Article(id=1199786452667167390, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1199786450628735631, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0229, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1710259200000, receivedDateStr=2024-03-13, revisedDate=1715702400000, revisedDateStr=2024-05-15, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763980981270, onlineDateStr=2025-11-24, pubDate=1726070400000, pubDateStr=2024-09-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763980981270, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763980981270, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763980981270, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1199786450628735631, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2024', volume='59', issue='9', pageStart='2417', pageEnd='2676', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763980980784, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764225057364, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1200810182063280632, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1199786450628735631, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1200810182063280633, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1199786450628735631, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2454, endPage=2469, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1199786452931408554, articleId=1199786452667167390, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Recent progress of CDK5 inhibitors targeting ATP active sites, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5), a serine/threonine kinase, is one of the non-typical members of the CDKs family. CDK5 is mainly activated by non-cyclin activators p35 or p39 (as well as their respective fragments p25 and p29) to phosphorylate downstream substrates and regulate numerous neural and non-neural functions. Increasing evidence has confirmed that the overactivation of CDK5/p25 complex is closely related to neurodegenerative diseases, cancers, diabetes and inflammation. Consequently, CDK5 has become an important target in multiple diseases treatment. Nevertheless, to date, no selective CDK5 inhibitors are currently in the clinical stage. On the other hand, pan-CDK inhibitors are limited in clinical trials, due to their poor clinical efficacy and toxic side effects caused by the extensive inhibition of other kinases. In view of this, selective CDK5 inhibitors are of great significance not only for elucidating its exact biological functions, but also exploring the possibility of CDK5 inhibitors as a safe and effective therapy. This paper provides a brief overview of the structure and function of CDK5 protein as well as its relationship with diseases. In addition, the structural types and binding modes of CDK5 inhibitors targeting ATP active sites are also highlighted. Finally, we summarize and prospect the strategies to improve the selectivity of CDK5 inhibitors.

