Article(id=1200860517385498859, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200860506031518620, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0226, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1710172800000, receivedDateStr=2024-03-12, revisedDate=1712332800000, revisedDateStr=2024-04-06, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1764237058254, onlineDateStr=2025-11-27, pubDate=1715443200000, pubDateStr=2024-05-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764237058254, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-27, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1764237058254, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764237058254, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1200860506031518620, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2024', volume='59', issue='5', pageStart='1101', pageEnd='1508', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1764237055547, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764241222263, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1200877982563824311, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200860506031518620, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1200877982563824312, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200860506031518620, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1196, endPage=1209, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1200860518077559068, articleId=1200860517385498859, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress on the endocytosis pathway of nanoscale metal-organic frameworks drug carriers, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are crystalline materials with a multidimensional porous network structure, formed through coordination bonds with metal ions as nodes and organic ligands as connecting bridges. Due to their excellent physicochemical properties, MOFs have extensive applications in the field of biomedicine, ranging from antibacterials, drug carriers, imaging to sensors. Nanoscale metal-organic frameworks (nMOFs), commonly utilized drug carriers, can gain enhanced safety, targeted delivery, and superior therapeutic effect through endocytosis. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the factors influencing the endocytosis of nMOFs, focusing on three key physicochemical properties, particle size, morphology and surface modification. Based on different illness models, the review succinctly summarizes the latest advancements in understanding the endocytosis pathways of nMOFs while critically reflecting on the inherent limitations of current research methods. Lastly, the review offers valuable insights into future research methodologies and objectives, aiming to lay the groundwork and provide meaningful guidance for the synthesis and development of nMOFs as promising versatile drug carriers.

, correspAuthors=Xi-bo PEI, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yu-xuan WANG, Wen-jia XIE, Hui-le GAO, Xi-bo PEI), CN=ArticleExt(id=1200860521391059444, articleId=1200860517385498859, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=金属有机框架纳米药物载体胞吞途径的研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

金属有机框架(metal-organic frameworks, MOFs) 是一类以金属离子为结点, 有机配体为连接桥, 通过配位键形成的多维孔道网格结构的晶体材料, 因其具有良好的理化性能, 被广泛地应用于杀菌、载药、成像、检测等生物医学领域。纳米金属有机框架(nanoscale metal-organic frameworks, nMOFs) 作为常用药物载体, 经过胞吞入胞能够获得更安全的靶向性及更优异的疗效。本文从粒径、形态、表面改性三大理化性质对nMOFs药物载体胞吞的影响因素进行综述, 并以疾病类型为分类依据总结nMOFs胞吞途径最新研究进展, 反思相关研究方法存在的不足。最后对未来的研究手段和研究目标进行展望, 以期为nMOFs药物载体的合成与开发提供一定思路和借鉴意义。

, correspAuthors=裴锡波, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*裴锡波, Tel: 86-28-85501470, E-mail:
