Article(id=1200860513468018742, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200860506031518620, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1166, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1697299200000, receivedDateStr=2023-10-15, revisedDate=1699200000000, revisedDateStr=2023-11-06, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1764237057319, onlineDateStr=2025-11-27, pubDate=1715443200000, pubDateStr=2024-05-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764237057319, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-27, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1764237057319, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764237057319, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1200860506031518620, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2024', volume='59', issue='5', pageStart='1101', pageEnd='1508', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1764237055547, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764241222263, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1200877982563824311, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200860506031518620, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1200877982563824312, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200860506031518620, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1113, endPage=1125, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1200860513992306763, articleId=1200860513468018742, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Mechanisms of Acinetobacter baumannii iron acquisition and antimicrobial strategies based on the inhibition of iron uptake, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Bacterial resistance has always been a challenge in the field of antibacterials research. As one of the most problematic pathogens causing nosocomial infections, Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii) was a severe threaten to public health. In recent years, as the rate of multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant, and even pan drug-resistant A. baumannii has been increasing, there is an urgent need to develop new strategies to combat this pathogen. Iron is an essential element for the survival and the infection process of A. baumannii. Bacteria have developed a series of iron uptake strategies to survive in conditions of the host iron starvation, including the secretion of siderophore for iron chelation, the uptake of ferroheme, and the transport of ferrous by Feo system. Developing antibacterial strategies to inhibit the iron uptake is an effective way to deal with A. baumannii infection. This article will review the mechanisms of iron uptake by A. baumannii and the antimicrobial strategies developed based on them.

, correspAuthors=Xue-fu YOU, Jing PANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Zhi-meng ZHANG, Xue-fu YOU, Jing PANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1200860520803856815, articleId=1200860513468018742, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=鲍曼不动杆菌铁离子摄取机制与基于抑制铁摄取的抗菌策略, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

细菌耐药一直是抗感染药物研究领域亟待攻克的难题。鲍曼不动杆菌作为引起院内感染的重要病原菌, 严重威胁患者的生命健康。近年来, 多重耐药、泛耐药, 甚至全耐药鲍曼不动杆菌的检出率不断升高, 因此开发新的治疗鲍曼不动杆菌感染的策略迫在眉睫。铁是鲍曼不动杆菌生存必需的基本元素, 也是参与感染进程的重要物质。细菌为了应对宿主铁饥饿现象, 发展了一系列铁摄取手段, 如分泌铁载体螯合铁、摄取血红素、利用Feo系统转运亚铁等。开发相应的抗菌策略以抑制鲍曼不动杆菌的铁摄取, 是应对鲍曼不动杆菌感染的有效手段。本文将从鲍曼不动杆菌铁摄取机制以及基于此机制发展的抗菌策略两个方面进行综述。

, correspAuthors=游雪甫, 庞晶, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*游雪甫, Tel: 86-10-67098991, E-mail: ;
庞晶, E-mail:
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Mechanism of iron uptake by Acinetobacter baumannii.

OM: Outer membrane; IM: Inner membrane; T6SS: Type Ⅵ secretion system; PBP: Periplasmic binding protein; OMVs: Outer membrane vesicles; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; ECFσ: Extra-cytoplasmic function sigma factor. By Figdraw

