唑(铁载体, siderophore) 片段连接在头孢菌素适当的位置上, 研制出含有铁载体的头孢地尔。利用两个酚羟基和噻唑硫原子与体内的Fe3+形成强力的螯合物。
头孢地尔在体内与铁离子发生螯合作用, 载铁蛋白犹如磁石般地“吸引”并结合含铁的头孢, 铁离子携带着头孢菌素进入菌体内, 与青霉素结合蛋白作用, 阻断细胞壁的合成而杀死细菌。14对多种有氧阴性菌(包括多药耐药菌) 抑制活性MIC50 < 2 μg·mL-1, 临床用于治疗由敏感革兰阴性菌(如大肠杆菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、铜绿假单胞菌或沙雷氏菌) 引起的复杂尿路感染(cUTI), 也用于医院获得性肺炎和呼吸机相关性肺炎[9]
既往基于多肽和蛋白等活性物质研制药物多采用非肽化途径, 设计合成“拟肽”类(peptidomimetics) 化合物。随着蛋白质化学的进展, 如今得以用修饰的多肽或蛋白作为治疗剂, 其中成功的重磅药物是利用人血白蛋白的载体功能上市了数个治疗2型糖尿病和减轻体重的“鲁肽”类(-glutides) 药物。
人血白蛋白(human serum albumin, HSA) 是一种小分子质量和非糖基化的血清蛋白, 具有结合内源/外源性物质、运输、抗氧化以及酶活性等多种功能。HSA是含有585个氨基酸的球状蛋白质, 分子质量66 kD。X射线晶体结构显示HSA是由3个相似的结构域(Ⅰ~Ⅲ) 构成, 含有两个疏水腔。HSA可结合多种化合物, 包括脂肪酸、金属离子、药物和代谢产物等, 药物与HSA的适度结合对于提高稳定性和稳态释放游离药物有重要意义。HSA负责结合大多数药物的位点是结构域I[10]
鲁肽类药物是利用HSA结合含有共价结合长脂肪链的特性而实现GLP-1长效和稳定的治疗要求, 其双功能性表现在脂肪链执行运载和结合HSA而稳态释放的功能, GLP-1片段结合并激动GLP-1受体呈现药效学功能。
内分泌激素在体内一旦产生并履行功能后, 很快被代谢失活, 半衰期很短, 因而很难用激素治疗慢性疾病。例如胰高血糖素样肽-1 (15, GLP-1) 刺激胰岛分泌胰岛素, 抑制高血糖素的释放, 是生理性降低血液中葡萄糖的内源性调节物质, 但不能用作降糖药, 因为半衰期只2 min。
GLP-1代谢失活的主要位点是二肽基肽酶4 (DPP-4) 剪切N端Ala8-Glu9之间的肽键而失活, 虽然DPP-4抑制剂作为降血糖药上市了多种列汀类(-gliptins) 药物, 但仍不能完全控制2型糖尿病患者的血糖。
丹麦诺和诺德公司研制长效GLP-1作为降血糖药, 利用血浆白蛋白具有非特异性的结合/运输功能, 以使GLP-1长效稳定化。研制者经丙氨酸扫描确定了GLP-1与受体结合的重要残基, 如15中粗体字所示。对个别氨基酸残基进行变换, 并在非受体结合的Lys26的末端氨基连接出脂肪链, 经构效关系优化得到利拉鲁肽(16, liraglutide), 16与GLP-1有相同的生理功能, 在血浆中发生自缔合(self-association) 并与白蛋白结合, 显著提高了对DPP-4和内切酶的稳定性, 半衰期t1/2 11~15 h, 美国FDA于2010年批准上市, 患者每日皮下注射一次, 可控制2型糖尿病患者的血糖, 成为第一个改构的人GLP-1的降血糖药物。
诺和诺德研制的第二代GLP-1受体激动剂称作司美格鲁肽(17, semaglutide), 是将DPP-4剪接处的Ala8换成非天然的氨基异丁酸Aib8, 提高了稳定性; 疏水链中嵌入乙二醇片段和羧基, 活性与稳定性显著提高, 半衰期t1/2 46 h, 作为降血糖药每周皮下注射一次。口服用作减肥药, 每日一次(3或7或14 mg)。司美格鲁肽得到广泛的应用, 2023年销售额139亿美元[11]
人体内另一个调节血糖水平的是葡萄糖依赖性促胰岛素释放多肽(18, GIP), 在高血糖下, GIP促进胰岛素分泌, 降低血糖, 并激动GIP受体增强GLP-1受体的活性, 提示GIP与GLP-1受体双重激动剂在治疗肥胖症和糖尿病方面的潜力。礼来研制了GLP-1受体和GIP双受体激动剂[12]。设计双重活性多肽是保留序列中的共同残基, 即相同位置有相同的氨基酸, 再通过调节其余位置的一级序列, 使对两个靶标有相近相适的活性, 避免活性差别大而“无过无不足”。比对GLP-1和GIP的一级序列, N端有较多的相同的氨基酸残基, 如图 2中红色标示的残基。这些氨基酸所处的空间位置相似。基于以上考虑, 并借鉴司美格鲁肽提高稳定性的成功经验, 设计了通式19的39肽, 式中X为可变换残基。
设计和优化的要点是: ①通式19的C端Gly30到Ser39的氨基酸完全“照搬”上市的另一天然多肽艾塞那肽(exenatide) C端序列[13]; ②借鉴司美格鲁肽的设计策略, 修饰不影响与受体结合的位点Lys20, 从而在Lys20的末端氨基处连接氨基醇和乙二醇片段(亲水性) 再缀合长链脂肪二羧酸(亲脂性)。