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Periodontol 2000, 2019, 79: 178-189., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1201106663999758760, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, awardId=82271016, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金面上项目(82271016), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1201106664163336628, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, awardId=2023ZYD0109, language=CN, fundingSource=四川省中央引导地方科技发展专项项目(2023ZYD0109), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1201106664331108807, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, awardId=RD-03-202310, language=CN, fundingSource=华西口腔交叉学科创新项目(RD-03-202310), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1201106654164116274, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1201106654222836544, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, companyId=1201106654164116274, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1. State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department of Prosthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1201106654495466329, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, companyId=1201106654164116274, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.四川大学华西口腔医院修复科, 口腔疾病防治全国重点实验室, 国家口腔医学中心, 国家口腔疾病临床医学研究中心, 四川 成都 610041)]), AuthorCompany(id=1201106654604518251, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1201106654612906860, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, companyId=1201106654604518251, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2. Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1201106654617101165, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, companyId=1201106654604518251, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.四川大学华西药学院, 靶向药物及释药系统教育部重点实验室, 四川 成都 610041)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1201106660304576770, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=X2GbPliiqRLNsPrt2Jg3bA==, figureFileBig=/7bgJuXm9LYVvyp7GmSCIg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106660497514771, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=CN, label=Figure 1, caption= Functions of nMOFs drug carrier<sup>[<a href="javascript:;" class="mag_content_a" onclick="piaofuRef(this,'b31')" rid="b31">31</a>, <a href="javascript:;" class="mag_content_a" onclick="piaofuRef(this,'b32')" rid="b32">32</a>]</sup>. nMOFs: Nanoscale metal-organic frameworks; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; ZIF: Zeolitic imidazolate framework; UiO: Universitetet i Oslo; MIL: Matériaux de l′Institut Lavoisier. Adapted from Ref. <a href="javascript:;" class="mag_content_a" onclick="piaofuRef(this,'b31')" rid="b31">31</a>, <a href="javascript:;" class="mag_content_a" onclick="piaofuRef(this,'b32')" rid="b32">32</a> with permission. Copyright © 2015 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. Copyright © 2019 Mahugo, Mayoral, Sánchez-Sánchez and Diaz , figureFileSmall=X2GbPliiqRLNsPrt2Jg3bA==, figureFileBig=/7bgJuXm9LYVvyp7GmSCIg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106660665286943, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=B0zAgG6/egcpa+aNA7c/8Q==, figureFileBig=jHj232fI2KtFL4YJFKG1KQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106660841447718, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= Endocytosis pathways of nMOFs , figureFileSmall=B0zAgG6/egcpa+aNA7c/8Q==, figureFileBig=jHj232fI2KtFL4YJFKG1KQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106661025997108, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=iYhZBA+5SyPblOcvDwBP/Q==, figureFileBig=BzsnNrOyR2OuxZ3sHpMcvA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106661323792707, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= Factors influencing nMOFs endocytosis pathway. CME: Clathrin-mediated endocytosis; CvME: Caveolae-mediated endocytosis; FA: Folic acid; HA: Hyaluronic acid; PEG: Polyethylene glycol; FR<i>α</i>: Folate receptor <i>α</i> , figureFileSmall=iYhZBA+5SyPblOcvDwBP/Q==, figureFileBig=BzsnNrOyR2OuxZ3sHpMcvA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106661478981963, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=U2+0K7DRuLdBBICRbGg7Cg==, figureFileBig=DTIrWzguz+9iexnniG8Nug==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106661709668695, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=CN, label=Figure 4, caption= "Laying down to stand up" endocytosis<sup>[<a href="javascript:;" class="mag_content_a" onclick="piaofuRef(this,'b56')" rid="b56">56</a>]</sup>. Adapted from Ref. <a href="javascript:;" class="mag_content_a" onclick="piaofuRef(this,'b56')" rid="b56">56</a> with permission. Copyright © 2013 American Chemical Society , figureFileSmall=U2+0K7DRuLdBBICRbGg7Cg==, figureFileBig=DTIrWzguz+9iexnniG8Nug==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106663051845991, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=n0MUCRBYbKpWVjqQAn43jg==, figureFileBig=vsCFWy42TIknEFZ0DkUdcQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106663215423860, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=CN, label=Figure 5, caption= Cell types used in nMOFs endocytosis pathway investigations. TME: Tumor microenvironment; CIE: Clathrin-independent endocytosis; Macro: Macropinocytosis; Phago: Phagocytosis , figureFileSmall=n0MUCRBYbKpWVjqQAn43jg==, figureFileBig=vsCFWy42TIknEFZ0DkUdcQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106663332864382, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
nMOFsDiameter/nmShapeZeta potential/mVSurface modificationEndocytosis pathwayCell typeIntracellular fateRef
NU-901200 (SEM)ElonggatedCvME, CMEHeLa41
NU-1000150 (SEM)ElonggatedCME, CvMELysosome
Zr-fum23 ± 11 (SEM)PolyhedralCME, passive diffusionHeLa44
168 ± 24 (SEM)PolyhedralMacro, CME
70 (DLS)PEG2000CIE, CME, CvME, passive diffusion
50 (DLS)FACIE, CME, passive diffusion
UIO-6650 ± 2 (SEM)Polyhedral0.5CIEHeLa48
75 ± 3 (SEM)12.3CME, CvME, Macro
92 ± 2 (SEM)14.2CME
260 ± 21 (SEM)18.9CME, CvME, Macro
UIO-66153 ± 2 (SEM)SphericalCMEHeLaLysosome49
261 ± 7 (SEM)CME, CvME
UiO-66168 ± 26 (SEM)PolyhedralFACvME, Macro, CIEHeLa72
177 ± 24 (SEM)SphericalPNIPAMCIE, Macro
177 ± 25 (SEM)PolyhedralPolyLactCIE, passive diffusion
175 ± 17 (SEM)PolyhedralBiotinPassive diffusion
157 ± 34 (SEM)PolyhedralHeparinCvME, CME, Macro, CIE
UiO-66160.2 ± 26.9 (SEM)SphericalPEG-550CMEHeLaLysosome73
172.9 ± 36.8 (SEM)SphericalPEG-2000CME, CvMELysosome, cytoplasm
MIL-100 (Fe)250 nm (DLS)DOPCCMEHeLaLysosome85
CAU-7195 ± 12 - 477 ± 40 (SEM)CME, CvMEHeLa89
205 ± 3 (DLS)
Zr-fum84 ± 7 nm (SEM)H6-GFPMacro, CvMEHeLa91
182 ± 4 nm (DLS)
FeMOF<100 (DLS)Spherical-2.4Gold nanoparticle+PEG-SH+C12SHCME, CvME, MacroHepG292
UiO-66115 ± 48 (SEM)Spherical35.3DCA5Macro, CIE, CMEMCF793
308 ± 1 (DLS)
115 ± 48 (SEM)Spherical12.9TPP + DCA5CMEMitochondria
394 ± 6 (DLS)
MnMOF70 (DLS)Spherical24.3CME, CvME, Macro4T1Lysosome94
ZIF-880 (DLS)Polyhedral14.4 ± 0.1Al ionCME, scavenger receptor A-mediated endocytosisDC2.497
MIL-88A(Fe)3628 ± 573 (SEM)
(length-to-width ratio 1∶5)
Rod-like12.1 ± 2.0MannosamineMacro, Phago3D4/21Phagolysosome47
MIL-100(Fe)103.9 ± 7.2 (SEM)Spherical-20.9 ± 0.8MannosamineMacro, Phago
307.9 ± 32.1 (DLS)
MIL-88B-NH2937 ± 325 (SEM)Rod-like11.5 ± 3.7PhagoKUP5Phagolysosome100
MIL-101-NH2160 (DLS)Octahedral-8NIPAM + MPDMSA (hydrogel)CME, Macro, CvMECaco-2Golgi, lysosome58
MIL-100120 (SEM)Polyhedral-18.33SDSCME, CvME, MacroCaco-2101
132.8 (DLS)
ZIF-8200 (SEM)PolyhedralCvME, MacrorBMSCCytoplasm40
), ArticleFig(id=1201106663542579597, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860517385498859, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Summary of nMOFs endocytosis pathways in different situations. The order of the table primarily follows the sequence of cell type appearing in section 2. PEG: Polyethylene glycol; FA: Folic acid; PNIPAM: Poly N-isopropyl acrylamide; PolyLact: Poly-L-lactid; H6-GFP: His-tag green fluorescent protein; DOPC: 1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine; PEG-SH: Methoxy polyethylene glycol thiol; C12-SH: 1-Dodecanethio; DCA: Dichloroacetic acid; TPP: Triphenylphosphine; SDS: Sodium dodecyl sulfate; NIPAM: N-Isopropyl acrylamide; MPDMSA: [3-(Methacryloylamino) propyl] dimethyl (3-sulfopropyl) ammonium hydroxide

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
nMOFsDiameter/nmShapeZeta potential/mVSurface modificationEndocytosis pathwayCell typeIntracellular fateRef
NU-901200 (SEM)ElonggatedCvME, CMEHeLa41
NU-1000150 (SEM)ElonggatedCME, CvMELysosome
Zr-fum23 ± 11 (SEM)PolyhedralCME, passive diffusionHeLa44
168 ± 24 (SEM)PolyhedralMacro, CME
70 (DLS)PEG2000CIE, CME, CvME, passive diffusion
50 (DLS)FACIE, CME, passive diffusion
UIO-6650 ± 2 (SEM)Polyhedral0.5CIEHeLa48
75 ± 3 (SEM)12.3CME, CvME, Macro
92 ± 2 (SEM)14.2CME
260 ± 21 (SEM)18.9CME, CvME, Macro
UIO-66153 ± 2 (SEM)SphericalCMEHeLaLysosome49
261 ± 7 (SEM)CME, CvME
UiO-66168 ± 26 (SEM)PolyhedralFACvME, Macro, CIEHeLa72
177 ± 24 (SEM)SphericalPNIPAMCIE, Macro
177 ± 25 (SEM)PolyhedralPolyLactCIE, passive diffusion