, figureFileSmall=kqfjeVsgqWoxNK5QsQJs6w==, figureFileBig=HGsC1Fv6eU6xBcWD+9WpeA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106658647826544, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=VsgzEAYPd2rzNvjfuJJYOg==, figureFileBig=RY2wsZh+cWlgcAMbREAbQw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106658777849980, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= Gene cluster of <i>Acinetobacter baumannii</i> , figureFileSmall=VsgzEAYPd2rzNvjfuJJYOg==, figureFileBig=RY2wsZh+cWlgcAMbREAbQw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106658933039246, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=OTBx31uFGK411iCVApgTaQ==, figureFileBig=653kE6sdOROcCJE1ZY1rwg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106659084034201, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= Structure of 6-phenyl-1-(pyridin-4-methyl)-1<i>H</i>-pyrazoline[3, 4-<i>b</i>]pyridine-4-carboxylic acid , figureFileSmall=OTBx31uFGK411iCVApgTaQ==, figureFileBig=653kE6sdOROcCJE1ZY1rwg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106659205669034, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=mG6iPw7nBtGuJwtbOe9hPQ==, figureFileBig=u+Ey6jy2DrhEe96Yv9FtOg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106659335692470, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=CN, label=Figure 4, caption= Structure of OxPreAcb , figureFileSmall=mG6iPw7nBtGuJwtbOe9hPQ==, figureFileBig=u+Ey6jy2DrhEe96Yv9FtOg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106659495076038, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=lFpuR5kuO8z+lgJVjNo9Wg==, figureFileBig=pZCjcuNf46UVOB4O9c9V2Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106659708985561, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=CN, label=Figure 5, caption= Structure of cefiderocol , figureFileSmall=lFpuR5kuO8z+lgJVjNo9Wg==, figureFileBig=pZCjcuNf46UVOB4O9c9V2Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106659931283690, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=S6FNVnKJBAkzzujEmT+PIg==, figureFileBig=Zdx9DIv1eLbFQ6XMpGFx8w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106660128415992, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=CN, label=Figure 6, caption= Structures of fimsbactin conjugates with daptomycin (A) and cephalosporins (B) , figureFileSmall=S6FNVnKJBAkzzujEmT+PIg==, figureFileBig=Zdx9DIv1eLbFQ6XMpGFx8w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106660304576771, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=UVGS6TJL337AkyNPa7syPg==, figureFileBig=3FyArsMhvMEu6VWb5hYDvg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106660497514769, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=CN, label=Figure 7, caption= Structure of DIBI , figureFileSmall=UVGS6TJL337AkyNPa7syPg==, figureFileBig=3FyArsMhvMEu6VWb5hYDvg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106660644315418, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SiderophoreType of the siderophoreChemical structure
AcinetobactinCatechol
Acinetobactin

Pre-acinetobactin
BaomannoferrionHydroxamic acid
Baomannoferrion A

Baomannoferrion B
FimsbactinCatechol-hydroxycarbamate
Fimsbactin A
), ArticleFig(id=1201106660908556584, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860513468018742, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Structures of the siderophores of Acinetobacter baumannii

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SiderophoreType of the siderophoreChemical structure
AcinetobactinCatechol
Acinetobactin

Pre-acinetobactin
BaomannoferrionHydroxamic acid
Baomannoferrion A

Baomannoferrion B
FimsbactinCatechol-hydroxycarbamate
Fimsbactin A
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鲍曼不动杆菌铁离子摄取机制与基于抑制铁摄取的抗菌策略
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张芷萌 , 游雪甫 * , 庞晶 *
药学学报 | 综述 2024,59(5): 1113-1125
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药学学报 | 综述 2024, 59(5): 1113-1125
鲍曼不动杆菌铁离子摄取机制与基于抑制铁摄取的抗菌策略
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张芷萌, 游雪甫* , 庞晶*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 抗感染北京市重点实验室, 北京 100050

通讯作者:

*游雪甫, Tel: 86-10-67098991, E-mail: ;
庞晶, E-mail:
Mechanisms of Acinetobacter baumannii iron acquisition and antimicrobial strategies based on the inhibition of iron uptake
Zhi-meng ZHANG, Xue-fu YOU* , Jing PANG*
Affiliations
  • Beijing Key Laboratory of Antimicrobial Agents, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2024-05-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1166
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细菌耐药一直是抗感染药物研究领域亟待攻克的难题。鲍曼不动杆菌作为引起院内感染的重要病原菌, 严重威胁患者的生命健康。近年来, 多重耐药、泛耐药, 甚至全耐药鲍曼不动杆菌的检出率不断升高, 因此开发新的治疗鲍曼不动杆菌感染的策略迫在眉睫。铁是鲍曼不动杆菌生存必需的基本元素, 也是参与感染进程的重要物质。细菌为了应对宿主铁饥饿现象, 发展了一系列铁摄取手段, 如分泌铁载体螯合铁、摄取血红素、利用Feo系统转运亚铁等。开发相应的抗菌策略以抑制鲍曼不动杆菌的铁摄取, 是应对鲍曼不动杆菌感染的有效手段。本文将从鲍曼不动杆菌铁摄取机制以及基于此机制发展的抗菌策略两个方面进行综述。