经过优化缀合的脂肪链, 得到了替尔泊肽(20, tirzepatide), 对受体GLP-1R/GIPR激动活性的比值1.48, 具有高稳定性和生物利用度, 临床疗效与司美格鲁肽作头对头比较, 控制血糖优胜于司美格鲁肽, 于2022年5月上市, 第二年(2023) 销售额达71亿美元。
化学诱导临近效应(chemically induced proximity, CIP) 被认为是自然界调控细胞进程和生物学过程的核心原则, 其实宏观世界的一切互作都基于CIP。根据这一原则, 具有双功能的小分子诱导两种生物大分子发生临近而互作, 进而调控细胞进程。CIP用于新药研究形成的技术很多, 本节简要讨论已在临床应用或处于Ⅲ期临床研究的药物, 即PROTAC、MG和疏水标签药物(HyT)。
PROTAC是利用细胞中天然存在的蛋白降解机制(例如泛素-蛋白酶体系统, UPS), 诱导目标蛋白(POI) 与泛素连接酶(E3) 临近, POI经E3连接酶催化发生泛素化, 继而被蛋白酶体降解失活。PROTAC作用原理以图 3的4个步骤作简要说明。① PROTAC是由目标蛋白的配体(POI ligand, 图中刺球) 和E3连接酶的配体(E3 ligase ligand, 三角形) 经连接基(linker, 波浪形) 共价结合组成的, 两个配体分别招募和结合拟降解的目标蛋白POI和催化目标蛋白泛素化的E3连接酶; ② PROTAC的两个配体分别与目标蛋白POI和E3连接酶结合形成POI-PROTAC-E3三元复合物, 并将泛素(Ub) 转移到POI上; ③ PROTAC脱离泛素化的目标蛋白和E3连接酶, 游离出的PROTAC进入新一轮的招募和结合; ④泛素化的目标蛋白被蛋白酶体(proteasome) 降解成小肽和氨基酸(回收利用), POI完全失去活性与功能。
PROTAC的双功能性在于招募两个蛋白临近而互作, 导致目标蛋白泛素化而被蛋白酶体降解失活。这种作用模式与传统药物不同, PROTAC本身不直接参与降解, 而是促进POI和E3发生蛋白-蛋白相互作用, 然后由第三者蛋白酶体降解POI, PROTAC犹如催化剂样作用, 引发事件发生, 理论上没有消耗。传统药物借助占据靶标活性部位而起效, 质量作用定律决定杀敌一千, 自耗十百。
迄今处于临床研究的19款PROTAC都是设计得到的, 目标蛋白都是可成药性靶标, 有明确的结合位点, 而且大都用已知(或改构) 的抑制剂作为目标蛋白的配体, 例如Arvinas和辉瑞公司共同研制的口服雌激素受体降解剂vepdegestrant (21, ARV-471), 结合目标蛋白雌激素受体的配体是他莫昔芬的改构物, 结合E3连接酶的配体是来那度胺改构物(将于下节分子胶讨论)。21对癌细胞中雌激素受体降解率高达97%, Ⅲ期临床已获FDA授予快速通道资格, 用于治疗ER+/HER2-的局部晚期或转移性乳腺癌患者[14]
口服雄激素受体蛋白降解剂bavdegalutamide (22, ARV110) 负责结合雄激素受体的配体是比卡鲁胺的改构物, 结合E3连接酶的配体也是来那度胺改构物。Ⅱ期临床试验结果显示, 在治疗携带AR T878A (或X)/H875Y双突变的转移性去势抵抗性前列腺癌患者中表现出强效抗癌活性。Luxdegalutamide (23, ARV-766) 是Arvinas公司对22的进一步优化物, 化学结构于2023年4月AACR年会上披露。通过优化ARV-110的AR配体和E3连接酶配体开发出实现最佳基因型覆盖的对映体ARV-766。临床前实验数据表明, 即使在高浓度雄激素下, ARV-766也能有效抑制肿瘤生长(没有PROTAC常见的钩状效应)。化合物23是使用度胺的开环氟化物, 并变换左侧的雄激素受体招募基, 活性和稳定性超越22, 23已替换了22的临床地位[15]。ARV-766作为单一疗法或与阿比特龙联合使用治疗转移性去势抵抗性前列腺癌患者已进展到Ⅱ期临床试验。
人体大约有600种E3连接酶, 但目前只有少数的功能得到表征和应用。迄今最常用于招募和诱导蛋白降解的E3连接酶有4个: cereblon (CRBN)、von Hippel-Lindau (VHL)、MDM2和IAP。实验证明, 即使有相同的配体和连接基, 若变换不同的E3连接酶配体也会导致目标蛋白质降解程度不同, 这是优化E3酶的配体提高降解效率的依据。例如将沙利度胺苯环上去除一个酰基, 邻位用不同基团取代, 得到的通式24仍是cereblon的招募基, 但消除了引起胚胎畸形的毒性。
连接基的长度和化学组成会影响PROTAC的活性和降解效率。两个配体有足够的间隔得以保障各司招募结合的功能, 避免过短发生空间阻障而不利于结合; 然而过长的柔性导致构象过多也不利于泛素化。连接基宜有适当的刚性、疏水性和溶解性。例如前述Arvinas公司21~23的连接基是N-哌啶甲基哌嗪, 证明是良好的连接基。虽然可通过结构生物学指导和计算化学辅助设计连接基, 目前主要是经验性的SAR研究确定[16]