175 ± 17 (SEM)PolyhedralBiotinPassive diffusion
157 ± 34 (SEM)PolyhedralHeparinCvME, CME, Macro, CIE
UiO-66160.2 ± 26.9 (SEM)SphericalPEG-550CMEHeLaLysosome73
172.9 ± 36.8 (SEM)SphericalPEG-2000CME, CvMELysosome, cytoplasm
MIL-100 (Fe)250 nm (DLS)DOPCCMEHeLaLysosome85
CAU-7195 ± 12 - 477 ± 40 (SEM)CME, CvMEHeLa89
205 ± 3 (DLS)
Zr-fum84 ± 7 nm (SEM)H6-GFPMacro, CvMEHeLa91
182 ± 4 nm (DLS)
FeMOF<100 (DLS)Spherical-2.4Gold nanoparticle+PEG-SH+C12SHCME, CvME, MacroHepG292
UiO-66115 ± 48 (SEM)Spherical35.3DCA5Macro, CIE, CMEMCF793
308 ± 1 (DLS)
115 ± 48 (SEM)Spherical12.9TPP + DCA5CMEMitochondria
394 ± 6 (DLS)
MnMOF70 (DLS)Spherical24.3CME, CvME, Macro4T1Lysosome94
ZIF-880 (DLS)Polyhedral14.4 ± 0.1Al ionCME, scavenger receptor A-mediated endocytosisDC2.497
MIL-88A(Fe)3628 ± 573 (SEM)
(length-to-width ratio 1∶5)
Rod-like12.1 ± 2.0MannosamineMacro, Phago3D4/21Phagolysosome47
MIL-100(Fe)103.9 ± 7.2 (SEM)Spherical-20.9 ± 0.8MannosamineMacro, Phago
307.9 ± 32.1 (DLS)
MIL-88B-NH2937 ± 325 (SEM)Rod-like11.5 ± 3.7PhagoKUP5Phagolysosome100
MIL-101-NH2160 (DLS)Octahedral-8NIPAM + MPDMSA (hydrogel)CME, Macro, CvMECaco-2Golgi, lysosome58
MIL-100120 (SEM)Polyhedral-18.33SDSCME, CvME, MacroCaco-2101
132.8 (DLS)
ZIF-8200 (SEM)PolyhedralCvME, MacrorBMSCCytoplasm40
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金属有机框架纳米药物载体胞吞途径的研究进展
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王宇轩 1 , 谢雯佳 1 , 高会乐 2 , 裴锡波 1, *
药学学报 | 综述 2024,59(5): 1196-1209
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药学学报 | 综述 2024, 59(5): 1196-1209
金属有机框架纳米药物载体胞吞途径的研究进展
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王宇轩1, 谢雯佳1, 高会乐2, 裴锡波1, *
作者信息
  • 1.四川大学华西口腔医院修复科, 口腔疾病防治全国重点实验室, 国家口腔医学中心, 国家口腔疾病临床医学研究中心, 四川 成都 610041
  • 2.四川大学华西药学院, 靶向药物及释药系统教育部重点实验室, 四川 成都 610041

通讯作者:

*裴锡波, Tel: 86-28-85501470, E-mail:
Research progress on the endocytosis pathway of nanoscale metal-organic frameworks drug carriers
Yu-xuan WANG1, Wen-jia XIE1, Hui-le GAO2, Xi-bo PEI1, *
Affiliations
  • 1. State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department of Prosthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
  • 2. Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
出版时间: 2024-05-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0226
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金属有机框架(metal-organic frameworks, MOFs) 是一类以金属离子为结点, 有机配体为连接桥, 通过配位键形成的多维孔道网格结构的晶体材料, 因其具有良好的理化性能, 被广泛地应用于杀菌、载药、成像、检测等生物医学领域。纳米金属有机框架(nanoscale metal-organic frameworks, nMOFs) 作为常用药物载体, 经过胞吞入胞能够获得更安全的靶向性及更优异的疗效。本文从粒径、形态、表面改性三大理化性质对nMOFs药物载体胞吞的影响因素进行综述, 并以疾病类型为分类依据总结nMOFs胞吞途径最新研究进展, 反思相关研究方法存在的不足。最后对未来的研究手段和研究目标进行展望, 以期为nMOFs药物载体的合成与开发提供一定思路和借鉴意义。

金属有机框架  /  药物载体  /  胞吞  /  纳米材料  /  药物治疗

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are crystalline materials with a multidimensional porous network structure, formed through coordination bonds with metal ions as nodes and organic ligands as connecting bridges. Due to their excellent physicochemical properties, MOFs have extensive applications in the field of biomedicine, ranging from antibacterials, drug carriers, imaging to sensors. Nanoscale metal-organic frameworks (nMOFs), commonly utilized drug carriers, can gain enhanced safety, targeted delivery, and superior therapeutic effect through endocytosis. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the factors influencing the endocytosis of nMOFs, focusing on three key physicochemical properties, particle size, morphology and surface modification. Based on different illness models, the review succinctly summarizes the latest advancements in understanding the endocytosis pathways of nMOFs while critically reflecting on the inherent limitations of current research methods. Lastly, the review offers valuable insights into future research methodologies and objectives, aiming to lay the groundwork and provide meaningful guidance for the synthesis and development of nMOFs as promising versatile drug carriers.

metal-organic framework  /  drug carrier  /  endocytosis  /  nanomaterial  /  drug therapy
王宇轩, 谢雯佳, 高会乐, 裴锡波. 金属有机框架纳米药物载体胞吞途径的研究进展. 药学学报, 2024 , 59 (5) : 1196 -1209 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0226