宿主铁饥饿  /  铁摄取  /  鲍曼不动杆菌  /  细菌耐药  /  抗菌策略

Bacterial resistance has always been a challenge in the field of antibacterials research. As one of the most problematic pathogens causing nosocomial infections, Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii) was a severe threaten to public health. In recent years, as the rate of multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant, and even pan drug-resistant A. baumannii has been increasing, there is an urgent need to develop new strategies to combat this pathogen. Iron is an essential element for the survival and the infection process of A. baumannii. Bacteria have developed a series of iron uptake strategies to survive in conditions of the host iron starvation, including the secretion of siderophore for iron chelation, the uptake of ferroheme, and the transport of ferrous by Feo system. Developing antibacterial strategies to inhibit the iron uptake is an effective way to deal with A. baumannii infection. This article will review the mechanisms of iron uptake by A. baumannii and the antimicrobial strategies developed based on them.

host iron starvation  /  acquisition of iron  /  Acinetobacter baumannii  /  bacterial resistance  /  antimicrobial strategy
张芷萌, 游雪甫, 庞晶. 鲍曼不动杆菌铁离子摄取机制与基于抑制铁摄取的抗菌策略. 药学学报, 2024 , 59 (5) : 1113 -1125 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1166
Zhi-meng ZHANG, Xue-fu YOU, Jing PANG. Mechanisms of Acinetobacter baumannii iron acquisition and antimicrobial strategies based on the inhibition of iron uptake[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2024 , 59 (5) : 1113 -1125 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1166