, correspAuthors=Zheng-yu LU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Li-hui WANG, Yu-she YANG, Zheng-yu LU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1199786457721303930, articleId=1199786452667167390, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=靶向ATP活性位点的CDK5抑制剂研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶5 (cyclin-dependent kinase 5, CDK5) 是一种丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶, 是CDKs家族的非典型成员, 主要被非细胞周期蛋白p35或p39 (及各自的截短产物p25或p29) 激活, 磷酸化下游底物, 调控多种神经和非神经功能。研究表明CDK5的异常活化, 与多种神经退行性疾病、癌症、糖尿病和炎症等疾病的发生发展密切相关。因此, 靶向CDK5已成为多种疾病治疗的重要靶点。然而到目前为止, 尚无选择性CDK5抑制剂处于临床阶段。而泛CDK抑制剂存在临床疗效不佳和因广泛抑制其他激酶而引起的不良反应, 故临床试验进展缓慢。鉴于此, 选择性CDK5抑制剂不论是对阐明CDK5的生物学功能, 还是对探索CDK5抑制剂作为安全有效的临床治疗方案都具有重要意义。本文对CDK5的蛋白结构、生物功能、与疾病的关系进行简要概述, 重点讨论了靶向ATP活性位点的CDK5抑制剂的结构类型和结合模式, 并对开发选择性CDK5抑制剂的策略进行总结与展望。

, correspAuthors=陆征宇, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*陆征宇,Tel: 86-21-50806600-3405, E-mail:
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A: Modular domains of human CDK5; B: Schematic diagram of 3D CDK5 structure (PDB 7VDS) , figureFileSmall=ktiys3gsQIc/jdp9cP8cyQ==, figureFileBig=xTL6SI5KbNr9IoMWSx8WvA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200378857023992034, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1199786452667167390, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=TbShOtuE2PMMHQOJ8nsBsw==, figureFileBig=yYDtcjfoWBUqjKbqgdFSOA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200378857191764204, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1199786452667167390, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= CDK5 pathological functions in human , figureFileSmall=TbShOtuE2PMMHQOJ8nsBsw==, figureFileBig=yYDtcjfoWBUqjKbqgdFSOA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200378857325981940, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1199786452667167390, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=PIyvcFvETqnpvvJGcT8JlQ==, 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label=Figure 13, caption= The structure of compound <strong>34</strong> and the cocrystal complex of <strong>34</strong> with the CDK5 (PDB 4AU8) , figureFileSmall=hlqyeyheTbrGrq1Qn+OqkA==, figureFileBig=6HPi9ZJZb8ITvpRj0xAm/A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200378861008581004, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1199786452667167390, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=gCdoh0SkqLN4PtK3T8Dvmw==, figureFileBig=AGpSJHQ0HnoEdKI35nH9vQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200378861100855695, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1199786452667167390, language=CN, label=Figure 14, caption= Representative structures of compounds <strong>35</strong>-<strong>38</strong> from natural products , figureFileSmall=gCdoh0SkqLN4PtK3T8Dvmw==, figureFileBig=AGpSJHQ0HnoEdKI35nH9vQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200378861188936084, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, 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Biological function Substrate Reference
Neuronal migration FAK Ser732, DCX Ser297, p27kip1 Ser10, talin Ser425 [14-16]
Neuronal survival ErbB2 Ser1176, ErbB3 Thr871/Ser1120, ATM Ser794, Bcl-2 Ser70 [17-19]
Synaptic plasticity WAVE1 Ser310, ephexin-1 Thr41/ Ser139 [20, 21]
Emotional changes, memory GR Ser203/Ser211; MR Ser128/Ser250 [23, 24]
Lymphatic vessel development, angiogenesis Foxc2, Rac1 [25, 26]
Myogenesis Titin, nestin Thr316 [27, 28]
Insulin secretion, glucose uptake β2-Syntrophin Ser75, phospholipase D (PLD) Ser134, extended synaptotagmin 1 (E-Syt1) Ser314 [29-31]