Yu-xuan WANG, Wen-jia XIE, Hui-le GAO, Xi-bo PEI. Research progress on the endocytosis pathway of nanoscale metal-organic frameworks drug carriers[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2024 , 59 (5) : 1196 -1209 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0226
金属有机框架(metal-organic frameworks, MOFs) 是一类以金属离子为核心, 与有机配体通过配位键形成的多维孔道网格结构的晶体材料。它具有高比表面积、可控制的孔径形态及大小、可调节结构稳定性、易修饰等特点。这些特点使其在生物医学、高效催化、气体储存、物质分离等领域具有独特的优势[1-3]。在生物医学领域, MOFs相关研究主要聚焦于载药[4, 5]、成像[6]、检测等方面, 其中以纳米有机金属框架(nanoscale metal-organic frameworks, nMOFs) 作为药物载体的研究[7-9]备受关注(图 1)。nMOFs药物载体常被用于肿瘤、创口感染、炎症治疗等。在抗肿瘤治疗中, nMOFs可作为缓释/响应性药物载体搭载抗肿瘤药物, 静脉注射后通过血流到达病灶释放药物发挥作用。nMOFs自身结构可调性赋予其pH响应性、氧化还原响应性以应对复杂多变的肿瘤微环境(tumor microenvironment, TME), 可通过光动力、声动力激活nMOFs协同杀灭肿瘤细胞[10-12]。针对创口感染, 搭载抗生素或金属离子nMOFs可局部应用于创口, 通过释放搭载的药物/金属离子或光动力激活生成活性氧以杀灭抗生素耐药菌[13, 14]。对于炎症, nMOFs药物载体可配合水凝胶局部应用于浅表炎症部位(如牙周炎)[15], 可关节腔局部注射治疗骨关节炎[16], 也可静脉注射以控制各类炎症[17]
目前研究较为丰富的nMOFs药物载体隶属于UiO (Universitetet i Oslo) 系列、MIL (Matériaux de l′Institut Lavoisier) 系列、ZIF (zeolitic imidazolate framework) 系列[18]。UiO系列最早由奥斯陆大学的Cavka等[19]于2008年提出并命名, 包含UiO-66、UiO-67、UiO-68, 其中UiO-66是研究最为透彻的UiO系列nMOFs。UiO-66晶体是由Zr6O4(OH)4金属氧化团簇二级结构单元(secondary building unit, SBU) 和1,4-苯二甲酸(1,4-benzene-dicarboxylate, BDC) 配体构成的面心立方结构, 八配位的锆离子与8个氧原子通过Zr-O配位成簇, 6个上述簇结构组成SBU, SBU通过12个BDC与临近SBU相连构成UiO-66晶体。UiO-66晶体中存在由SBU和BDC构成的四面体笼(7.5 Å) 孔隙和八面体笼(12 Å) 孔隙, 孔隙间存在孔径6 Å的三角形孔道, 赋予UiO-66高孔隙率和高比表面积, 是理想的nMOF药物载体[20, 21]。MIL系列是一大类由3价过渡金属离子(如Cr、Fe、Al、V等) 和羧酸配体配位构成的MOF。最先合成的MIL-101由Serre等[22]于2004年使用1,4-苯二甲酸和九水硝酸铬合成, 并以拉瓦锡材料研究所缩写命名。如今该系列有MIL-53、MIL-68、MIL-88A、MIL-88B、MIL-100、MIL-101、MIL-125等, 其中以MIL-100的研究成果突出[23]。MIL-100的核心并不局限于一种金属离子, 可以是Cr、Fe或Al, 而基于Fe的MIL-100 (Fe) 由于Fe良好的生物安全性而受到广泛关注[23]。MIL-100 (Fe) 属于斜方晶形, 由Fe (Ⅲ) 八面体共享μ3-O形成的三聚体SBU和1,3,5-苯三羧酸(1,3,5-benzene tricarboxylic acid, BTC) 配位形成, 存在25和29 Å两种直径的孔隙, 拥有极高的包载率[24]。ZIF系列包括100余种基于2价过渡金属离子(Zn、Co) 和咪唑配体形成的四面体拓扑结构框架材料。ZIF系列nMOFs因其类似沸石结构而得名, 其中最具代表性的是ZIF-8[25]。ZIF-8由锌离子与2-甲基咪唑(2-methylimidazole, 2-MIM) 配位形成四面体结构SBU, SBU间通过共享2-MIM上两个N相连, 形成类SOD沸石结构[26, 27]。该结构中存在直径1.16 nm的孔隙, 孔隙间存在0.34 nm孔道, 使得ZIF-8成为优良的纳米药物载体[28]
MOFs作为药物载体/释药系统赋予其缓释效果[29], 在人体发挥作用需要经过吸收、分布以到达目标器官/组织中, 而nMOFs的小尺寸优势[30]使其更进一步通过胞吞进入细胞内部释放药物成为可能。nMOFs药物载体的功能见图 1[31, 32]
胞吞作用(endocytosis) 是nMOFs等大分子及纳米颗粒入胞跨膜运输的重要途径[33]。nMOFs接触细胞膜时, 细胞膜发生内陷/皱缩, 形成包裹有nMOFs的细胞内囊泡。根据参与的膜结构/蛋白及信号级联通道的不同, 胞吞可被分为吞噬作用(phagocytosis, Phago) 和胞饮作用(pinocytosis)[34]。吞噬作用早期被认为仅有少量特定的“专门吞噬细胞”具有, 随着认识深入, 研究证实, 几乎所有细胞都具有吞噬能力, 但其效率不及专门吞噬细胞[35]。胞饮则普遍存在于人体细胞中, 胞饮作用可被进一步分为网格蛋白介导的胞吞作用(clathrin-mediated endocytosis, CME)、小窝介导的胞吞作用(caveolae-mediated endocytosis, CvME)、巨胞饮作用(macropinocytosis, Macro) 及非网格蛋白介导的胞吞作用(clathrin-independent endocytosis, CIE)[36] (图 2)。CIE随着细胞生物学研究的不断深入, 还可细分为FEME途径(fast endophilin-mediated endocytosis, FEME)[37]、CLIC/GEEC途径(clathrin-independent carriers/GPI-AP-enriched early endosomal compartments, CLIC/GEEC)、flotillin-assisted endocytosis等[33, 34, 38]。吞噬作用、CME、CvME、巨胞饮、FEME、CLIC/GEEC被认为是胞吞作用的六大机制[33, 39]。尽管如此, 受限于CIE相关机制研究手段的匮乏, 针对nMOFs胞吞途径的探索并未深入CIE细分途径。在nMOFs胞吞途径的实际探索中, 以ZIF-8胞吞途径为例, ZIF-8为正十二面体微粒, 粒径约200 nm, 大鼠间充质干细胞(rat bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells, rBMSC) 对其主要胞吞途径为CvME和巨胞饮作用[40]。而对于同样200 nm左右, 但形状为长棍形的NU-901, HeLa细胞主要通过CvME和CME途径胞吞[41]。由此可知, nMOFs胞吞途径受到多种复杂因素的影响。尽管控制其中一项变量相同, nMOFs的其他因素和实验因素都会对胞吞途径的探索造成影响, 因此难以在nMOFs间及nMOF与其他纳米载药平台(如二氧化硅微粒等) 间进行比较。
为了深入理解nMOFs材料复杂的胞吞途径和影响因素, 更好地为nMOFs药物载体的应用研究提供新的认识和思路。本文对nMOFs胞吞途径相关影响因素及nMOFs胞吞途径研究进展进行综述, 旨在为nMOFs药物载体胞内应用领域的研究提供有益参考。
金属有机框架纳米药物载体的理化性质影响胞吞途径如图 3所示, 其中, 物理性质影响因素主要包括nMOFs的粒径、形态等; 化学性质影响因素除了nMOFs自身组成分子之外, 还包含其表面修饰所带来的影响。
nMOFs的粒径极大地影响胞吞途径, 大粒径(> 500 nm) nMOFs一般通过吞噬作用胞吞[42], 中粒径和小粒径(70~500 nm) 通过巨胞饮作用胞吞[43], 而小粒径(最大200~300 nm) nMOFs也可通过CME和CvME胞吞[34]。当粒径极小时, 部分nMOFs甚至可以通过被动扩散入胞, 比如粒径23 nm的锆-富马酸nMOF (Zr-fum) 可部分通过被动扩散进入HeLa细胞[44]
粒径影响吞噬作用, 但不一定影响巨胞饮作用。吞噬作用对nMOFs等纳米粒子的摄取依赖于nMOFs与专门吞噬细胞或非专门吞噬细胞表面受体结合以引发信号级联反应, 根据受体类型主要分为调理素受体依赖(opsonic)、非调理素受体依赖(nonopsonic) 及非特异性受体依赖(nonspecific) 3种[43]。其中, 调理素吸附在nMOFs表面, 并通过调理素受体依赖通路进行的调理吞噬作用被认为是最重要的胞吞途径[34]。粒径可以影响nMOFs与细胞的接触面积从而影响受体-配体结合, 进而影响吞噬。Champion等[45]研究发现无论有无调理素修饰, 吞噬作用对直径为2~3 μm的微粒摄取量最大, 细胞附着情况最好。进一步用模型模拟细胞膜褶皱与微粒的接触, 得出当微粒直径为2.3 μm时细胞膜褶皱与微粒接触点最多, 证实了粒径对于吞噬作用中附着过程的影响。但纳米载药系统的粒径并不是影响巨胞饮作用选择及效率的关键因素[34]。巨胞饮作用对于nMOFs的摄取是通过非特异性地包围并摄取细胞外基质成分进行的, 其中包含大小不一的微粒, 并时常与其他胞吞途径同时发挥效能[46]。Guo等[47]研究也发现, 长轴3628 nm的MIL-88A和直径106.6 nm的MIL-100均通过巨胞饮作用和吞噬作用被肺巨噬细胞3D4/21细胞胞吞, 粒径并未导致二者在胞吞途径上的差异。