另一个诱导蛋白-蛋白相互作用(PPI) 的小分子是分子胶(molecular glue, MG), 它对招募和诱导两个蛋白发生PPI的结构特征没有明显的区分, 也因此没有连接基, 所以称作一价双功能分子, MG分子尺寸比较小, 类药性较好。被招募的一个蛋白若是E3连接酶, 则分子胶就是靶向蛋白降解剂(targeted protein degrader, TPD), 若两个蛋白只是相互结合而改变活性, 则是可逆性抑制剂。
如果说PROTAC是理性设计实现的化学诱导临近效应, 目前的分子胶则是偶遇于自然界存在的活性物质。例如用于器官移植排异的免疫调节剂环孢素A (25, cyclosporine A, CYSPA) 和他克莫司(26, tacrolimus, FK506) 都是临床应用的抗生素, 它们诱导临近的伴侣蛋白不同, 分别是亲环素(cyclophilin, CYC) 和FK结合蛋白(FKBP), 但招募的靶标蛋白(POI) 却都是钙调磷酸酶(calcineurin, CCN), 2526都是具有双功能性的一价分子结构, 如同两面胶, 分别生成CYC-CYCPA-CCN和FKBP-FK506-CCN三元复合物, 导致两个蛋白互作, 可逆性地抑制钙调磷酸酶活性, 阻止了免疫反应, 所以2526生物效应相同[17]
Zeng & Tu研究蟾酥的抗癌成分发现蟾酥灵(27, bufalin) 的抗癌机制是分子胶诱导目标蛋白被UPS系统降解。他们用蛋白质组学和一系列分析鉴定技术, 证明27介导目标蛋白E2F2和E3连接酶ZFP91之间发生相互作用, 生成三元复合物E2F2-bufalin-ZFP91, 泛素化的E2F2被蛋白酶体降解失活。图 4是三元体的示意图。
蟾酥灵是含有α, β不饱和内酯的三羟基甾体化合物, 经LC/MS/MS分析发现27的不饱和内酯作为弱亲电性基团, 与E3连接酶的Cys349巯基发生迈克尔加成反应, 也证明了甾体母核结合于目标蛋白, 履行双功能的结构域是由单键相连, 折射出PROTAC与分子胶没有本质区别[18]
倘若分子胶招募的一个蛋白是泛素E3连接酶, 则目标蛋白进入泛素-蛋白酶体系统, 被不可逆的降解失活。分子胶大都是偶遇或普筛得到的。20世纪60年代沙利度胺(28, thalidomide) 造成胎儿畸形的惨剧, 其实是分子胶作用, 沙利度胺招募了CRBN (E3连接酶) 和维持胚胎干细胞功能的调控蛋白SALL4, 结合成三元复合物, SALL4发生泛素化, 被蛋白酶体降解, 导致畸形[19]
后来发现沙利度胺的免疫调节作用, 是招募了癌细胞高表达的锌指蛋白IKZF1/3, 形成三结合, 导致该转录因子降解而失活, 用于治疗多发性骨髓瘤。沙利度胺的类似物泊马度胺(29, pomalidomide) 和来那度胺(30, lenalidomide) 都是E3连接酶CRBN的招募剂。这三个度胺都已批准上市, 具有相同的适应症, 其中广泛应用的来那度胺于2022年全球销售额超过百亿美元。作为分子胶, 它们之间结构的微小差异使目标蛋白的选择性和活性强度明显不同, 因而后继研制了多种以酰亚胺为母核的度胺类候选药物, 图 5列出了进入临床研究的代表性化合物。这些“度胺”类似物虽然招募的E3连接酶都是BRCN, 但诱导临近结合的目标蛋白却不同, 例如度胺类分子胶招募的GSPT1与IKZF1、IKZF3或CK1α没有明显的同源性, 所以分子胶化学结构的微小变化招募降解的靶标不同, 预示有不同的适应症。Sievers等[20]系统筛选了IMiD-CRBN复合物识别的含有Cys2-His2 ZF结构域的转录因子, 从而发现新的靶标蛋白被靶向降解。
氯硝柳胺(31, niclosamide) 是治疗蠕虫药物, 作用机制是通过抑制虫体细胞内线粒体的氧化磷酸化, 阻断葡萄糖的吸收和摄取, 杀死寄生虫。近年来发现氯硝柳胺对多种肿瘤细胞系呈现抗增殖活性, 例如抑制去势抵抗性前列腺癌, FDA已批准其联合雄激素受体拮抗剂恩杂鲁胺用于去势抵抗性前列腺癌治疗的Ib/Ⅱ期临床试验。
Arvinas公司研究发现31可有效地降解前列腺癌细胞的雄激素受体(AR) 和雄激素受体剪切变体7 (AR-V7) 蛋白, 从而减弱下游靶基因的表达, 作用机制是通过抑制热休克蛋白70 (HSP70), 促进了与AR或AR-V7结合的STUB1核移位, 阻断前列腺癌的增殖[21]。为了提高降解效率和生物利用度, 合成的聚焦库中化合物32的活性和生物利用度都优于氯硝柳胺[22, 23]
疏水标签技术(hydrophobic tag, HyT) 作为靶向蛋白降解技术的另一分支, 是由疏水性片段(标签) 经连接基缀合在目标蛋白(POI) 的配体上形成的双功能分子。HyT中结合POI的配体作为载体和导向, 执行选择性结合目标蛋白的功能; 疏水标签的功能是模拟部分未折叠的蛋白结构, 或稳定POI的错误构象, 被细胞内监控系统误判, 从而招募内源性伴侣蛋白(chaperone), 促进蛋白酶体降解; 或者经HyT介导泛素化, 被蛋白酶体降解。
HyT与PROTAC结构上的相同点是都有目标蛋白的配体和连接基, 差异在于HyT无需特定的E3连接酶的配体, 而是疏水性片段, 因而避免了特异性设计, 例如免去了氢键和/或其他极性基团的结合因素以及构象的适配, 这对穿越血脑屏障意义重大[24]