), ArticleFig(id=1200378861742584237, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1199786452667167390, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Some CDK5 substrates and biological functions

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Biological function Substrate Reference
Neuronal migration FAK Ser732, DCX Ser297, p27kip1 Ser10, talin Ser425 [14-16]
Neuronal survival ErbB2 Ser1176, ErbB3 Thr871/Ser1120, ATM Ser794, Bcl-2 Ser70 [17-19]
Synaptic plasticity WAVE1 Ser310, ephexin-1 Thr41/ Ser139 [20, 21]
Emotional changes, memory GR Ser203/Ser211; MR Ser128/Ser250 [23, 24]
Lymphatic vessel development, angiogenesis Foxc2, Rac1 [25, 26]
Myogenesis Titin, nestin Thr316 [27, 28]
Insulin secretion, glucose uptake β2-Syntrophin Ser75, phospholipase D (PLD) Ser134, extended synaptotagmin 1 (E-Syt1) Ser314 [29-31]
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靶向ATP活性位点的CDK5抑制剂研究进展
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王丽惠 1, 2 , 杨玉社 1, 2 , 陆征宇 2, *
药学学报 | 综述 2024,59(9): 2454-2469
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药学学报 | 综述 2024, 59(9): 2454-2469
靶向ATP活性位点的CDK5抑制剂研究进展
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王丽惠1, 2, 杨玉社1, 2, 陆征宇2, *
作者信息
  • 1.中国科学院大学, 北京 100049
  • 2.中国科学院上海药物研究所, 上海 201203

通讯作者:

*陆征宇,Tel: 86-21-50806600-3405, E-mail:
Recent progress of CDK5 inhibitors targeting ATP active sites
Li-hui WANG1, 2, Yu-she YANG1, 2, Zheng-yu LU2, *
Affiliations
  • 1. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
  • 2. Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
出版时间: 2024-09-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0229
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细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶5 (cyclin-dependent kinase 5, CDK5) 是一种丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶, 是CDKs家族的非典型成员, 主要被非细胞周期蛋白p35或p39 (及各自的截短产物p25或p29) 激活, 磷酸化下游底物, 调控多种神经和非神经功能。研究表明CDK5的异常活化, 与多种神经退行性疾病、癌症、糖尿病和炎症等疾病的发生发展密切相关。因此, 靶向CDK5已成为多种疾病治疗的重要靶点。然而到目前为止, 尚无选择性CDK5抑制剂处于临床阶段。而泛CDK抑制剂存在临床疗效不佳和因广泛抑制其他激酶而引起的不良反应, 故临床试验进展缓慢。鉴于此, 选择性CDK5抑制剂不论是对阐明CDK5的生物学功能, 还是对探索CDK5抑制剂作为安全有效的临床治疗方案都具有重要意义。本文对CDK5的蛋白结构、生物功能、与疾病的关系进行简要概述, 重点讨论了靶向ATP活性位点的CDK5抑制剂的结构类型和结合模式, 并对开发选择性CDK5抑制剂的策略进行总结与展望。

细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶5  /  生物学功能  /  ATP竞争性抑制剂  /  选择性  /  药物设计

Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5), a serine/threonine kinase, is one of the non-typical members of the CDKs family. CDK5 is mainly activated by non-cyclin activators p35 or p39 (as well as their respective fragments p25 and p29) to phosphorylate downstream substrates and regulate numerous neural and non-neural functions. Increasing evidence has confirmed that the overactivation of CDK5/p25 complex is closely related to neurodegenerative diseases, cancers, diabetes and inflammation. Consequently, CDK5 has become an important target in multiple diseases treatment. Nevertheless, to date, no selective CDK5 inhibitors are currently in the clinical stage. On the other hand, pan-CDK inhibitors are limited in clinical trials, due to their poor clinical efficacy and toxic side effects caused by the extensive inhibition of other kinases. In view of this, selective CDK5 inhibitors are of great significance not only for elucidating its exact biological functions, but also exploring the possibility of CDK5 inhibitors as a safe and effective therapy. This paper provides a brief overview of the structure and function of CDK5 protein as well as its relationship with diseases. In addition, the structural types and binding modes of CDK5 inhibitors targeting ATP active sites are also highlighted. Finally, we summarize and prospect the strategies to improve the selectivity of CDK5 inhibitors.