粒径大小对于CME和CvME的抉择有显著影响。当粒径小于200 nm时, 细胞更倾向于CME途径, 而当粒径大于200 nm时, CvME途径将逐渐发挥更大的作用。Orellana-Tavra等[48]探究了不同直径UiO-66的胞吞机制, 50 nm UiO-66主要通过CIE途径, 75、92和260 nm UiO-66主要通过CME途径胞吞。随着粒径增大, CvME和巨胞饮在260 nm UiO-66胞吞途径中的占比逐渐升高。他们的另一个试验也发现了相似的现象, 150 nm的UiO-66主要依赖CME途径胞吞, 260 nm的UiO-66通过CME和CvME途径共同胞吞[49]。另一项关于Zr-fum的研究发现, 23和168 nm的Zr-fum胞吞途径仅包含CME, 并不包含CvME[44]。尽管大多数研究证据都指向上述观点, 一些基于胞吞途径机制的研究得出了不同意见。CME途径形成的网格蛋白包被囊泡直径约为100 nm[50], CvME途径形成的小窝(caveolae) 直径约为60 nm[33]。因此, 理论上粒径较小的nMOFs倾向于CvME途径胞吞; 而随着粒径增大, nMOFs微粒更倾向于通过CME途径胞吞[34]。上述研究中大粒径nMOFs通过CvME胞吞可能与小窝某些尚未阐明的机制有关, 这一现象也可以在细菌胞吞研究[51]和其他大粒径纳米粒子胞吞[52]研究中观察到, 其中的小窝直径可达100 nm[52]。有学者认为包含大粒径nMOFs的“小窝”可能是小窝蛋白(caveolin) 被“劫持”到其他胞吞途径, 形成类小窝结构的细胞囊泡[33], 导致非CvME途径被错误地认为是CvME途径。
粒径大小影响胞吞途径的抉择, 从而进一步决定了nMOFs的体内命运(intracellular fate)。经CME胞吞的150 nm UiO-66最终进入溶酶体内, 而经CME和CvME共同胞吞的260 nm UiO-66则分布于细胞质中[49], 这也许和内体逃逸(endosome escape) 有关。另外的研究发现, 经吞噬作用胞吞的MIL-100和MIL-88A主要分布于酸性的吞噬溶酶体中[47], 进一步证实了粒径对体内命运的影响。尽管如此, 仍要意识到nMOFs体内命运受到胞吞速度、胞吞效率及细胞受体影响[33], 这些因素同样受到nMOFs粒径的影响。
nMOFs胞吞的速度和效率大小与粒径有着密切关系, 寻找最佳粒径以实现胞吞最快速度和最高效率是研究的重要目标。Zhang等[53]针对受体依赖的胞吞作用(receptor-mediated endocytosis) 建立等热力学模型发现球形配体修饰的纳米微粒最佳半径为25~30 nm, 细胞在相同时间内能摄入最多的纳米微粒(每细胞500~5 000个), 该现象与受粒径影响的细胞膜张力有关。一项基于PCN-224的研究显示, 在30、60、90、140、190 nm 5种粒径中, HeLa细胞对90 nm的PCN-224胞吞速度更快, 效率更高[54]。Abánades Lázaro等[44]研究显示HeLa细胞对23 nm的Zr-fum胞吞效率高于168 nm Zr-fum, 但巨噬细胞J774对大粒径Zr-fum的胞吞效率却高于小粒径Zr-fum。基于UiO-66的研究表明, HeLa细胞对260 nm的UiO-66的摄取速度虽较150 nm的UiO-66慢, 但摄取效率更高[49]。上述研究表明, 不同细胞种类和nMOFs种类对nMOFs胞吞速度和胞吞效率存在影响, 理论模型推测的最佳粒径很难与实验结果相匹配。应该根据药物应用场景, 针对性探究粒径对特定细胞胞吞nMOFs药物载体速度和效率的影响, 从而寻找到特定条件下的最优解。
综上, 粒径是nMOFs胞吞重要的影响因素之一。粒径大小一方面影响了胞吞途径的抉择和胞内命运, 另一方面也与胞吞速度和效率相关。同时, 也应该关注到nMOFs聚集对粒径的影响。由于MOFs拥有极大的表面积, 非有机金属节点有极高的表面能, nMOFs微粒更倾向于聚集成团以最小化微粒表面能从而达到平衡状态[55]。nMOFs的聚集会导致粒径的增大, 可能导致胞吞途径的变化。因此, 粒径对于胞吞途径的影响受到胞吞途径自身和微粒的共同影响。吞噬作用/巨胞饮作用与CME/CvME拥有不同的最佳微粒直径, 这与胞吞途径的细胞机制有关。而微粒的聚集也可能导致胞吞途径的改变, 二者相互影响, 共同决定了胞吞途径。
nMOFs药物载体拥有多种形态, 研究表明球形是最适合胞吞的形态。使用粗粒度分子动力学模型(coarse-grained molecular dynamics model, CGMD) 模拟受体介导的胞吞, 球形纳米微粒仅发生旋转后即被胞吞入胞, 而球形圆柱体在长轴以90度与胞膜接触时会发生“先躺下再直立” (图 4), 以尽可能减少胞膜弯曲所需能量。因此, 球形圆柱体微粒的胞吞耗时较球形纳米微粒更长[56]。nMOFs药物载体最常见的形态是类似球形的多面体形, 其胞吞途径存在不一致性。对于正八面体的UiO-66[57], 大量研究显示CME、CvME、CIE、吞噬作用、巨胞饮作用都可以作为其胞吞的主要途径[48], 两种及两种以上途径常同时作为主要途径参与UiO-66的胞吞。此外还有MIL-101-NH2正八面体, 其主要胞吞途径也是CvME和巨胞饮作用[58]。正十二面体的ZIF-8[59], 研究显示其主要依赖CvME和巨胞饮作用胞吞[40]
非球形微粒的胞吞方式存在差异。对于高长宽比且圆尖端的非球形微粒, 它们更倾向于长轴与胞膜先平行接触后胞吞的“潜水艇”形式; 但对于低长宽比且扁平尖端的非球形微粒, 它们更倾向于尖端首先接触的“火箭”形式[60]。对于非球形微粒(如杆形和棒状), 不同形态微粒的胞吞速度与其接触角有关。当长轴与细胞膜平行接触时, 其胞吞速率较短轴与细胞膜平行接触时更慢[61]。具体就胞吞途径而言, 以杆状的MIlL-88A (Fe) 为例, 由于其长宽比极大, 其胞吞途径主要是巨胞饮作用和吞噬作用[47]
值得注意的是, 对于柔性nMOFs等纳米微粒, 在其通过受体介导的胞吞作用(receptor-mediated endocytosis, 一般认为即CME[33]) 胞吞时形态会发生改变, 导致巨大能量损失, 胞吞速度降低导致效率下降。相比于球形和长球形微粒, 弹性椭球形微粒受变形导致胞吞效率下降的影响更小[62]。柔性nMOFs具有特殊的“呼吸效应”, 其孔道结构大小可以因为温度、压力、化学反应诱发改变[63], 如MIL-53[64]和MIL-88[65]。该特性赋予nMOF更高的药物装载率, 更优异的可控药物释放能力[66, 67]。但是, 柔性结构可能在细胞胞吞时发生改变, 从而导致胞吞途径的改变。因此, 胞吞过程中nMOFs形态变化对胞吞途径导致的影响也需要充分考虑在内。
概括而论, 形态是影响nMOFs药物载体胞吞的重要因素之一, 除此之外柔性nMOFs形变也对胞吞有影响。但由于nMOFs高度可变的物理性质和化学性质, 如何在控制其他无关变量不变的情况下单独探究nMOFs微粒形态对于胞吞途径的影响是目前形态影响nMOFs药物载体胞吞的一大难题, 也是未来研究的重要目标。
由于nMOFs高比表面积(表面活性位点多) 及化学可调结构的特点, nMOFs表面可接枝不同的蛋白、配体乃至大分子物质以改变其理化性质, 从而改变其胞吞途径。根据修饰后是否具有细胞靶向特异性, 可将表面修饰分为非特异性修饰和特异性修饰。
聚二乙醇(polyethylene glycol, PEG) 酰化是最为常见的nMOFs修饰手段, 即将PEG链接至nMOFs颗粒表面, 能够有效改变胞吞途径。一方面, PEG酰化修饰可以协助nMOFs逃避调理作用, 延长体内代谢时间。PEG赋予nMOFs表面亲水性, 减少nMOFs聚集, 阻碍调理素沉积, 保护nMOFs免受巨噬细胞调理作用的吞噬清除[68], 允许更多nMOFs作用于目标细胞。Giménez-Marqués等[69]通过GraftFast反应在MIL-100 (Fe) 修饰PEG, 发现RAW246.7细胞对MIL-100 (Fe) @PEG5kDa的胞吞量较未修饰MIL-100降低。Cutrone等[70]在MIL-100 (Fe) 表面接枝PEG修饰后的磷酸化β-环糊精衍生物, 巨噬细胞胞吞量低于未经接枝的MIL-100。同时, 他们也尝试在MIL-100 (Fe) 接枝右旋糖酐-阿伦膦酸-聚二乙醇(DEX-ALN-PEG), 在不同的孵化时间下, 巨噬细胞对修饰后的MIL-100胞吞量均低于未修饰的MIL-100[71]。也有基于UiO-66-PEG的研究发现J774巨噬细胞对PEG修饰后的UiO-66-PEG胞吞量减少[72]。上述研究均证实了PEG酰化对巨噬细胞调理吞噬的抑制作用。另一方面, PEG酰化可改变nMOFs药物载体的胞吞途径, 优化细胞靶向性给药能力。Abánades Lázaro等[73]通过“点击化学”方法将PEG链接在UiO-66表面。PEG修饰后UiO-66粒径略微增大, 形态从多面体形变得圆润, 棱角不清。探究UiO-66、UiO-66-PEG550及UiO-66-PEG2000的胞吞途径发现, UiO-66主要依赖CME途径, 巨胞饮途径部分参与, CvME途径不参与其胞吞; UiO-66-PEG550结果与UiO-66相似, 说明PEG550并未改变其胞吞途径; UiO-66-PEG2000主要依赖CvME, CME及巨胞饮作用也参与其胞吞。说明PEG酰化可以改变nMOFs微粒的胞吞途径。具体来讲, 可能是更长的PEG2000可以将nMOFs的疏水性表面改性为两性表面, 更有利于CvME。此外, 针对Zr-fum的PEG酰化修饰同样显示, 经修饰后的Zr-fum-L1-PEG2000粒径显著增大, 同时伴随着细胞胞吞途径从CME为主转变为CME和CvME同时作为主要途径参与的胞吞途径[44]