当初阿斯利康药业为了研制新的选择性雌受体完全拮抗剂(SERM), 设计了在雌二醇结构中引入第二个功能片段, 以结合受体的另一区域, 旨在改变受体蛋白的构象, 阻断受体功能。第二个功能片段为了不干扰对雌激素受体活性部位, 用有一定长度的间隔基(spacer) 相连。为此在雌二醇(33) 的7位连接较长疏水链, 末端五氟代是为了提高代谢稳定性, 结果却意外发现34可选择性地诱导雌激素受体降解, 是雌激素受体降解剂(SERD)。氟维司群(34, fluvestrant) 于2002年在美国上市, 用于治疗雌激素受体(ER) 阳性的转移性乳腺癌。
氟维司群与雌受体结合后, 7α侧链使ER的C端螺旋发生构象变化, 并促进了与N端螺旋结构的相互作用。这一构象变化使得ER蛋白暴露出疏水表面, 导致配体依赖性转录激活功能域无法发挥作用。同时疏水表面的暴露直接引起ER的构象变化和稳定性下降, 导致被蛋白酶体降解[25]
当前常用于疏水标签的片段是金刚烷, 金刚烷有较大的疏水性/体积比, 经连接基与目标蛋白配体共价结合成单一分子, 与目标蛋白结合后改变了蛋白的构象, 可被伴侣蛋白HSP70结合直接降解, 或被E3连接酶催化泛素化, 被蛋白酶体26S降解失活, 如图 6所示。
Her3为表皮生长因子受体酪氨酸激酶(EGFR) 亚型, 是抗癌药物的“非可药性”靶标, Crews团队[26]优化出不可逆抑制剂TX1-85-1 (35), 含有的迈克尔亲电基团与ATP结合腔的Cys721形成共价结合, IC50值23 nmol·L-1, 虽然抑制了Her3的信号传导, 但不能抑制依赖于Her3癌细胞的增殖, 遂制成含有金刚烷疏水标签化合物TX2-121-1 (36), 成为Her3双功能抑制剂, 35的结构片段定位于HER3的ATP结合腔, 并以迈克尔片段共价连接Cys721, 疏水标签扰动酶的疏水域, 改变了蛋白构象, 36成为Her3的部分降解剂, 还干扰了Her3与Her2或c-Me的异二聚化, 提高了抑制细胞增殖的效力。
Xu等[27]研制以丝/苏氨酸激酶Akt3为靶标的抗肿瘤靶向药物, 优化得到了含有亲电基团的不可逆抑制剂37, 但37是泛抑制剂, 对Akt1/2/3半数降解活性DC50 > 1 μmol·L-1。为了提高对Akt3的选择性降解作用(Akt1/2是脱靶), 研制者基于3种亚型的赖氨酸残基在活性中心的位置不同, 经计算化学预测, 以Akt3的Lys266为目标设计了含有金刚烷的疏水标签, 为此, 截去进入水相哌嗪上的甲基, 装备十二烷氨甲酰金刚烷, 创造了第二个功能位点, 此时37原有的共价结合基团应属多余, 改为环丙羧酸片段, 优化得到疏水标签分子38, 提高了选择性作用, 对耐药的非小细胞肺癌细胞降解Akt3活性DC50 = 3 nmol·L-1, 而对Akt1/2的活性DC50 > 1 μmol·L-1
中国药科大学学者以艾乐替尼(39, alectinib) 为模板, 系统研究了降冰片烯作为疏水标签降解间变性淋巴瘤激酶(ALK) 的疏水标签药物。艾乐替尼是2015年罗氏上市的口服治疗晚期转移性ALK阳性的非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC) 药物, 39对ALK抑制活性IC50为1.9 nmol·L-1。研制者截去39的吗啉环, 连接含有降冰片烯片段的不同长度疏水标签, 优化出化合物40 (Hyt-9), 为ALK激酶降解剂。
40的作用机制是结合于ALK活性部位, 疏水标签引起ALK蛋白的构象变化和不稳定性, 从而招募伴侣蛋白HSP70, 被蛋白酶体降解而失活[28]图 7是化合物40诱导降解ALK过程的示意图。
三叔丁氧羰精氨酸(Boc3Arg, B3A) 作为强疏水基团, 是另一个疏水标签, 但降解过程与金刚烷不同, B3A无需泛素化, 而是直接激活蛋白酶体20S导致目标蛋白降解。图 8是B3A型疏水标签作用的示意图。
例如抗菌药三甲苄啶(41, trimethoprem) 是二氢叶酸还原酶(DHFR) 抑制剂, 以41为DHFR配体, 经间隔基连接B3A, 形成疏水标签42, 成为DHFR降解剂[29]
共价药物与非共价药物相比具有药理学优势, 药效强且作用时间长。笔者将共价结合药物归属于双功能分子范畴, 是从药物化学和作用机制的视角考虑的。从药物与靶标作用的微观结构考察, 共价药物药效团可区分为两类: 参与弱结合力的药效团, 例如形成氢键、静电引力、疏水作用的功能基团, 这与非共价药物的结合模式一样, 如式1中药物D与受体R形成的复合物D·R, D·R与游离的D+R呈可逆的平衡反应, D·R结合强度用离解常数表征Ki = k-1/k1; 结构中参与结合的原子或基团若与靶标形成共价键, 即D˓R生成D-R, 若k2 > > k-2(例如k-2近于零), 则为不可逆的共价结合, 否则D为可逆的共价结合药物。两种功能犹如前述ADC的抗体和毒性分子的作用, 一般的药效团将分子固定在靶标处, 共价结合基团类似于毒性弹头(payload)。共价抑制的效果与靶标蛋白的再合成速率关系密切, 从机制分析, 共价药物的停留时间应该长于目标蛋白的复生率, 才能表现出显著的共价抑制作用。