cyclin-dependent kinase 5  /  biological function  /  ATP competitive inhibitor  /  selectivity  /  drug design
王丽惠, 杨玉社, 陆征宇. 靶向ATP活性位点的CDK5抑制剂研究进展. 药学学报, 2024 , 59 (9) : 2454 -2469 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0229
Li-hui WANG, Yu-she YANG, Zheng-yu LU. Recent progress of CDK5 inhibitors targeting ATP active sites[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2024 , 59 (9) : 2454 -2469 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0229
细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶5 (cyclin-dependent kinase 5, CDK5) 编码基因位于7q36染色体上, 属于丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶, 是CDKs家族的非典型成员[1], 具有独特的功能调节机制。作为一种脯氨酸导向的激酶, CDK5可磷酸化含(S/T) PX (K/H/R) 基序的底物蛋白[2]。虽然它与CDK2具有很高的序列同源性, 但它不是细胞周期转换的经典介质。在过去的二十年里, CDK5被发现在神经元迁移、神经突起生长和突触可塑性等方面具有重要作用[3]。在非神经系统中, CDK5也被广泛报道参与细胞异常增殖、凋亡、迁移、免疫系统细胞激活、血管生成等生物学过程[4]。CDK5的过度活化已被证明涉及多种神经退行性疾病的发生, 并与癌症、糖尿病、炎症等多种疾病相关, 由此CDK5成为了一个具有吸引力的药物靶点[1]
靶向ATP活性位点是目前抑制CDK5激酶活性最常用的策略。然而目前进入早期临床试验的CDK5抑制剂仍具有泛CDK活性, 其临床研究存在许多挑战, 例如疗效有限、不良反应明显和作用机制不明确。在所有CDK家族中, CDK2与CDK5的序列同源性达60%, 且在ATP结合口袋处显示出近93%的序列相似性, 仅存在两个氨基酸残基的差异(CDK2中为Leu83和His84, CDK5中为Cys83和Asp84)[5, 6]。因此, 小分子抑制剂在CDK5和CDK2的ATP口袋中, 通常具有相似的结合模式和构效关系。除CDK2外, 糖原合成酶激酶3β (GSK3β) 也显示出参与活性调节的相似特征结构元件[7]。然而, 这些激酶间细微的序列差异, 仍然可能导致ATP结合位点的内在灵活性不同, 也为CDK5抑制剂选择性的提高提供了可能[8]
本综述首先对CDK5的结构和生物学功能以及其与多种疾病的关系进行介绍, 并对靶向ATP活性位点的CDK5抑制剂进行结构分类和结合模式讨论, 旨在从药物化学的角度为靶向ATP活性位点的CDK5小分子抑制剂的设计提供指导思路。
CDK5包含292个氨基酸, 与其他CDK尤其是CDK2具有高度序列同源性。它具有常见的双叶结构(图 1): 包括富含β折叠的N端(N-lobe) 和以α螺旋为主的C端(C-lobe)[9]。N端和C端通过一段柔性的铰链(hinge) 连接, ATP结合口袋便位于这两个结构域界面形成的裂口。ATP口袋可分为三个主要区域: 前口袋(front pocket, FP)、腺嘌呤袋(adenine pocket, AP) 和后口袋(back pocket, BP)。在CDK5中, 门控开关(gatekeeper) —Phe80发挥门控作用, 可阻止药物从前端进入后端。
然而, 与依赖于细胞周期蛋白激活的经典CDKs不同, CDK5主要通过其PSSALRE螺旋(activators binding domain) 和T-loop中的DFG基序在蛋白表面形成立体结构[10], 被非细胞周期蛋白p35或p39及各自的截短形式p25或p29结合形成复合物后激活。并且这一过程不依赖于激活位点Ser159的磷酸化。但也有研究表明, CDK5仍可以被其他细胞周期蛋白活化, 如cyclin I (CCNI) 和cyclin I样(CCNI2) 蛋白[11]。此外, CDK5的激酶活性和底物特异性在一定程度上仍然受磷酸化调节, 如Thr14的磷酸化导致CDK5的抑制, 而Tyr15和Ser159的磷酸化导致CDK5的激活增加[12]
CDK5是有丝分裂后神经元中的一个重要激酶, 对中枢神经系统的功能和发育具有重要意义[13], 多种影响神经元迁移、神经元存活、突触可塑性、影响情绪、记忆和学习的蛋白已被证明是CDK5的底物(表 1)[14-31]。CDK5可通过磷酸化局灶黏附激酶(focal adhesion kinase, FAK)[14]、双皮层蛋白(doublecortin, DCX) 和p27kip1[15]、踝蛋白(talin)[16]等调节细胞黏附和细胞迁移, 影响大脑皮层神经元正常径向迁移的发育过程。神经调节蛋白受体ErbB2和ErbB3作为CDK5的底物, 通过PI3K/Akt激酶信号通路, 介导神经元存活[17]。此外, CDK5介导的B淋巴细胞瘤-2基因(B-cell lymphoma protein 2, Bcl-2) 磷酸化也是神经元抗凋亡作用的关键[18]。但也有相反的研究结果显示, 神经元中的DNA损伤通过CDK5磷酸化共济失调毛细血管扩张突变蛋白(ataxia telangiectasia-mutated, ATM), 诱导细胞死亡[19]。CDK5还可磷酸化Wiskott-Aldrich综合征蛋白家族verprolin同源蛋白1 (WAVE-1)[20]、Ephexin-1[21]、GTPase动力蛋白等[22], 实现对突触的强度和可塑性的调节。盐皮质激素受体(mineralocorticoid receptor, MR)[23]和糖皮质激素受体(glucocorticoid receptor, GR)[24]的转录活性受到CDK5的调控, 影响情绪、学习和记忆。除神经系统外, CDK5也是正常淋巴管发育[25]、血管生成[26]、肌生成[27, 28]、胰岛素分泌和葡萄糖摄取[29-31]等过程的调节因子, 更多的生理底物仍待进一步发现。