叶酸(folic acid, FA) 修饰是常见的特异性修饰手段。叶酸受体α (folate receptor α, FRα) 是一种在大部分固体肿瘤中过量分布, 但在正常组织细胞表面密度较低的细胞膜糖蛋白[74]。FRα对FA有高亲和力, 受体配体结合后经胞吞并在胞内分解利用[75]。利用这种特性, FA常被用于以肿瘤细胞为靶向的nMOFs特异性修饰。一方面, FA可以促进肿瘤细胞对nMOFs药物载体的胞吞。如MIL-88B表面修饰壳聚糖-FA的纳米载药平台在SW480肿瘤细胞的胞吞量高于修饰前[76]。针对ZIF-8的FA修饰研究发现, 作为黄芩苷(baicalin, BAN) 载体的PEG-FA@ZIF-8@ BAN在MCF-7乳腺癌细胞胞吞后ROS生成量高于未修饰的ZIF-8载体, 表明MCF-7对FA修饰后的PEG-FA@ZIF-8@BAN的胞吞量更大, 若将叶酸与MCF-7提前孵化则会抑制FA修饰的胞吞作用[57]。另一方面, FA修饰特异性针对肿瘤细胞, 可提升FA@nMOFs药物载体的安全性。在装载了磷酸氯喹啉的ZIF-8进行PEG-FA修饰后, 透射电镜观察到HeLa细胞中ZIF-8的碎片数量明显多于HEK293 (人胚胎肾细胞293), 说明缺乏FRα的正常细胞对ZIF-8胞吞能力较差。并且对照组(仅磷酸氯喹啉) 和nMOFs载药组处理的HeLa细胞内自噬体数量不同, 这与FA-PEG修饰前后胞吞途径不同有关[77]。同样的现象也发生在FA修饰的UiO-66上, MCF-7在低温时能胞吞DOX-UiO-66@F127-FA, 但缺乏叶酸受体的RAW264.7巨噬细胞低温时几乎未胞吞, 常温时RAW264.7的DOX-UiO-66@F127-FA胞吞量也少于HeLa细胞。证实叶酸修饰针对肿瘤细胞的特异性及叶酸受体介导的胞吞作用对nMOFs摄取效率的促进作用。为了更深入探究FA修饰后的胞吞途径, FA修饰的UiO-66-FA被用于探究HeLa细胞对UiO-66-FA的胞吞途径。与其他修饰方法相比, HeLa细胞对UiO-66-FA的胞吞量最大, 其主要胞吞途径为CvME, 其次是巨胞饮作用和其他非网格蛋白介导的胞吞作用, 而CME几乎不再参与UiO-66-FA的胞吞[72]。结合先前提及的类似研究[48, 73], FA修饰可以改变UiO-66以CME为主的胞吞途径, 同时赋予该体系对于肿瘤细胞的靶向性, 提高药物载体胞吞率。对Zr-fum-FA的研究同样证实FA能显著提高HeLa细胞的胞吞效率, 同时将CME和被动扩散为主的跨膜运输机制改变为CIE和CME为主的胞吞途径[44]。综上, FA是一种理想的nMOFs药物载体表面修饰材料。
透明质酸(hyaluronic acid, HA) 修饰是另一种针对肿瘤细胞的特异性修饰手段。HA是一种广泛分布于身体内的阴离子多糖, 其可与CD44受体高亲和力结合。而肿瘤细胞及肿瘤干细胞会特异性高表达CD44受体, 赋予了HA修饰后nMOFs肿瘤靶向性的功能[78]。基于HA修饰后PCN-224的研究发现, HeLa细胞和人非小细胞肺癌A549细胞对Fc-CA-PCN-HA胞吞量显著高于人正常肝细胞L-09, 且对HeLa细胞提前使用HA孵化2 h将显著降低Fc-CA-PCN-HA的胞吞量[79]。Zheng等[80]基于FeMOF作为葡糖氧化酶载体的研究也显示, 小鼠乳腺癌细胞4T1对HA修饰后的HFNP@GOX@PFC纳米体系胞吞效率相较于未进行HA修饰的纳米体系更高。Hou等[81]将双硫仑(disulfiram, DSF) 搭载Cu-MOFs中(DSF@Cu-MOFs), 并在Cu-MOFs外表修饰HA (DSF@HA/Cu-MOFs) 以提高其肿瘤靶向性和生物相容性。HA修饰后MOFs表面由带正电转变为带负电, 4T1细胞的DSF@HA/Cu-MOFs胞内荧光强度高于未修饰组, 而提前在培养基中加入HA可降低胞内荧光, 证明HA促进了CD44受体介导的胞吞作用。上述研究均证实了HA促进了肿瘤细胞对HA修饰后nMOFs的特异性胞吞。针对HA修饰后nMOFs的胞吞途径, Liu等[82]合成出一种基于聚乳酸-羟基乙酸共聚物(PLGA)/MOF的纳米核壳结构, 在其表面修饰HA, 实验证实人乳腺癌细胞MDA-MB-231对该纳米粒子的主要胞吞途径为CME, 而CvME及巨胞饮也部分参与了胞吞。
此外, 还有细胞膜包裹修饰[83, 84]、脂质包被[85]、多肽修饰[86]、蛋白修饰[87]等nMOFs表面修饰方法。nMOFs表面改性主要依赖于改变MOFs物理性质, 如电性、亲水性等, 亦或是通过靶向细胞表面的特异性受体以获得靶向性和强化的胞吞效率。相关表面修饰研究不断涌现, 可以根据“因地制宜”地选择合适手段优化nMOFs的胞吞途径性能。
作为药物载体, nMOFs需要抵达疾病发生的器官和组织释放药物发挥作用。对于其中的细胞靶向性nMOFs药物载体, 它们需要依赖靶细胞的胞吞进入细胞以发挥作用。由于不同疾病具有截然不同的病理生理特点, 细胞及内环境的改变都会影响nMOFs的胞吞, 且nMOFs药物载体的设计都是以治愈疾病为导向, 因此作者按研究中所用细胞系来源疾病进行分类(图 5), 阐明不同疾病细胞对nMOFs的胞吞途径。
nMOFs药物载体是目前抗肿瘤治疗的热点。nMOFs可搭载小分子药物、蛋白质、多肽、基因及其他纳米粒子, 通过光热治疗、光动力治疗、声动力治疗、化学治疗等多重方式杀灭原位及转移的肿瘤细胞[88]。同时, nMOFs也可以作用于肿瘤特殊的微环境, 以削弱肿瘤的免疫逃逸。
nMOFs微粒被视为靶向治疗癌症的理想药物载体[4], 被广泛用于针对各肿瘤细胞系的抗癌研究中。HeLa细胞系来源于人宫颈癌, 是应用最为广泛的癌细胞系。针对nMOFs粒径对胞吞途径的影响及PEG、FA修饰nMOFs的胞吞途径研究大多是以HeLa细胞为对象进行的[44, 48, 49, 72, 73]。Ploetz等[85]研究证实, MIL-100 (Fe) 表面包裹DOPC脂质壳以促进胞吞引发细胞焦亡, 实验选择HeLa细胞作为研究模型, 并证实HeLa细胞对脂质包裹的MIL-100主要依赖CME途径胞吞, 而胞吞作用不是未包裹MIL-100的主要入胞方式。Orellana-Tavra等[89]研究了HeLa细胞对CAU-7的胞吞途径, 证实其主要胞吞途径为CME和CvME。Teplensky等[41]研究也证实CvME和CME均参与了HeLa对NU-1000及NU-901的胞吞。其中, CvME途径对于NU-901胞吞更重要, 而NU-1000的胞吞更依赖CME。此外, 相较于蔗糖高渗即可抑制HeLa细胞通过CME胞吞NU-1000, 只有使用氯丙嗪才能针对性抑制NU-901通过CME胞吞, 且抑制效果较前者更弱, 这也许是因为NU-901和NU-1000所依赖CME途径略有不同。但考虑到有研究发现蔗糖高渗除抑制CME外, 也可以抑制非CME途径[90], 结合作者并未探究巨胞饮等非CME途径是否参与两种MOFs的胞吞, 认为也可能有其他非CME途径参与了NU-1000的胞吞。Röder等[91]的实验也证实, HeLa细胞主要通过巨胞饮途径胞吞寡聚组氨酸标记的Zr-fum。因此, 后续研究需要更为详细探究HeLa的nMOFs胞吞机制。人肝癌细胞系HepG2也被用于研究nMOFS胞吞途径, Ding等[92]在粒径为50 nm的球形铁MOFs表面吸附金纳米微粒(Au/FeMOFs), 后续在金微粒链接C12SH及PEG-SH (PEG-Au/FeMOFs) 以改善分散性能和对抗调理作用。通过对比氯丙嗪、金雀异黄素(genistein) 及盐酸阿米洛利(amiloride-HCl) 对于HepG2胞吞PEG-Au/FeMOFs @CPT的抑制程度, 他们发现CME、CvME、巨胞饮在该过程中均发挥了重要作用, 其中CME是最为主要的胞吞途径。除此之外, Haddad等[93]选择人乳腺癌细胞MCF-7作为肿瘤模型细胞。他们在UiO-66内转载抗癌药二氯乙酸(dichloroacetic acid, DCA) 并在表面接枝线粒体靶向的三苯基磷(triphenylphosphine, TPP), 发现MCF-7细胞对DCA5-UiO-66的胞吞途径主要是巨胞饮途径和CIE, 而TPP@ DCA5-UiO-66则主要通过CME途径入胞, 这可能与TPP修饰后增强了nMOF正电性有关。
动物源性肿瘤细胞也常被用于胞吞途径研究, 其中以小鼠乳腺癌细胞4T1较为常见[80, 81]。Xu等[94]合成了一种基于锆和锰卟啉的Mn-MOF, 此nMOF可缓解缺氧、减少谷胱甘肽的限制, 提升声动力治疗效果及促进细胞铁死亡。研究发现抑制CME的氯丙嗪, 抑制CvME的甲基-β-环糊精(methyl-β-cyclodextrin) 及抑制巨胞饮的5-(N-乙基-N-异丙基) 均能显著降低小鼠乳腺癌细胞4T1对Mn-MOF的胞吞量, 而三者的联合应用进一步增强了抑制作用, 证明4T1细胞通过CME、CvME、巨胞饮3条途径胞吞Mn-MOF。
nMOFs药物载体同样可针对肿瘤微环境这一特别的体内病理环境。肿瘤微环境由肿瘤细胞、脉管、淋巴器官、免疫细胞及其他基质物质组成[95]。肿瘤细胞代谢快, 物质需求高, 但仅分布在外周的血管使得肿瘤内部物质更新缓滞, 致使TME长期处于缺氧、缺能环境, 进一步赋予TME酸性、免疫抑制等特点[96]。因此针对肿瘤的研究模型不应仅局限于肿瘤细胞, TME的组成细胞也是关注对象。
对此, nMOFs药物载体可作为肿瘤疫苗作用于淋巴结中抗原呈递细胞, 激发针对肿瘤细胞的免疫应答。Zhong等[97]合成出一种铝佐剂结合ZIF-8 (ZANP)。将树突状细胞(DC2.4) 作为目标, 实验证实DC2.4主要以清道夫受体-A介导的吞噬作用(scavenger receptor A-mediated endocytosis) 和CME途径胞吞ZANP@OVA, 这其中CME途径抑制剂对胞吞的影响更大, CvME抑制剂并不能影响DC2.4对此种MOFs的胞吞。