$ \mathrm{D}+\mathrm{R} \underset{k_{-1}}{\stackrel{k_1}{\rightleftharpoons}} \mathrm{D} \cdot \mathrm{R} \underset{k_{-2}}{\stackrel{k_2}{\rightleftharpoons}} \mathrm{D}-\mathrm{R} $
共价药物由于作用时间较长, 通常表现出良好的效力, 并且也因较低的治疗剂量和用药频率, 减少了脱靶和不良反应。将共价结合基团与其他药效团区分开, 在于分子设计和优化中的策略原则不同, 共价基团的亲电性应与靶标的亲核性基团在空间和强度上相互匹配, 过强的亲电性容易脱靶而出现不良反应; 过弱亲电性难以形成共价键。此外在空间定位上也需要与亲核原子在成键距离之内, 所以共价基团变换的自由度相对较低。
诠释共价药物双功能分子设计的范例是由吉非替尼(43, gefitinib) 研制的阿法替尼(44, afatinib)。2003年阿斯利康药业上市的吉非替尼是表皮生长因子(EGFR) 受体可逆性抑制剂, 作为第一代治疗非小细胞肺癌靶向药物, 43定位于酪氨酸激酶ATP结合腔, 喹唑啉环及的N1、N3和C4-氨苯基分别通过氢键和疏水结合, 抑制激酶蛋白的磷酸化。
2013年勃林格殷格翰公司上市的阿法替尼是第二代EGFR不可逆抑制剂, 对EGFR发生19del和L858R突变、耐受吉非替尼的癌细胞呈现抑制活性。44是在喹唑啉环6位连接了取代的丁烯酰氨片段, 这是个弱亲电基团, 酰基的β碳与EGFR结合腔的Cys797之间距离可发生迈克尔加成, 弱亲电与强亲核性的巯基足以发生亲核加成, 发生不可逆结合而抑制, 因而44对吉非替尼耐药瘤株有效[30]。若将该侧链移至7位, 远离了巯基而不能共价结合。图 9是变异的激酶-Cys797与44发生共价结合的示意图。
继阿法替尼之后, 基于变异的EGFR激酶结构设计不可逆抑制剂, 化合物的结构变化反映在与变异激酶的结合强度和特异性上, 但共价结合的基团都是不饱和酰氨与EGFR的Cys残基的巯基发生共价结合, 从而相继研发出第2/3/4代抑制剂, 表 1列出了上市的含有迈克尔基团的不可逆抑制剂, 其中包括我国药企研制的多款治疗耐药性非小细胞肺癌第三/四代EGFR药物。
靶标为KRAS的索托雷塞研制过程比上述的EGFR抑制剂困难得多, 是因为共价结合的变构位点隐蔽性所致。人类肿瘤病30%是由于癌基因KRAS突变所引起, 肺癌中20%的KRAS蛋白的Gly12变异成Cys12 (KRASG12C)。KRASG12C蛋白可药性极差, 一是与底物GDP和GTP的结合力非常强, Ki值达pmol·L-1, 抑制剂难以达到与之发生竞争性结合的力度; 另一是KRAS蛋白缺乏明显的疏水腔, 难以找到设计抑制剂的切入点。
Ostrem等[31]为了寻找结合KRAS的Cys12苗头分子, 筛选了380个含有二硫键的化合物对KRAS-GDP做垂钓式的竞争性结合, 二硫键具有弱亲电性, 可与Cys巯基发生硫交换, 用质谱检测全蛋白的MS信号, 发现6H05 (45) 具有结合Cys12的能力。但二硫化合物的亲电性太弱, 经改换较强的迈克尔基团, 并优化得到ARS-853 (45a), 活性和成药性都得到提高, 环合并缩短分子以适配于变构的S-IIP的结构域, 得到45b (IC50 0.935 μmol·L-1)。
进而优化出45c (IC50 0.638 μmol·L-1), 优化吲哚环得到45d (IC50 0.115 μmol·L-1), 在结构生物学指引下变换吲哚环为氮杂喹唑啉酮, 取代的哌嗪环作为迈克尔载体, 并变换了其他结构片段, 经优化最终得到索托雷塞(46, sotorasib), 用于治疗KRASG12C变异的中晚期肺癌于2021年FDA批准上市。
46与KRASG12C的共晶结(图 10) 显示, 母核氮杂喹唑啉环处于S-II疏水腔中, 丙烯酰胺与Cys12的巯基发生共价键结合。S-甲基哌嗪采取扭船式构象, 使2′-甲基与Cys12和Tyr96接触, 吡啶环上的异丙基完全进入S-II疏水腔中, 与Tyr96, His95和Gln99发生范德华作用。此外, 吡啶的N原子不影响手性轴的稳定性[32]
Mirati公司研制的阿达格拉西布(48, adagracib) 也是KRASG12C抑制剂, 用于治疗先前至少接受过一种全身治疗的非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC) 患者, 是全球第二款获批上市的KRASG12C抑制剂。48的研制自始至终都是在结构生物学指导下进行的。47a与KRASG12C共价结合, 但活性低(IC50 > 16 μmol·L-1), 47b的萘环上引入3-羟基与Asp69q氢键结合(IC50 7.6 μmol·L-1), 嘧啶环2-位连接碱性侧链与Glu62羧基形成盐桥, 并去除萘环酚羟基以避免II相代谢得到47c (IC50 4.4 μmol·L-1), 47c的哌嗪附近有结构水以氢键连接残基Gly10和Thr58, 引入氰甲基47d活性IC50 10 nmol·L-1, 晶体结构显示萘环8-位处有小疏水区, 连接氯原子47e (IC50 1 nmol·L-1), 47e在实验动物的血液中被谷胱甘肽结合降低生物利用度和半衰期, 是由于迈克尔基团的脱靶所致, 优化共价结合基团, 文献报道增加亲电性可降低与谷胱甘肽的结合[33], 最终优化得到含有氟代丙烯酰氨的阿达格拉西布48, 于2022年上市[34]