CDK5的异常活化已被证明与多种疾病的发生、发展密切相关。在氧化应激条件下, 细胞内神经元Ca2+内流, 导致钙蛋白酶(calpain) 激活, p35被裂解成p25和p10[32]。p25对泛素介导的降解具有抵抗力, 表现出更高的稳定性和更长的半衰期[32], 因此CDK5处于持续过度活化状态(图 2)。在神经系统疾病方面, CDK5/p25可通过信号转导和转录激活因子3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, STAT3) 介导的BACE1 (编码β分泌酶的基因) 的转录调控来增强脑内毒性淀粉样斑块Aβ的产生[33]。此外, CDK5/p25对Tau蛋白的过度磷酸化, 导致细胞内神经原纤维缠结的形成, 已被证明与阿尔茨海默病密切相关。CDK5还参与α-突触核蛋白和parkin蛋白的过度磷酸化, 从而导致帕金森病中路易小体的产生, 导致神经毒性[34]。在非人灵长类PD模型中, CDK5异常活化可使动力蛋白相关蛋白1 (dynamin-related protein 1, Drp1) 的Ser616位磷酸化, 从而加速线粒体功能障碍和神经毒性[35]。在肌萎缩性侧索硬化症(amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ALS) 小鼠模型中同样显示p25的积累和CDK5的高活性, 以及Tau蛋白和神经丝(NF) 的过度磷酸化[36]
越来越多的研究也表明CDK5及其激活因子的mRNA或蛋白的异常表达与多种癌症的发生、发展和不良预后有关[37]。CDK5阴性的肺癌患者具有延长的中位生存期和5年总生存期, 因此CDK5被建议作为非小细胞肺癌患者的生物标志物[38]。在白血病中, CDK5可通过Noxa的磷酸化抑制肿瘤细胞凋亡[39]。在甲状腺髓样癌中, CDK5磷酸化并调节STAT3的转录活性, 驱动G1-S期的进展和Rb磷酸化, 导致细胞增殖增加, 促进肿瘤形成[40]。此外, CDK5的表达在结直肠癌、头颈癌、乳腺癌、卵巢癌、前列腺癌、骨髓瘤和膀胱癌中均有显著上调的报道, 表明它在这些肿瘤中的促癌作用[41]
CDK5还是促血管生成的主要调节因子, 通过刺激Dll4-Notch信号通路, 并与肿瘤微环境中整合素或缺氧诱导因子-1α (HIF-1α) 等协同作用, 导致血管内皮生长因子(VEGF) 的激活, 启动负责血管生成的信号级联反应。CDK5还激活早老素(presenilin), 使得蛋白Notch1裂解, 随后激活Notch依赖性信号传导以促进血管生成[42]。抑制CDK5的激酶活性从而实现抗血管生成, 已在高度血管化的癌细胞和动物模型中得到证实, 包括黑色素瘤、胶质瘤和肝细胞癌[42, 43]。CDK5还通过调节FAK、PP2A、Hippo、Wnt/β-catenin等信号通路来促进癌症的发展和扩散[44]。因此, 通过抑制CDK5信号通路来抑制肿瘤迁移因子是预防癌症侵袭的一种有吸引力的策略。CDK5调节免疫检查点程序性细胞死亡配体1 (PD-L1) 表达的突破性发现, 也为CDK5在肿瘤免疫治疗中提供了新的见解。CDK5沉默导致干扰素调节因子2结合蛋白2 (IRF2BP2) 的磷酸化, 进而增加干扰素调节因子(IRF2) 的表达, 降低成神经管细胞瘤细胞表面PD-L1的表达[45]。这提示抑制CDK5的活性, 可介导PD-L1的缺失, 进而激活CD4+ T细胞促进癌细胞死亡。
阻断CDK5功能可解除L型电压依赖性钙通道(L-VDCC) 在Ser783位点的抑制性磷酸化, 导致β细胞产生钙内流和胰岛素分泌[46]。另外, Choi等[47]研究表明, 在肥胖小鼠中, 细胞因子如IL-6或TNF-α水平升高, 促进p35裂解为p25, 导致CDK5过度活化。这导致脂肪细胞过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ (PPARγ) 在Ser273处磷酸化, 参与胰岛素抵抗的发病机制。
CDK5可以磷酸化vimentin的Ser56位点, 这种磷酸化在中性粒细胞GTP依赖的促炎分子分泌中起重要作用[48]。在淋巴细胞中, CDK5在Thr418处磷酸化肌动蛋白结合蛋白coronin 1a, 促进自身免疫性脑脊髓炎模型中肌动蛋白极化和淋巴细胞向趋化因子信号的迁移[49]。CDK5的激活还被报道与疼痛信号传导、慢性肾病的发生进展密切相关[50]。因此, CDK5成为了上述多种疾病领域内的一个新的和有吸引力的治疗靶点。
根据抑制剂-激酶的结合模式(图 3), ATP竞争型CDK5抑制剂除与CDK5铰链区Cys83形成特征性氢键外, 一般还包括与前口袋和后口袋相互作用的取代基团, 这两者不仅在活性和理化性质上可能带来优势, 同时也是影响激酶谱选择性的重要部分。
以2,6,9-三取代嘌呤为结构母核的olomoucine (1) 和roscovitine (2) 是最早开发的几个小分子CDK抑制剂(图 4)。Olomoucine对CDK5、1、2、9均表现出相当的抑制活性, 但仅在微摩尔水平。嘌呤N-9位的疏水取代基对激酶的结合很重要。其中, 异丙基取代可增大疏水接触, roscovitine的CDK抑制活性显著增加, 但缺乏选择性。Roscovitine在体内主要经CYP3A4和CYP2B6将C-2侧链上的醇氧化为活性较低的羧酸衍生物, 以及N上发生去烷基化, 最终经葡萄糖醛酸化过程清除[51]。继roscovitine之后, 后续CDK5抑制剂的主要目的是提高对CDK家族的选择性和/或提高整体活性。Oumata等[52]在roscovitine的苄胺对位用吡啶基取代形成联芳基结构, 得到(R)-CR8 (3), 抑制CDK的效力是roscovitine的2~4倍, 进一步提高了对CDK5的抑制活性, 并在25个不同肿瘤细胞系中具有诱导细胞死亡的显著活性[53]
晶体结构(1UNL、3DDP) 显示(图 5), 23的嘌呤环夹在Ile10和Leu133的侧链之间, 7-位芳香N原子及苄基胺与铰链区Cys83主链形成二齿氢键, 2-氨基乙醇与Gln130的羰基氧及Asp86形成氢键, 而乙基则与Ile10、Val18和Phe80发生疏水相互作用[54]。CR8中额外的吡啶环伸向溶剂暴露区, 被包裹在由Ile10、Phe82和Glu8形成的口袋中。值得注意的是, CR8的联芳基类似物(联苯、4-吡啶苯基和3-吡啶苯基) 的抑制活性明显低于2-吡啶基苯基化合物CR8, 这表明化合物的抑制活性可能与最稳定构象的苯基吡啶二面角有关。此外, CR8近来还被报道具有分子胶性质, 可诱导CDK12-cyclin K和CUL4接头蛋白DDB1之间形成多元复合物, 实现对cyclin K的泛素化降解[55]。DRF53 (4) 在嘌呤母核的6位上引入二芳基苯胺同样也是CDK5的有效抑制剂, 体外IC50为0.08 μmol·L-1, 还显示出对CK1的抑制[52]。后续基于CR8, N'gompaza-Diarra等[56]专注于嘌呤骨架C-2位置基团的优化, 目的是开发疏水性降低的化合物, 从而增加溶解度, 提高口服生物利用度。前药缬氨酸酯(5) 对CDK5的抑制活性得到保持, 同时改善了分子的ADME性质。对roscovitine进一步优化, 得到fadraciclib (6), 在提高CDK5抑制活性的同时, 对CDK2和CDK9也表现出更高的效力, 目前正在开展晚期实体瘤和淋巴瘤患者中的临床Ⅰ/Ⅱ期研究(NCT04983810)。