抗生素耐药性目前是全球十大威胁之一, 涉及动物和人类健康、粮食安全并影响整个社会的发展。2017年, 基于严重的抗生素耐药现状, 世界卫生组织(WHO) 公布了亟待开发新型抗生素的重点病原体清单, 其中耐碳青霉烯的鲍曼不动杆菌(carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter Baumannii, CRAB) 位列榜首[1]
鲍曼不动杆菌(Acinetobacter baumannii) 是一种革兰阴性条件致病菌[2]。相较于普通人群而言, 鲍曼不动杆菌对危重症患者等免疫力低下人群的感染性更强, 院内感染为其主要感染途径, 在重症监护环境中最为常见[3]。鲍曼不动杆菌可导致多种感染性疾病, 从肺炎、尿路感染到严重的血液或伤口感染、败血症、软组织感染和继发性脑膜炎等, 严重时危及感染者生命[4, 5]。20世纪70年代, 鲍曼不动杆菌曾对多种抗生素较为敏感, 单独或联合使用庆大霉素、米诺环素、萘啶酸、氨苄西林等对治疗鲍曼不动杆菌感染均有良好的效果。然而, 到20世纪90年代, 碳青霉烯类成为控制鲍曼不动杆菌感染唯一有效且安全的药物[6, 7], 随着碳青霉烯耐药的鲍曼不动杆菌的检出和流行[2, 4, 8]对临床治疗提出了严峻的挑战, 开发更有效的抗鲍曼不动杆菌的策略刻不容缓。
铁是细菌生存必需的基本金属元素之一[7], 它参与很多重要的生命过程, 如呼吸链电子传递、DNA与蛋白质的生物合成、DNA复制、表达和修复过程, 同时它也参与代谢过程, 作为多种酶的辅助因子参与酶反应的激活, 如细胞色素酶、琥珀酸脱氢酶和过氧化氢酶等[6, 9]。除此之外, 铁可以介导抗生素诱导的自由基DNA损伤, 这一机制先前已被证明可以促进耐药突变体的形成[7]。可见铁是鲍曼不动杆菌感染进程中的必要物质, 对铁的限制也可以作为对抗细菌感染的手段[10]。宿主体内游离铁的浓度通常低于微生物生长所需, 部分原因是受限于铁在生理条件下的溶解度; 同时也是宿主为了抑制病原体的生存, 对机体环境中的铁含量进行严格调控[11], 主要手段包括: 使游离铁与红细胞中血红蛋白结合、与高亲和力铁结合蛋白如转铁蛋白、乳铁蛋白等结合、使用钙卫蛋白结合铁诱导等产生铁饥饿, 此现象称为宿主的“营养免疫”[12-14]。为了在铁饥饿条件下获取足够的铁以维持生存, 病原菌进化出一整套从宿主中摄取铁的机制[15]
鲍曼不动杆菌铁离子的摄取与细菌的生存和感染性密切相关, 因此针对鲍曼不动杆菌铁离子摄取开发相应的抗菌策略, 对应对这种细菌的感染和耐药现状具有重要的意义[16, 17]。本文将从鲍曼不动杆菌铁摄取机制与基于此的抗菌应对策略两个方面进行综述。
人体内的大多数铁储存在细胞内, 可以与血红蛋白中的血红素络合或与铁蛋白结合储存, 从而保护宿主免受铁毒性。同时, 细胞外铁与转铁蛋白或乳铁蛋白等铁结合蛋白结合[18, 19], 它们控制着血液中的游离铁水平[12, 20, 21]。因此, 血清中只存在少量游离铁[22]。这些蛋白质的协同作用使得缺乏高亲和力铁摄取途径或系统的细菌基本无法获取生存所需的铁[4, 9]。鲍曼不动杆菌为了应对宿主铁饥饿现象, 进化出一系列铁摄取机制(图 1), 如: 通过分泌铁载体螯合Fe3+、利用血红素摄取系统摄取亚铁血红素、利用Feo系统转运亚铁等方式维持生存[23]。其中, 通过分泌铁载体和通过血红素摄取系统摄取铁的过程是由特定的外膜受体介导的, 这些外膜受体利用TonB蛋白偶联细胞质膜提供的质子动力[24]。鲍曼不动杆菌作为好氧细菌, 主要生存在富氧条件下, 因此在铁摄取的过程中, Fe3+比Fe2+的吸收更具优势[15, 25]