图 11是阿达格拉西布与KRASG12C复合物单晶结构图。结合要点如下: ①氟代丙烯酰基片段与Cys12形成共价结合, 产生不可逆结合; ②丙烯酰基的氧原子与Lys16发生氢键结合(3.0 Å); ③哌嗪环侧链上的氰基与Gly10骨架NH氢键结合(3.3 Å); ④嘧啶的N1与His95的NH氢键结合(2.9 Å); ⑤四氢吡咯的氮原子与Glu62的羧基形成盐桥(N-O距离为2.8 Å); ⑥ 8-氯萘片段进入由多个疏水氨基酸残基构成的疏水腔中, 发生疏水相互作用。
多发性骨髓瘤(MM) 是血液系统常见的恶性肿瘤, 是一种克隆性浆细胞异常增殖的恶性病变。硼替佐米作为首创的蛋白酶体抑制剂, 研制过程是优化弱结合药效团与变换共价结合基团交叉进行的: 三肽简化成拟二肽, 优化了药效团; 同时也变换共价结合的亲电基团, 最终实现了成功上市。
Tsubuki等[35]研究蛋白酶体抑制剂对细胞生长和增殖以确定其催化功能, 发现三肽化合物苄氧羰-亮氨酰-亮氨酰-亮氨醛(49, MG-132), 高活性抑制蛋白酶体Ki = 4 nmol·L-149与蛋白酶体的复合物单晶结构显示, 49连接在活性中心β亚基的N端[36], 醛基与苏氨酸残基的羟基发生亲核加成, 生成具有共价键结合的半缩醛, 虽然是可逆性结合, 但酶的活性受到强效抑制。优化49的P1~P3的烷基得到50, 活性显著提高, 由于醛基的活性过强, 将醛基换成其他亲电性基团如三氟甲基酮、氯代甲基酮、αβ-二酮基羧酸酯或硼酸基等, 发现含硼酸基的51活性Ki = 0.03 nmol·L-1, 强于先导物49大约100倍。
硼元素处于周期表第3族, 外层电子有一p空轨道, 可与O和N的未偶电子对形成配位键。51与蛋白酶体的活性中心N端的苏氨酸侧链的羟基发生的特异性配位结合, 而对组织蛋白酶B的脱靶作用很弱, Ki = 6 100 nmol·L-1, 弱于蛋白酶体20万倍。这是因为硼原子难于与组织蛋白酶B的半胱氨酸巯基结合, B←S配位键是不稳定的, 所以硼酸基的选择性成为进一步研制抑制蛋白酶体的重要依据。缩短三肽成二肽硼酸, 并加入助溶基团, 52被Millennium公司开发成功, 成为注射用含有机硼的首创性药物, 2003年上市治疗多发性骨髓瘤[37]
针对耐药的蛋白酶体而研制的第二代抑制剂也是共价结合分子, 源自天然抗生素, 优化得到的卡非佐米(carfilzomib) 2012年批准上市。BMS公司于1992年从一种放线菌分离出抗生素环氧霉素(53, epoxomicin), 为四肽化合物, C端含有α-酮基环氧乙烷结构。用移植黑色素瘤B16小鼠体内实验表明53有显著抗肿瘤活性[38], 但未深入研究。
Meng等[39]研究53的作用靶标, 证明靶标是蛋白酶体, 抑制活性极强, 而对其他蛋白酶(脱靶) 很弱。
解析53与蛋白酶体复合物的晶体结构发现, 与N端催化亚基的苏氨酸残基发生双重共价结合, 如图 12所示, 羟基对53的酮基作亲核加成, 发生羟醛缩合; 氨基向环氧乙烷作SN2进攻开环, 复合物形成牢固的吗啉环, 导致不可逆性结合[40]
图 13扼要地列出了由天然物53优化成药物54的重要化合物节点及其不可逆抑制动力学性质[k/[I] ((mol·L-1)-1·s-1)], 在结构变换中参与共价结合的片段及其所处位置未曾改变, 分子的另端引入吗啉助溶基团优化了物化性质。54称作卡非佐米(carfilzomib), 临床试验表明对硼替佐米耐药的复发难治的多发性骨髓瘤有良好效果[41]
DPP-4裂解胰高血糖素样肽-1 GLP-1 (三十肽) 而失去调节血糖功能, 抑制DPP-4是降血糖的环节之一。
氰基与sp3杂化碳连接具有一定的亲电性(σ+ 0.66), 含在一些抑制DPP-4的降血糖药物的结构中可与酶活性中心Ser630发生亲电加成, 生成可逆性的亚胺醚, 类似于有机化学的Pinner反应。图 14是维格列汀(55, vildagliptin) 与DPP-4活性中心结合模式图。含金刚胺的分子骨架定位于S2腔形成非共价结合, S1腔的Ser630在广义酸Tyr547的协同作用下, 提高了羟基的亲核性, 向氰基作亲核加成, 生成亚胺醚。虽然是可逆性结合, 但共享电子的结合力远强于其他弱作用结合。沙格列汀(56, saxagliptin) 和阿格列汀(57, alogliptin) 有相同的共价结合机制。