其他嘌呤生物电子等排体, 如吡唑并[1,5-a]-1,3,5-三嗪(7)[57]、咪唑并[2,1-f]-1,2,4-三嗪(8)[57]、吡唑并[4,3-d]嘧啶(9, 10)[58, 59]、吡唑并[1,5-a]嘧啶(11)[60]等也是CDK5抑制剂中被广泛应用的结构骨架(图 6)[61]。这些结构完美地模仿了嘌呤环的理化性质, 同时在体内更稳定。但该类化合物通常仍具有广泛的CDK抑制活性。鉴于roscovitine可通过抑制CDK5来降低内皮细胞的运动, 具有抗血管生成的能力[62], 对LGR1406进行了相关活性评价。环己基这样的大体积侧链似乎可以增加抗血管生成的能力, 相比roscovitine, LGR1406能更有效地能降低HMEC-1内皮细胞增殖、迁移并消除VEGF诱导的血管形成。Dinaciclib (11) 对CDK5、1、2、9的抑制活性均显著提升(IC50 = 1~4 nmol·L-1), 对CDK4、CDK6和CDK7的活性较低, 是目前CDK5研究过程中常用的工具药物。与CDK2的共晶结构(4KD1) 显示(图 6), dinaciclib保持了对铰链区的氢键作用模式, 哌啶环呈椅状构象, 2-羟基乙基与保守的Lys33残基以及DFG基序中的Asp145形成氢键网络。吡唑并嘧啶的3-乙基与门控开关Phe80建立疏水和范德华作用。N-氧化吡啶环位于前口袋中, 部分暴露于溶剂, 氧原子与Lys89形成氢键[63]。Dinaciclib在具有不同遗传背景的不同类型肿瘤细胞中抑制Rb磷酸化, 诱导细胞周期阻滞和细胞凋亡, 具有显著的抗增殖活性(IC50 = 6~17 nmol·L-1)。尽管药代动力学研究表明, dinaciclib在小鼠体内具有较短的血浆半衰期(0.25 h), 但在多种体内异种移植瘤模型中以低于最大耐受剂量(MTD) 的剂量诱导肿瘤消退[64]。该化合物对CDK家族具有很强的选择性, 并且相比此前的CDK抑制剂安全窗更大, 因此曾进入多项肿瘤临床试验, 但因为存在有效性和耐受性的问题, 目前已经全部中止。
上述基于嘌呤及其生物等排体的CDK5抑制剂与ATP结合袋的结合方式基本相似, 并且在整个CDK家族中是相当保守的, 因此它们远没有达到选择性抑制剂的目标。然而, 这类抑制剂的构效关系以及生物学活性研究为后续基于结构的ATP竞争型CDK5抑制剂的设计开发提供了方向。
BAY1000394 (12) 对CDK5显示纳摩尔级的抑制活性, 与roscovitine具有相似的手性丙二醇结构, 但与CDK2的共晶结构(5IEV) 显示, 该部分在CDK2中进入活性位点的后口袋中与Lys33和Asp145形成氢键网络。亚砜亚胺作为砜和磺酰胺的电子等排体, 与Asp86骨架NH形成氢键, 在增强结合力的同时, 提高水溶性和口服吸收, 并降低了该分子对碳酸酐酶的脱靶毒性[65]。BAY1000394有效抑制多种人类和小鼠肿瘤细胞系的增殖, 与其泛CDK抑制活性一致, 其能够在多个检查点(G1、S、G2、M) 阻止细胞周期[66]。但同样由于其选择性差, 临床上不良反应较大, 临床试验已终止[67]。Khair等[68]利用Schrödinger组件开展基于CDK5-roscovitine共晶结构的虚拟筛选, 并从110万个药物样分子的ChemBridge文库中鉴定得到一系列不同分子骨架的苗头化合物。对选定的hit进行药物化学结构优化后得到CDK5抑制活性最强的5,6,7,8-四氢喹唑啉衍生物13 (Ki = 0.16 μmol·L-1) (图 7)。13对CDK2/cyclin A没有选择性, 但对CDK2/cyclin E、CDK1/cyclin B、CDK7/cyclin H和CDK9/cyclin T具有5倍以上选择性。间位取代的磺酰胺基同样处于前口袋区域, 与CDK5中Asp84骨架羰基形成氢键。Western blot分析证实13在MOLM-13和MV4-11 AML细胞中靶向CDK5, 诱导细胞凋亡, 表现出显著的抗增殖活性, 有望开发成为新型抗AML药物[68]。类似地, AZD5438 (14) 对CDK家族表现出广泛的抑制活性, 在体外抑制特异性底物的磷酸化, 对人肺、结直肠、乳腺、前列腺和血液肿瘤等多种癌细胞系具有广谱抗增殖活性(IC50 = 0.2~1.7 μmol·L-1)。但同样由于耐受性不佳, AZD5438在Ⅱ期临床中被终止[69]。吡唑并喹唑啉化合物15在体外对CDK5、1、2均有纳摩尔级的抑制活性, 有效抑制A2780人卵巢癌细胞的增殖。结合模式与此前结构相似, 但与保守的Lys33形成的氢键是由酰胺的羰基氧介导[70]
氨基噻唑类及其生物电子等排体同样以芳胺N-H和杂环N原子分别与Cys83主链的羰基和N-H之间形成关键氢键作用。化合物16虽然对CDK2表现出超过100倍的选择性, 但其活性只有亚微摩尔水平[71](图 8)。SAR探索过程中发现, 对噻唑环5-位进行环丁基修饰, 可提高CDK5抑制活性。而噻唑2位的适当修饰可同时增强对CDK5的抑制活性和选择性, 其中化合物17对CDK5/p25的IC50为5 nmol·L-1, 同时对CDK2的选择性超过了10倍[72]。这些类似物与CDK5的ATP结合域的建模表明, 氨基噻唑5-位取代基与Phe80发生疏水相互作用。脲连接末端芳基伸向前口袋溶剂暴露区, 17中异喹啉氮可与CDK5裂隙前口袋中的Lys89形成氢键相互作用, 虽然该残基在CDK2中也是保守的, 但空间距离似乎更远, 不利于和抑制剂形成相互作用。因此这种结合位点附近保守残基构象的细微差异可能是化合物对CDK5的活性和选择性更强的重要原因。Rzasa等[73]从无环状脲结构的先导化合物中可能存在分子内氢键的设想出发, 利用构象约束原理, 采用合环策略得到二氢喹唑啉酮化合物18, 其CDK5抑制活性相比先导得到了12倍的提升, IC50为16 nmol·L-1, 同时对CDK2产生较低的选择性。与CDK5晶体结构的对接结果显示, 该类化合物不同于前述氨基噻唑类结合模式, 而是通过环脲基团的-NH和羰基氧参与到铰链区Cys83的氢键网络中。此外, 噻唑吡啶延伸穿过门控开关附近疏水区, 与Lys33-Asp145盐桥形成氢键, 这对CDK5的抑制活性非常重要。
基于CDK5抑制剂对Tau蛋白的Ser396和Ser404的磷酸化抑制, 高通量筛选获得了4-氨基噻唑化合物19 (图 9)。与CDK5的共晶结构(3O0G) 显示, 母核结构同时与Glu81和Cys83形成三个氢键, 硝基与Lys33侧链氨基形成第四个氢键, 但19对CDK5、CDK1和GSK3β的抑制活性较弱, 仅在微摩尔水平[74]。类似的4-氨基噻唑化合物20是从10万个化合物的商业库中筛选优化得到。相比化合物19, 20在苯胺对位用磺酰胺取代, 同时将硝基从间位移动到邻位, 大幅提高了对CDK5和CDK2的抑制活性, IC50分别为1.5和1.8 nmol·L-1。对339个激酶的分析显示20对CDK家族具有高选择性, 同时对CDK5、2的选择性优于CDK9、1、4和6。与CDK2的共晶结构(3QXP) 显示, 磺酰胺基团可与前口袋处的Asp86和Lys89建立氢键网络, 此外, 2-硝基苯基对疏水性的Phe80和Lys33烷基侧链形成不寻常的接近和取向, 并表明通过范德华力或π-π堆积形成非经典的相互作用, 共同作用的结果使得20的酶抑制活性显著提升。20以浓度依赖性方式显著抑制MDA-MB-468乳腺癌细胞在内的13株肿瘤细胞的增殖, IC50值在0.27~6.9 μmol·L-1之间, 这与抑制Rb磷酸化和细胞凋亡的发生有关[75]