通过鲍曼不动杆菌临床分离株的基因组比较分析发现共有7个与铁摄取系统相关的基因簇(图 2)。其中包括1个亚铁离子转运系统Feo基因簇[21, 26]、2个血红素摄取基因簇[27]和4个参与铁载体合成和利用的基因[28-32]
鲍曼不动杆菌的Feo转运系统基因簇由feoAfeoBfeoC 3个基因组成[33], 负责从外界环境中摄取Fe2+, 在低氧偏酸性环境中, Fe2+的摄取占据主导地位[34, 35]
鲍曼不动杆菌基因组中存在两种血红素摄取簇: HemO基因簇和HemT基因簇。研究表明, 绝大多数临床分离菌株都编码HemT基因簇[13], 而HemO基因簇只存在于约60%的临床分离株中, 但这个基因簇的存在能够协助细菌更加有效地摄取血红素亚铁[24]。编码HemO基因簇的多重耐药鲍曼不动杆菌LAC-4菌株与缺乏HemO基因簇的ATCC 17978菌株相比, 能够更有效地利用血红素亚铁作为铁源[24, 36]
在4个与铁载体生物合成相关的基因簇中, 有3个基因簇可以编码10种不同结构的铁载体, 分别为儿茶酚型铁载体[不动杆菌素(acinetobactin) 与前不动杆菌素(pre-acinetobactin)]、异羟肟酸型铁载体[鲍曼铁蛋白(baomannoferrion) A和B]、儿茶酚-羟基甲酸酯混合型铁载体[丝膜蛋白(fimsbactin) A~F][37], 另有一个基因簇用于合成2, 3-二羟基苯甲酸(2, 3-dihydroxybenzoic acid, DHBA), 它是儿茶酚酸型铁载体的前体, 也曾被认为是一种鳌铁能力较弱的铁载体, 由entAentB两个基因组成[30], 可以在缺铁程度较轻的环境下维持细菌生存[31, 38]
鲍曼不动杆菌的基于铁载体以及血红素的铁摄取过程是由TonB依赖的运输系统介导的, 该系统包括定位于外膜的受体蛋白(HemTR、HphR、BauA、BfnH、FbsN等, 见1.4和1.5相关部分), 以及定位于内膜的TonB-ExbB-ExbD蛋白复合体[39, 40]。TonB依赖的外膜受体具有独特的结构特征, 其C端为22条反平行的β链形成的跨膜桶状结构域[41], 便于铁的吸收; N端的球状结构域阻碍其他胞外溶质的通过[42]; 而位于N端的“TonB-box”能量耦合五肽基序(ETVIV) 负责与TonB复合物建立识别[3]。当外膜受体与底物(与铁结合的血红素或铁载体) 结合时, 外膜受体上的TonB-box变成无序状态, 引起自身N端结构域变化, 从而使底物进入细菌周质空间[40]。这个过程中, TonB蛋白复合体中ExbB/ExbD蛋白将内膜上的质子动力(proton motive force, PMF) 转导为能量, TonB收集能量并将其传递给与其C端结构域建立识别的外膜受体[43-46]
已知确定的TonB编码基因有3种: tonB1tonB2tonB3。实验发现, tonB3基因在缺铁条件下比富铁条件下表达上调, 在tonB3基因缺失的细菌胞内铁浓度显著下降, 已被证明是鲍曼不动杆菌在缺铁下生存的重要条件[17]。鲍曼不动杆菌ATCC 19606中tonB1tonB2单独缺失并不显著影响毒力, 而tonB1tonB2双突变体的毒力明显低于野生株, 说明tonB1tonB2在铁摄取过程中起着相对次要的作用[9]
fur是一种转录因子, 又称铁摄取调节因子, 是细菌铁离子代谢中最重要的调节子[4, 47, 48]。铁含量充足时, 铁摄取调节蛋白(ferric uptake regulator, Fur) 的金属离子结合位点处于激活状态, Fur以holo-Fur (蛋白结合态) 的形式存在, 与亚铁结合产生Fur-Fe(Ⅱ) 复合物, 以二聚体形式特异结合靶基因启动子A/T丰富的回文序列Fur box区域, 从而阻碍了RNA聚合酶的结合[49], 阻碍了由fur基因控制的启动子转录与铁摄取相关基因的表达; 铁含量较低时, Fur金属离子结合位点未与金属离子结合, Fur以apo-Fur (蛋白非结合态) 的形式存在, 与启动子分离, 铁摄取相关基因的转录得以恢复[50]