2022年辉瑞公司上市的SARS CoV-2 3Cpro蛋白酶抑制剂奈玛特韦(58, nirmatrevir) 是治疗COVID-19新冠病毒感染的药物。结构中含有的氰基与病毒蛋白的Cys145形成可逆的C-N共价键合。其余药效团负责与活性中心结合。为了确定与酶的结合方式, 57与SARS-CoV-2 3Mpro酶蛋白温孵30 min, 培养液稀释后测定酶活性显示, 仍保持 > 50%的活性, 证明奈玛特韦的氰基与Cys145发生的共价结合是可逆性的加成反应。图 15显示了58与SARS CoV-1-3Cpro的活性中心结合模式[42]
丙肝病毒NS3蛋白酶对病毒原蛋白的水解修饰, 是病毒生长和增殖的重要环节。酶的水解机制是由三元体构成: N端的His57和Asp81, 以及C端的Ser139, 经广义酸/碱协同作用提高了底物肽键羰基的亲电性, 酶的Ser139羟基向底物的羰基作亲核进攻, 促进了肽键水解, 如图 16a所示。红色代表NS3结构片段。图 16b是抑制剂中α-酮酰氨片段与His57和Ser139结合的示意图。
NS3水解多肽的活性中心表浅而缺乏结合特征, 先灵葆雅的研究策略是将一些亲电性基团分别连接到底物长肽链中, 例如醛、酮、三氟甲基酮和α酮基酰胺等亲电性基团, 以得到有较强结合作用肽类先导物, 然后简化和修饰成小分子化合物。
酰氨的α-酮基有较高的亲电性, 可与亲核基团发生加成反应, 形成共价结合。含有α酮基酰胺片段的十一肽化合物59模拟了底物P6到P5′的结构域, 虽然相对分子质量过大(MW = 1 265), 但活性很高, Ki = 1.9 nmol·L-1, 经得起“分子瘦身”时活性的减损。切除C端四个氨基酸Met-Ser-Tyr-Ser, 此时七肽(59a) 的酮基酰胺靠近C端, 活性Ki = 43 nmol·L-1, MW = 796。然后于P1′处引入苯基甘氨酸以增加P2′的疏水性, 删除P4-P6三个氨基酸, 并作适当的基团变换, 成为五肽的化合物59b, Ki = 98 nmol·L-1, 活性虽低于59a一倍, 但相对分子质量降低为687。进而发现P2成为较小的环丙基有利于结合, 还将P1′的烷基也换成环丙基, 得到化合物59c, 活性明显提高, Ki = 15 nmol·L-1, 但对感染细胞未见活性, EC90 > 5 μmol·L-1, 原因可能是游离羧基的存在不利于进入细胞膜。
下一步去除P2'和P1'两个氨基酸, 并将N端氨基用叔丁氧羰基修饰, 得到化合物59d, 活性为Ki = 5 nmol·L-1, 对感染细胞的EC90 = 0.1 μmol·L-1。然而59d的实验动物药代性质不佳, 再细调烷基, P3处的氨基用脲基代替, 得到化合物60的活性和其他性质最佳, Ki = 14 nmol·L-1, 对感染细胞的EC90 = 0.35 μmol·L-1, MW = 519。60即波西匹韦(baceprevir), 于2011年批准上市[43]
图 17是波西匹韦与NS3复合物单晶X射线衍射图, 表明两个叔丁基分别与S4和S3疏水腔发生疏水结合, P2的二甲基环丙并脯氨酸片段采取弯曲构象, 与Ala156、His57和Arg155侧链发生最大程度的疏水性交盖, 环丁基占据了S1腔, 酮基酰胺的羰基与Ser139形成可逆的共价结合。此外, 整个分子还与酶发生多处的氢键结合。
由反应物R经化学反应生成产物P须经过渡态T, R转化成T需要活化能, 活化能越高, 反应越难进行。酶的催化作用在于降低反应活化能。反应中过渡态T结构既类似反应物R也相似于产物P, T是不稳定的化学实体。但T被酶活性中心稳定, 与酶的结合力强于R或P是数量级之别, 非常牢固。作为酶抑制剂, 若结构中镶嵌过渡态片段, 可提高与酶的结合力和活性。这个过渡态片段的结合力远大于其他药效团, 在这个意义上过渡态类似物可视作微观结构的双功能分子。
过渡态类似物(transition state analog, TSA) 是稳定的化学实体。若酶反应是广义酸碱催化过程(例如蛋白酶), 设计TSA的酸基和碱基的pKa值应与酶催化中心的催化基的pKa值相匹配, 从而使抑制剂与酶发生强力结合。天冬氨酸酶的水解肽键的过渡态特征是羰基碳由sp2转变为sp3四面体构型, 碳原子成为偕二醇, 带负电荷的羧基氧“抓取”羟基H+, 氧负离子与碳形成C=O, C-N键断裂, 氨基变成H3N+, 完成了肽键的水解, 如图 18所示。
1997年罗氏上市的沙奎那韦(61, saquinavir) 是HIV蛋白酶抑制剂, 为第一个治疗艾滋病药物。基于酶的三维结构设计的类肽分子中加入底物水解的过渡态结构片段羟乙氨基, sp3杂化碳模拟过渡态的偕羟基, 61活性IC50 = 0.4 nmol·L-1, MW = 670.35, 由于水溶性很低, 只能滴注用药[44]
GSK公司1999年上市的安普那韦(62, amprenavir), 含有相同的过渡态结构, 分子大幅度瘦身, MW = 505.63, 对HIV酶抑制活性Ki = 0.6 nmol·L-1, 抑制HIV感染细胞的活性IC50 = 40 nmol·L-162水溶性显著提高, S = 190 μg·mL-1 [45]