由于2-氨基噻唑具有潜在的代谢介导的毒性, Helal等[76]设计合成了一类4-氨基咪唑杂环化合物, 这类顺式取代环丁基-4-氨基咪唑结构已被确定为有效的CDK5抑制剂。21对CDK5的IC50为17 nmol·L-1, 且对CDK2有18倍的选择性(图 10)。其保留了与CDK5铰链区域Cys83的氢键作用, 同时吡啶酰胺的羰基可接受来自Lys33的氢键, 并且该部分在一定程度上改善了该类化合物的透膜性, 在保持酶抑制活性的同时提高了细胞活性。但在FV/B小鼠和MDR1A/1B敲除小鼠中证实21为P-gp底物, 意味着21可能不能透过血脑屏障, 并且在神经疾病中难以起效[76]。关于该化合物优先抑制CDK5的一种假设是, 在Lys33和Asp144 (CDK2中为Asp145) 这个灵活的ATP/底物结合区域, 两种激酶之间存在细微的氨基酸残基定位差异可被化合物利用[77]。通过骨架跃迁, 进一步获得氨基吡唑母核化合物22, 具有中等的CDK5抑制活性。对接结果显示三个氮原子与铰链区的Glu81和Cys83形成氢键相互作用, 环丁基同样占据狭窄的疏水口袋, 其中的两个甲氧基与前口袋区Lys89形成双齿氢键。在小鼠模型中, 22能透过血脑屏障进入大脑, 调节抑郁小鼠的神经学行为[78]。由于在大脑中CDK2的水平非常低, 因此脑内活性的主要来源是CDK5抑制活性[79]。通过基于片段的药物设计, Astex的研发人员[80, 81]发现了另一氨基吡唑衍生物AT7519 (23)。除了CDK5和2 (IC50分别为13和47 nmol·L-1), 23还能抑制CDK1和4, 对其他激酶的抑制活性较低。23已被证明对多种人类癌细胞系有效, 目前用于晚期实体瘤Ⅰ期试验中(NCT02503709)。文献[82]报道的CDK1/2“选择性”抑制剂24, 后续研究发现也对CDK5同样具有很强的抑制活性。
PHA-793887 (25) 在吡咯并吡唑母核上构建了偕二甲基取代, 被证明是CDK5和CDK2的强抑制剂[83], 对CDK家族其他激酶也有中等强度的抑制活性(图 10)。另外在所有筛选的其他激酶中, 只有GSK3β25抑制。与CDK2的共晶结构(2WPA) 显示, 吡咯并吡唑环占据ATP口袋的腺嘌呤区, 通过三个氢键与铰链区结合, 而异丁基则指向前口袋的溶剂可及区。6-位偕二甲基占据了由Ala31、Val64、Phe80和Ala144形成的小疏水区。羰基和哌啶的氮原子分别位于Lys33和Asp145侧链的氢键范围内, 并且N-甲基哌啶改善了溶解度。化合物25在体外多种肿瘤细胞系中显示出有效的抗增殖活性(IC50 = 0.088~3.444 μmol·L-1), 并且在人卵巢A2780、结肠HCT-116和胰腺BX-PC3癌异种移植模型中显示出良好的疗效。但25的Caco-2细胞通透性差, 在小鼠中口服生物利用度低(F < 1%), 需静脉给药。25曾进入临床用于治疗实体瘤, 但目前已经中止。
针对选择性CDK5抑制剂的开发经常存在“活性”和“选择性”之间的矛盾。部分化合物对CDK5表现强抑制活性, 但选择性不高; 相反, 一些化合物对其他CDKs家族选择性能达到几十甚至几百倍, 但活性仅在亚微摩尔级别。GFB-12811 (30) 是近年来报道的活性和选择性均具有表现优异的CDK5抑制剂(图 11)[84]。先导化合物26是活性较强的CDK5抑制剂(IC50 = 16 nmol·L-1), 且在体外对CDK2具有30倍的选择性。7-氨基萘啶芳香母核是重要的药效团, 和铰链区残基Cys83主链之间形成关键的氢键相互作用, 是亲和力的主要来源。醚键与CDK5后口袋中Lys33和水形成氢键网络体系。Daniels等[84]认为可以利用该区域的氨基酸残基灵活性差异, 来提高抑制剂在CDK家族成员间的选择性。叔醇27的活性和选择性明显提高(CDK5 IC50 = 1 nmol·L-1, 比CDK2强65倍), 而相应的对映异构体没有活性。随后, 研究人员考察前口袋部分, 以进一步优化对CDK2的选择性。左侧苯胺的间位和对位取代基这两个部分都是高选择性化合物所必需的, 化合物28尽管对CDK5的抑制活性略有下降, 但是对包括CDK2在内的多个CDK选择性大幅提高。晶体结构(7VDS) 表明, 28参与了Lys33-Glu51-水的氢键网络, N-甲基哌啶与Asp144形成盐桥。为找到一个对所有CDK家族成员均具有合适选择性的化合物, 单一激酶的选择性比值不能正确反映和确定具有最广泛选择性的化合物。因此引入了基尼系数(Gini coefficient) 作为选择性指标[85], 基尼系数的增加代表总体选择性的增益。随后基于基尼系数继续进行前口袋的探索, 三氟甲基取代吡啶的30整体上具有优异的活性和选择性, 基尼系数最高, 并在另外54个激酶的测试中没有显著抑制活性。NanoBRET研究证实了30在细胞内可有效抑制靶标激酶的活化。尽管具有尚可的药代动力学性质, 但是可惜的是该类化合物缺乏后续相应的生物学模型评价。
Valmerin家族是一类四氢吡啶异吲哚酮骨架化合物, 31是CDK5/GSK3β的双重抑制剂, CDK5 IC50为23 nmol·L-1 (图 12)[86]。抑制GSK3β可阻断人骨肉瘤细胞增殖并诱导细胞凋亡, 内皮细胞中CDK5的抑制可通过促进非生产性血管生成来降低肿瘤生长。31在肝癌细胞系Huh7、乳腺癌细胞系MDA-MB-231、结肠癌细胞系HCT-116、前列腺细胞系PC3和肺癌细胞系NCI-H727中表现出良好的抗增殖活性[87]。对接模型显示, 脲连接子与铰链区Cys83形成氢键, 并与自身吡啶环形成分子内“假环”。异吲哚酮骨架深入后口袋, 羰基与Lys33形成氢键作用。但该类化合物平面性很强, 有可能限制其溶解度。CDK2抑制剂GW8510 (32) 在再发现过程中, 被证实对CDK5也有很强的抑制活性(IC50 = 7 nmol·L-1), 除常规的氢键作用, 磺酰胺基团上的吡啶取代基暴露于溶剂暴露区[82]。Aloisine-A (33) 是一种6-苯基-5H-吡咯[2,3-b]吡嗪类CDK抑制剂骨架。对26个激酶的选择性研究表明, 33对CDK5、CDK2、CDK1和GSK3β具有高度选择性[88]
化合物34通过HTS筛选被发现是一种具有中等抑制活性的CDK5抑制剂(图 13)。34与CDK5的晶体结构(4AU8) 显示, 苯并噻唑环上的氮原子通过1个水分子与铰链区Glu81和Cys83主链之间形成氢键作用。磺胺通过氢键与Asp86和Ile10相互作用, 苯并噻唑环与Phe80形成范德华作用。这种通过水分子与铰链区相互作用的模式在其他ATP竞争型CDK5抑制剂中没有被发现[89]
Flavopiridol (35) 是一种半合成黄酮衍生物(图 14), 通过与ATP口袋相互作用抑制CDK5的活性[90], 同时可抑制其他CDKs, 阻止肿瘤细胞增殖并促进凋亡过程[64]35在多种实体瘤和肉瘤以及白血病、淋巴瘤和多发性骨髓瘤中显示出抗肿瘤活性, 但由于出现明显的腹泻、乏力、中性粒细胞减少等临床不良反应以及肿瘤溶解综合征导致相关临床试验被提前终止[91]。Lamellarins是一类从海洋无脊椎动物中分离的具有生物活性的吡咯生物碱。Yoshida等[92]在lamellarin N的全合成过程中, 发现(aR)-lamellarin N (36) 对包含CDK5在内的多种蛋白激酶表现出抑制作用。Hymenialdisine (37) 是从海绵中分离得到的含吡咯并七元内酰胺结构的生物碱[93], 对CDK5的IC50为37 nmol·L-1, 具有较强抑制活性。可能的结合模式为吡咯基和氮䓬酮骨架与Glu81和Cys83之间形成三齿氢键。另外, 咪唑-4-酮部分和Asp144或Gln130之间形成氢键相互作用。Indirubin (靛玉红) 是一种双吲哚类化合物, 是抗白血病药物当归龙荟丸的活性成分[54]。单肟衍生物38显著抑制CDK5和GSK3β的活性, 并通过抑制Aβ诱导的SH-SY5Y细胞中的Tau蛋白磷酸化, 延缓AD小鼠模型中的动物神经元丢失, 具有良好的神经保护作用[94]