鲍曼不动杆菌铁摄取还受胞外功能σ因子(extra-cytoplasmic function sigma factor, ECFσ) 的调控[6]。ECFσ因子使RNA聚合酶结合到铁摄取相关基因的启动子区域, 启动基因转录[24]; 而抗σ因子能够与ECFσ因子特异性结合, 抑制ECFσ因子与RNA聚合酶的相互作用, 抑制相关基因的转录。在缺铁条件下, 抗σ因子释放出ECFσ因子, 鲍曼不动杆菌铁摄取相关基因的转录得以恢复[6]
分泌铁载体是细菌在缺铁条件下获得竞争优势的关键策略之一, 鲍曼不动杆菌可以通过合成和释放高亲和力的铁载体与宿主的铁隔离蛋白如转铁蛋白、乳铁蛋白竞争获得铁, 逃避宿主营养免疫[51, 52]。研究表明, 在多类菌株中阻断一种铁载体的合成途径不会显著影响所有铁载体的数量, 并且只需表达其中一种铁载体就足以为细菌提供足够的铁螯合能力, 这说明不同的铁载体之间存在功能冗余[7]
铁载体在细菌胞内生物合成, 分泌到胞外空间螯合铁后, 复合物被细菌表面的TonB依赖性外膜受体识别, 主动运输到周质, 通过周质结合蛋白(periplasmic binding protein, PBP) 定位到内膜转运体, 通过内膜转运体摄取进入细菌胞质内[53, 54]
鲍曼不动杆菌分泌的铁载体主要有3种(表 1): 不动杆菌素、鲍曼铁蛋白与丝膜蛋白[55], 不动杆菌素和丝膜蛋白均是经过非核糖体肽合成酶(nonribosomal peptide synthetase, NRPS) 生物合成装配路径产生, 而鲍曼铁蛋白是经由NRPS-非依赖性的铁载体(NRPS-independent siderophore, NIS) 合成路径合成[19]
不动杆菌素属于儿茶酚型铁载体, 由2, 3-二羟基苯甲酸、苏氨酸和N-羟组胺片段组成[1, 19], 此类铁载体有两种不同的形式: 前不动杆菌素和不动杆菌素。同源分析确定了编码前不动杆菌素和不动杆菌素(在此统称为不动杆菌素) 的3个系统: basA~J负责不动杆菌素生物合成(其中, 不动杆菌素的前体2, 3-二羟基苯甲酸是由entAentB基因组成的基因簇表达[56])、barAB负责向胞外释放不动杆菌素、bauA~E负责将螯合铁的不动杆菌素摄取回胞内[57]。此类铁载体在酸性条件下以含有异噁唑烷酮环的前不动杆菌素形式存在, 释放到胞外时[58], 在中性与碱性条件下进行立体化学翻转, 非酶异构化为噁唑啉环形式, 称为不动杆菌素[58-60], 不动杆菌素以2∶1的形式结合铁离子[58, 60, 61]
分泌到胞外的不动杆菌素结合铁后, 通过外膜受体蛋白BauA重新摄回细菌周质空间。在周质中, 铁载体结合蛋白BauB将与铁结合的不动杆菌素转运至由2个渗透酶蛋白BauC和BauD和1个ATP结合蛋白BauE组成的转运蛋白复合物, 利用ATP水解产生的能量使铁-不动杆菌素复合物进入细菌胞质[4, 60]。BauF将络合的Fe3+还原为Fe2+, 从而导致铁与不动杆菌素的亲和力降低, Fe2+得以释放[62]
实验发现, 在小鼠菌血症模型中, 不动杆菌素生物合成突变株ΔbasG在宿主体内的存活能力显著变弱, 而鲍曼铁蛋白(见1.4.1.2部分) 和丝膜蛋白(见1.4.1.3部分) 生物合成突变株ΔbfnL fbsE并没有表现出生存缺陷。说明尽管3种铁载体都有助于鲍曼不动杆菌获取铁, 但不动杆菌素是这种病原体在体内所需的最关键的铁载体[58-60]