炎症是人体针对各种损伤因子刺激所产生的一种以防御反应为主的基本病理过程, 可促进机体的抗损伤和修复, 维持内环境稳态。导致炎症的因素可能是外源性的感染、异物或组织损伤, 也可能是内源性的组织慢性损伤如2型糖尿病、自身免疫性疾病等[98]。炎症环境中包含损伤组织坏死细胞, 组织内驻守的巨噬细胞/肥大细胞, 血管游走而来的中性粒细胞及各种细胞因子和趋化因子[99], 使得针对炎症的nMOFs胞吞途径研究充满挑战。
针对外源性感染导致急性炎症的研究, Guo等[47]使用羧化+甘露糖修饰后的MIL-88A (Fe) 及MIL-100 (Fe) 模拟病原微生物形态, 辅以搭载抗菌药物治疗感染性疾病。修饰后的MIL-88A为杆形(长宽比1∶5), 以模拟结核分枝杆菌(M. tuberculosis) 等杆形细菌; MIL-100为球形, 以模拟金黄色葡萄球菌(S. aureus) 等球形细菌。研究用肺巨噬细胞3D4/21为研究对象, 证实3D4/21主要通过吞噬作用和巨胞饮作用胞吞两种MOFs, 而CME并没有参与肺巨噬细胞对两种MOFs的胞吞。
针对内源性慢性组织损伤导致的无菌性炎症, Durymanov等[100]选择与多种自身免疫性肝炎相关的Kupffer细胞作为研究模型。他们选择杆形的MIL-88A和MIL-88B-NH2作为潜在药物载体。数据分析表明, 吞噬作用和巨胞饮作用是Kupffer胞吞MIL-88B-NH2的主要途径。此外, 值得关注的是PEG酰化的MIL-88B-NH2的胞吞量更低, 这与前文提到的PEG酰化会阻碍调理作用有关[68], 说明PEG酰化修饰nMOFs并不适用于以巨噬细胞为目标的应用。
除此之外, 有部分研究使用其他特定疾病环境中特定细胞作为MOFs的胞吞途径的研究对象。
nMOFs微粒作为药物载体可促进药物在肠道的吸收, 提升药物动力学表现。对多肽/蛋白质类药物(如胰岛素) 而言, 强酸性且充满各类消化酶的消化道环境易导致药物变性, 并且多肽/蛋白质药物也难以穿过肠上皮屏障, nMOFs为这一难题带来了潜在解决方案。Zhou等[101]应用MIL-100负载胰岛素, 在外部修饰十二烷基硫酸钠(sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS), 合成Ins@MIL100/SDS以提升肠上皮屏障穿越能力, 再包裹进甲氧基聚乙二醇-块状聚(L-乳酸) (mPEG-b-PLLA) 合成的可降解性微球以对抗胃部酸性环境。实验选择类似小肠上皮细胞的人克隆结肠腺癌细胞Caco-2, 该细胞有微绒毛, 分泌与肠上皮相似的酶, 可形成致密单细胞层模拟肠上皮环境。实验发现Caco-2细胞通过CME、CvME及巨胞饮3种胞吞途径共同胞吞Ins@MIL100/SDS, 其中CME途径是最主要的胞吞机制。NH2-MIL-101也被用于搭载艾塞那肽[58]。其表面附着NIPAM和MPDMSA形成的疏水和两性水凝胶层(Ex@MIL101@Gel ±) 以促进胞吞, 最后置于pH响应性Eudragit L100-55制成的明胶胶囊中以保护MOFs免受酸性条件降解。胞吞途径实验显示Caco-2仍主要依赖CME, 部分依赖CvME及巨胞饮作用共同胞吞Ex@MIL101@Gel ±。
nMOFs作为药物载体也被用于人工植入体表面的改性, 通过释放抗炎抗菌促愈合药物以促进骨缺损环境的新骨形成。人工种植体植入后反应类似骨折后愈合过程, 包括血管生成、血肿吸收、骨形成和骨改建等, 涉及血管内皮细胞、破骨细胞、骨母细胞、间充质干细胞及各类细胞因子[102, 103]。Gao等[40]研究了ZIF-8促进种植体植入后骨结合的机制, 实验证实rBMSC主要通过CvME和巨胞饮途径胞吞ZIF-8进入胞质, 后续ZIF-8降解后释放锌离子与胞吞途径涉及受体一起激活成骨相关MAPK通路, 促进骨生成。
综上, 表 1[40, 41, 44, 47-49, 58, 72, 73, 85, 89, 91-94, 97, 100, 101]中罗列了近年来nMOFs胞吞途径研究的nMOFs载体材料表征、所用细胞系及其研究结果。
nMOFs因其高载药率等优点而被认为是极具潜力的药物载体, 但尚未有nMOFs药物载体完成临床试验注册并走进临床。究其原因, 潜在的生物毒性是阻碍nMOFs后续临床应用的最大阻力。nMOFs生物毒性受细胞的生物学行为影响, 与nMOFs的胞吞途径密切相关。包括粒径、形态及表面改性在内的nMOFs理化性质都可能影响具体胞吞途径。粒径可以影响胞吞途径的抉择和胞内命运, 其对CME和CvME的影响相较于对吞噬作用和巨胞饮作用的影响更加显著。粒径同时可以影响细胞胞吞速度和效率, 需要根据细胞种类和nMOFs种类针对性探究最适粒径以提升胞吞速度和效率。对于nMOFs形态, 计算机模型模拟计算发现球形纳米微粒能够尽可能降低胞膜弯曲能量从而以更高效率胞吞入胞, 但柔性nMOFs的胞吞可能受形变影响。nMOFs表面改性依赖于表面多种多样的改性物质以改变其理化性质, 非特异性的PEG酰化修饰可以将MOFs疏水性表面改性为两性或亲水性表面, 一方面避免巨噬细胞吞噬调理效应, 另一方面可以改变nMOFs主要胞吞途径。特异性的叶酸改性利用肿瘤细胞表面丰富表达的FRα, 使得肿瘤细胞靶向性nMOFs能够高效进入细胞质内发挥作用; 透明质酸改性也可通过结合肿瘤细胞表面增高的CD44受体以促进胞吞。总的来说, 不同修饰方法通过改变MOFs表面物理性质(电性、亲水性) 及利用细胞的特异性受体以影响胞吞。
不同于以往按nMOFs种类对其胞吞途径进行阐述, 作者根据疾病类型进行阐述, 以目的为导向, 阐述肿瘤细胞、炎症细胞及其他疾病细胞中nMOFs的胞吞途径, 以期从应用场景指导未来nMOFs药物载体的设计和应用。目前大量研究聚焦于肿瘤、炎症、肠道、骨损伤等领域, 更加深入的分子机制仍待进一步探究。
但是作者也发现, 由于合成原料、合成条件及表面改性措施的不同, 可调性的nMOFs载体展现出千变万化的理化性质, 一方面强化了nMOFs功能, 丰富了nMOFs应用场景, 另一方面也为胞吞途径研究带来了一定挑战; 其次, 当前对胞吞途径的认识仍较为局限, 相关细胞分子机制尚待完全阐明, 导致相关实验手段缺乏特异性。常用的针对不同胞吞途径的抑制剂存在脱靶现象, 可能导致目标以外的胞吞途径受到抑制从而影响实验准确性; 使用共聚焦显微镜观察难以辨别胞内、靠近细胞膜及吸附在细胞膜外的荧光标记nMOFs[33]。此外, 体外实验选择细胞系的生物学行为千差万别, 胞吞方式存在差异, 依赖不同的胞膜受体和信号通路以启动胞吞作用, 导致不同材料在相同细胞系可能以相同途径胞吞, 同种材料在不同细胞系的胞吞途径可能不同。实验条件的细微差异(如细胞密度, 材料合成批次不同) 也可能给胞吞途径的实验结果带来巨大误差。因此难以判断相同材料在不同研究中所得到的结果差异是否准确。同时, 比较不同种类nMOFs胞吞途径和胞吞效率也具有一定难度, 无法确定哪一种nMOFs药物载体的性能更加优异。
未来需要更多地针对nMOFs药物载体细胞胞吞的对照研究及机制研究。尤其是在尽可能保证无关变量一致的情况下, 使用siRNA等工具从基因层面精确控制胞吞行为, 选择性沉默胞吞途径信号通路上关键信号蛋白, 抑或启动显性负性突变体抑制胞吞, 通过正反验证保证研究可靠性, 从而深入探究MOFs的构成、粒径、形态、表面改性及细胞种类对于胞吞途径的影响[33]。目前的研究大多为体外针对特定模型细胞系的研究, 对于复杂的体内模拟仍存在距离, 未来应该考虑从细胞共培养、三维细胞培养乃至组织器官层面进行nMOFs胞吞途径探究。此外, 作者发现nMOFs药物载体在经特定胞吞途径胞吞后的胞内终点并不明确, 相关研究较为匮乏, 而nMOFs药物载体的胞内终点对所搭载药物发挥作用影响极大。因此希望未来的研究同时能探究nMOFs特定胞吞途径的胞内终点, 以更好指导nMOFs药物载体的设计和应用工作。
作者贡献: 王宇轩主要负责收集资料和撰写; 谢雯佳负责修订并给出重要意见和建议; 高会乐、裴锡波对文章的主体和修改进行指导。
利益冲突: 本文所有作者声明不存在利益冲突关系。
  • 国家自然科学基金面上项目(82271016)
  • 四川省中央引导地方科技发展专项项目(2023ZYD0109)
  • 华西口腔交叉学科创新项目(RD-03-202310)
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2024年第59卷第5期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0226
  • 接收时间:2024-03-12
  • 首发时间:2025-11-27
  • 出版时间:2024-05-12
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  • 收稿日期:2024-03-12
  • 修回日期:2024-04-06
基金
国家自然科学基金面上项目(82271016)
四川省中央引导地方科技发展专项项目(2023ZYD0109)
华西口腔交叉学科创新项目(RD-03-202310)
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    1.四川大学华西口腔医院修复科, 口腔疾病防治全国重点实验室, 国家口腔医学中心, 国家口腔疾病临床医学研究中心, 四川 成都 610041
    2.四川大学华西药学院, 靶向药物及释药系统教育部重点实验室, 四川 成都 610041

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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