由于CDK5和CDK2的ATP结合口袋具有高度相似性, 因此上述部分CDK5抑制剂的结合模式是通过化合物与CDK2的共晶结构信息推演。将部分目前已知的CDK5抑制剂与CDK5的共晶结构进行叠加可知, 这些化合物的一个共同特征是平面取代的杂环系统与ATP结合腔高度互补(图 15), 模拟ATP的腺嘌呤骨架, 并且通过2-氨基吡啶结构片段或其他生物电子等排体与CDK5铰链区Cys83主链形成双齿氢键, 在部分抑制剂中还会额外形成一个氢键相互作用(例如前述的1920)。该区域内的小分子-蛋白相互作用, 也是抑制剂结合的基础。由于较大位阻的门控开关残基Phe80的存在, 邻近的疏水区域通常只能容纳小体积的链状或环状烷基片段。在后口袋区域, 抑制剂通常与Lys33/Glu51形成直接或由水分子介导的氢键网络。前口袋区主要处于溶剂暴露区附近, 存在一些特征性的极性氨基酸残基, 包括Asp86、Lys89、Gln130和Asp144等。CDK5抑制剂通过不同官能团的修饰, 与其中的一个或多个形成有利的氢键或盐桥相互作用, 增强与CDK5的结合, 从而提高酶抑制活性。
基于CDK5的过度活化已经被发现在包括阿尔茨海默症、帕金森症和肌萎缩侧索硬化症等多种神经退行性疾病, 以及肿瘤、糖尿病、炎症等非神经系统疾病中具有很强的关联性。CDK5成为了一个重要的药物靶点, 许多小分子抑制剂已被开发出来。由于绝大部分抑制剂缺乏对CDK5的选择性, 因此实际上对这些抑制剂的作用机制缺乏清晰的认识, 例如35与细胞周期抑制、转录抑制、凋亡、自噬和内质网应激等多种细胞效应相关。尚不清楚哪些CDK在体内实际上被抑制, 也不清楚CDK5抑制活性对这些小分子化合物的生物活性的贡献。虽然也有观点认为, 广谱而非靶向的CDK抑制更有可能提供治疗益处, 但不断的例子表明, 泛抑制剂往往面临疗效有限和脱靶毒性大的问题。例如14由于在Ⅱ期研究中缺乏耐受性以及在人群间存在高变异性而中断。因此, 目前在临床研究中仍缺乏有效安全的选择性CDK5靶向抑制剂。
CDK2与CDK5具有高度的同源性, 在ATP活性位点仅有两个氨基酸的差异, 并且这些氨基酸侧链并不指向ATP结合口袋, 从而降低了它们影响底物选择性结合的能力, 这也是选择性CDK5抑制剂设计的难点所在。由于CDK2在调节细胞周期中的重要作用, 无差别抑制CDK2或者其他CDK家族成员(CDK1、CDK4、CDK9等) 可能会导致细胞毒性作用和较差的耐受性, 包括腹泻、骨髓抑制、贫血和恶心等不良反应。因此, 尤其是在非肿瘤治疗领域, 选择性CDK5抑制剂的开发格外重要。
为了增加小分子对CDK5的特异性靶向, 一些CDK5功能抑制的替代策略也被探索。由于异常的CDK5活性通常是由活化因子p25积累引起, 因此靶向干扰CDK5和p25之间相互作用的蛋白质-蛋白质相互作用(PPI) 抑制剂可能是一种很有前途的策略[95]。CDK5抑制肽(CIP) 源自p35的肽序列154~279 aa, 对CDK5/p25具有特异性抑制活性, 并可抑制CDK5/p25诱导的Tau蛋白异常磷酸化。从p25的α5螺旋中衍生的一个较小的24个氨基酸(245~277 aa) 的衍生肽p5被进一步发现具有更强的活性, 可抑制经Aβ蛋白处理后神经元的CDK5异常活化、Tau蛋白磷酸化和神经元变性死亡过程[96]。进一步改良, 获得了可穿透血脑屏障的p5, 称为TP5, 在MPTP/MPP+治疗的PD小鼠模型中证明了该肽能够消除多巴胺能神经元的死亡[97]。2023年麻省理工报道了一种基于T环中12个氨基酸序列(148ARAFGIPVRCYS159) 的CDK5i, 特异性干扰CDK5/p25复合物并改善CDK5过度活跃的细胞和小鼠模型中的神经退行性表型[98]。然而由于多肽的药稳定性低, 体内半衰期短, 需要通过纳米递送系统或细胞穿透肽修饰等手段来绕过这些限制。小分子如苯并呋喃化合物L3[99]、他莫昔芬[100]、CPD1[101]、NSC88915[102]也可通过破坏CDK5/p25异二聚体的形成, 以剂量依赖性方式有效抑制CDK5/p25活性[102]。考虑到PPI的界面很少有凹槽或口袋, 因此上述小分子PPI抑制剂活性都较弱, 该类分子尚未有进入临床。
近年来, PROTAC被成功开发应用于核受体、RNA、表观遗传蛋白以及激酶等的降解, 极大地拓宽了靶点和临床应用范围。CDK5-PROTAC-TMX-2172三元复合物的形成, 可降低细胞内CDK5蛋白水平, 同时为选择性CDK5抑制剂提供了新的策略。由于没有选择性CDK5抑制剂可选作激酶靶向弹头, TMX-2172在细胞水平上仍然可同时降解CDK5和CDK2, 但对其他CDK家族蛋白水平没有影响[103]
事实上, CDK5的生化和结构研究对其分子调控机制和新型抑制剂设计提供了宝贵的信息。靶向ATP活性位点的选择性CDK5抑制剂的结构特征和结合模式已经在上文进行了较为详细的阐述(图 15)。通过基于结构的药物设计所开发的新型靶向ATP活性位点的CDK5抑制剂, 也取得了一定的进展。例如GFB-12811能在纳摩尔水平有效抑制CDK5的活性, 并且对其他CDK激酶间有超过100倍的选择性, 有望治疗CDK5过度活化引起的相关疾病, 并减少不良反应。这表明在充分探索ATP结合腔体积和氨基酸残基可塑性上的差异等因素的前提下, 有机会实现高选择性和高活性CDK5抑制剂的开发。
除上述策略外, 另一种提高CDK5抑制剂选择性的策略是利用其非活性构象(DFG-out构象) 来开发Ⅱ型抑制剂。有研究表明, 当CDKs处于非活化状态时, 抑制剂能更有效地区分CDKs[104]。在这种情况下, 抑制剂还可能结合到除ATP活性位点以外的变构位点, 进一步提高CDK5选择性。然而, 具有DFG-out构象的CDK5的结构尚未确定。因此需要进一步开发虚拟筛选模型, 以便设计这些Ⅱ型抑制剂。
CDK5最初被认为是一种调节神经元功能的激酶, 但在过去的二十年中, 已经提出了CDK5的几种非神经元功能。然而这些结论中的许多都是基于泛CDK抑制剂或使用基因手段所得, siRNA和shRNA同样面临一些脱靶和非生理效应。因此, 不管是从药物治疗角度还是CDK5的生物学功能研究角度, 寻找具有最佳效力和选择性的CDK5抑制剂仍将继续。
作者贡献: 王丽惠负责综述的文献调研与撰写; 陆征宇负责论文的选题与修改; 杨玉社负责论文的指导。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明没有任何利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金青年科学基金项目(82304273)
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2024年第59卷第9期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0229
  • 接收时间:2024-03-13
  • 首发时间:2025-11-24
  • 出版时间:2024-09-12
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  • 收稿日期:2024-03-13
  • 修回日期:2024-05-15
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国家自然科学基金青年科学基金项目(82304273)
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    1.中国科学院大学, 北京 100049
    2.中国科学院上海药物研究所, 上海 201203

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*陆征宇,Tel: 86-21-50806600-3405, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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