鲍曼铁蛋白属于异羟肟酸型铁载体, 由柠檬酸、1, 3-二氨基丙烷、2, 4-二氨基丁酸、癸烯酸和α-酮戊二酸组成[61]。目前发现12个基因参与了鲍曼铁蛋白及其相关功能的编码, bfnABDEGIL负责鲍曼铁蛋白生物合成, bfnCJK负责向环境中释放鲍曼铁蛋白, bfnH负责将与铁结合的鲍曼铁蛋白摄取回胞质[27]。研究发现, 鲍曼不动杆菌表达两种类型的鲍曼铁蛋白, 鲍曼铁蛋白A和B, 二者之间只相差一个双键[28], 都能够以1∶1的形式与铁离子结合[58]
释放到外环境中的鲍曼铁蛋白获取铁后通过BfnH外膜受体进入到周质空间, 目前尚不清楚其通过何种转运机制进入胞质。在胞质中, 螯合的Fe3+被BfnF还原为Fe2+而得以释放[27, 62]
鲍曼铁蛋白是在研究鲍曼不动杆菌AYE时首次发现的[7]。鲍曼AYE菌株虽然只合成鲍曼铁蛋白, 无法合成不动杆菌素[56, 63], 却仍然可以在低铁条件下生存, 提示鲍曼铁蛋白的表达在某些鲍曼不动杆菌菌株的存活和致病性中发挥着重要的作用[64, 65]
丝膜蛋白A~F是儿茶酚-羟基甲酸酯型混合铁载体, 目前仅在包括ATCC 17978和ADP1在内的少数鲍曼不动杆菌中发现[19]。其中fbsB~M负责鲍曼铁蛋白生物合成, fbsOQ负责向环境中释放鲍曼铁蛋白, fbsN负责将与铁结合的鲍曼铁蛋白摄取回细菌[27]。丝膜蛋白基因两侧有转座酶, 这表明它可能是通过水平基因转移获得[30]。丝膜蛋白能够以1∶1的形式与铁离子结合[66], 其中丝膜蛋白A是主要载体, 丝膜蛋白B到F可能是丝膜蛋白A生物合成中间产物[37]
鳌铁的丝膜蛋白利用FbsN外膜受体进入周质空间, 不同于不动杆菌素与鲍曼铁蛋白, 丝膜蛋白结合的Fe3+在周质空间即被FbsP还原为Fe2+, 通过Feo转运系统将亚铁离子运输到细菌胞质内供利用[62]
GAPDH作为人体转铁蛋白与乳铁蛋白的受体, 存在于金黄色葡萄球菌、结核分枝杆菌等细菌的表面, 细菌可以通过内化GAPDH与转铁蛋白或乳铁蛋白的复合物达到对铁的摄取目的[25]。最新发现, E4PDH是鲍曼不动杆菌表面的人类转铁蛋白受体, 与GAPDH具有高度的同源性, 与转铁蛋白具有较高的亲和力(Kd = 64.3 ± 0.71 nmol·L-1), 可以通过结合宿主转铁蛋白并将其内化至细菌内而利用铁[67]
外膜囊泡(outer membrane vesicles, OMVs) 是各种革兰阴性菌外膜分泌的囊泡, 由外膜、质周蛋白、磷脂和脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS) 组成[3]。研究发现铁摄取所需的TonB能量转导系统也在外膜囊泡中富集, 说明外膜囊泡能够从附近环境中捕获铁[17]。在缺铁环境下, 细菌Ⅵ型分泌系统(type Ⅵ secretion system, TS66) 能够分泌识别LPS的受体蛋白TeoL, 捕获外环境中的含铁外膜囊泡, 通过TonB依赖的外膜受体蛋白CubA和CstR进行识别和转运入胞[68]
血红素是宿主体内发现的最大的铁库, 在血红素的卟啉结构中螯合了人体中约70%的铁, 是鲍曼不动杆菌的重要铁源之一[19, 69]
鲍曼不动杆菌的大多数菌株的基因组均含有plc1plc2基因, 它们能够编码具有裂解宿主红细胞功能的磷脂酶C。在低铁条件下, 除直接结合游离血红素外, 鲍曼不动杆菌还可以通过plc1plc2表达上调[68], 裂解红细胞而释放血红素[6]