2006年Tibotec公司上市的地瑞那韦(63, darunavir), 是在安普那韦四氢呋喃环上再并合四氢呋喃环, 其余结构相同。抑制酶Ki = 0.004 5 nmol·L-1, 细胞活性IC50 = 4.5 nmol·L-1, MW = 547.66, 水溶性150 μg·mL-1。新并合环的氧原子可与天冬氨酸残基形成两个氢键, 氢键网络增高了与靶标的结合力。
这3个抗艾滋病的“那韦”都有相同的过渡态结构, 虽然对与蛋白酶的强效结合贡献最关键, 但其余药效团的结合也很重要, 表 2列出了3个药物分子与HIV蛋白酶结合的热力学参数,
表中数据显示, 沙奎那韦(61) 的结合能全部是熵贡献(焓变ΔH为正值, 抵消了部分熵变的贡献), 提示疏水和范德华作用是与酶结合的全动力: 安普那韦(62) 的焓(ΔH) 与熵(-TΔS) 的贡献大约参半; 地瑞那韦(63) 对结合能的贡献主要是焓贡献, 诠释了多个氢键结合, 提高了结合的特异性。所以, 结构中的其他药效团的优化对活性和药代仍是非常重要的[46]
前药是历史悠久的药物化学概念, 本文将前药纳入到双功能分子的范畴内也是从另一视角认识前药的特征。前面讨论的内容除分子胶外大都能够从化学结构上区分双功能, 而前药和转化成的活性“原药”所执行不同的功能反映在时序上, 前药第一功能执行的是对药代和物化性质的影响力, 第二功能是产生的“原药”与靶标作用呈现药效, 两个功能是在时间维度上的区分, 相继体现在结构的变化上。前药在一定意义上与抗体偶联药物的作用程序相似。
例如吉利德科学公司2013年上市的抗慢性丙型肝炎药索非布韦(64, sofosbuvir), 是以丙肝病毒NS5B RNA聚合酶为靶标的不可逆抑制剂。64的“核心”结构(原药) 是取代的尿苷一磷酸(该取代的尿苷一磷酸仍是前药, 它需要在体内完成三磷酸化起效), 但一磷酸尿苷磷原子含有两个负电荷, 不利于过膜吸收和体内传输, 需要以前药形式作暂时性掩盖: 一个负离子制成苯酯, 另一个成L-丙氨酸的磷酰胺, 苯酯和磷酰胺都是化学稳定的基团。丙氨酸安全无毒性, 却又带来一个羧基, 为此优化制成异丙酯。索非布韦有良好的口服生物利用度, 吸收后在肝脏被酯酶水解掉异丙醇(64a), 羧基负离子对磷原子作分子内亲核进攻(SNi), 苯酚离去, 形成环磷酰胺(64b), 后者被肝细胞中特定的核苷酸结合蛋白HINT1水解N-P键, 脱去丙氨酸生成一磷酸尿苷(64c), 再相继发生两次磷酸化成活化形式65, 抑制病毒核酸的合成[47]图 19是前药索非布韦的活化过程。
至于生物前体型前药(bio-precursor prodrug) 的双功能性, 则更是经体内的代谢和化学转位, 产生了活性功能分子, 前者主营药代, 后者司药效。例如奥美拉唑(66, omeprazole) 和氯吡格雷(67, clopidogrel) 分别在质子和CYP氧化作用下, 经转位和重排, 生成含有亲电性基团的活性分子, 与靶标发生不可逆的共价结合。首创的生物前体型前药大都非设计而来, 偶然发现的。
用传统小分子理念研制疑难病症的药物, 难度是多方面的, 即使构建复杂的化学结构往往也难以完善药物的全部属性, 任何属性的短板都是成功的障碍。本世纪以来出现的PROTAC和分子胶, 打破了经典药理学的锁钥占据概念, 改以事件驱动的催化机制; ADC和衍生的其他偶联药物, 是将支配药代与药效结构明确区分的单一分子, 提高了选择性和药物效率; 本文还将共价结合药物、过渡态类似物药物和前药归结为双功能分子, 是从药物化学视角强调药效团在结合作用中的不同, 旨在提高结构优化的自觉性。为了满足患者和临床的治疗需求, 因地制宜地采用不同的策略和技术手段解决, 应该不拘一格。例如近年来不断地批准两个固定剂量和剂型的药品上市, 是对双功能药物疗法的重要补充。
作者贡献: 郭宗儒撰写全文, 对内容进行修改和补充。
利益冲突: 不存在利益冲突。
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2024年第59卷第10期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0529
  • 接收时间:2024-06-03
  • 首发时间:2025-11-24
  • 出版时间:2024-10-12
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  • 收稿日期:2024-06-03
  • 修回日期:2024-06-17
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    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 北京 100050

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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