鲍曼有两类血红素摄取系统: HemO系统依赖于细菌分泌到胞外的血红素结合蛋白, 而HemT系统不依赖于细菌分泌的血红素结合蛋白。鲍曼不动杆菌直接捕获结合Fe2+的血红素的HemT系统包括: TonB依赖性外膜受体HemTR、质周空间血红素结合蛋白及内膜ABC结合转运蛋白[3, 69]。HemT摄取系统的摄取效率较低, 具体摄取机制还有待进一步阐明[36]。HemO系统包括HphA、Slam、HphR、HsmA和HemO蛋白以及σ因子和其同源的抗σ因子[24], 其摄取铁过程如下: 在血红素摄取调控蛋白HsmA的调控下, 血红素结合蛋白HphA穿过内膜进入周质, 通过Slam蛋白分泌到宿主环境中, 从磷脂酶C参与裂解的红细胞中摄取血红素, 形成血红素HphA复合物, 与TonB依赖性的外膜受体蛋白HphR结合后, 被转运到鲍曼不动杆菌胞质内, 经血红素加氧酶HemO催化裂解成胆绿素和一氧化碳并释放亚铁供细菌利用。σ因子与抗σ因子负责相关基因的转录调控[6, 70, 71]
Feo为革兰阴性菌吸收Fe2+的主要系统, 鲍曼不动杆菌的Feo转运系统由FeoA、FeoB和FeoC 3种蛋白组成[72]。FeoA对鲍曼不动杆菌的生存与感染能力至关重要, 敲除feoA基因会显著降低鲍曼不动杆菌生存能力与毒力[26]; FeoB是最重要的亚铁离子转运蛋白。Fe2+通过被动扩散穿过菌外膜上的孔蛋白进入周质空间, 再与定位于细菌内膜FeoB蛋白结合形成稳定配合物, 利用FeoA与FeoB相互作用激活G蛋白酶水解GTP释放的能量, 将Fe2+从周质空间转运通过细胞内膜, 供细菌利用; FeoC作为转录调控子表达[9]
随着鲍曼不动杆菌耐药性的迅速发展, 传统的抗生素疗法逐渐失效。《CHINET中国细菌耐药监测结果》显示, 2023年CRAB检出率已上升至79.5%, 对美罗培南的耐药率高达99.8%, 因此, 新治疗策略的开发十分紧要。铁是鲍曼不动杆菌感染进程中不可或缺的营养物质, 阻遏鲍曼不动杆菌的铁摄取过程能够抑制细菌生存, 降低其感染性。因为有别于传统抗生素疗法, 该策略能够有效应对严峻的抗生素耐药现状, 具有重要的临床意义和社会价值。
刺激宿主细胞产生免疫应答是机体应对病原微生物的基本途径之一[57]。由于与铁载体转运相关的组分是鲍曼不动杆菌重要的毒力因子, 它们有望作为开发鲍曼不动杆菌疫苗的抗原。BauA是铁载体——不动杆菌素介导的铁摄取过程中依赖的外膜受体蛋白, 研究发现预防性注射3剂重组BauA后, 对受到致死剂量鲍曼不动杆菌攻击的小鼠的保护率为100%; 将BauA蛋白的单个或几个暴露结构域展示于支架蛋白而产生的亚结构域杂交抗原, 保护率也可达到50%~100%, 并且可以在一定程度上克服重组外膜蛋白大规模工业化生产的障碍, 提示开发基于BauA的疫苗的可能性[6, 73, 74]。通过生物信息学研究发现, 另一个铁载体——鲍曼铁蛋白依赖的外膜受体蛋白BfnH蛋白具有潜在的免疫原性作用, 可作为亚单位疫苗候选物[22, 73]; 注射重组BfnH蛋白后, 对感染致死剂量鲍曼不动杆菌的小鼠保护作用约为40%[75]。TonB3对鲍曼不动杆菌铁摄取必不可少, 基于TonB3突变株开发减毒疫苗也被视为基于宿主免疫提供保护的有效方案之一, 有待进一步研究[9]。Ramezanalizadeh等[76]报道, 用由BauA-HemTR或CsuA/B-FimA抗原组成的二价疫苗以及由CsuA/B-FimA-BauA-HemTR组成的四价疫苗对小鼠进行免疫接种后, 在鲍曼不动杆菌微致死和亚致死模型中, 对小鼠都表现出部分保护作用, 与单价疫苗相比, 多价疫苗可能可以覆盖更广泛的毒株[22, 76, 77]
然而, 鲍曼不动杆菌感染的患者病情危重时, 免疫功能低下, 无法产生充分的抗体激活反应, 这可能是开发针对鲍曼不动杆菌的治疗性疫苗最大的挑战。TonB依赖的铁转运系统对血红素和铁载体介导的铁摄取必不可少, 宿主针对该系统产生的抗体通常能够有效抑制铁的摄取。因此, 直接注射保护性抗体(如抗BauA抗体或抗血清) 的被动免疫, 可能是鲍曼不动杆菌感染免疫治疗的一种更优选择[60]
分泌铁载体摄取铁对于鲍曼不动杆菌在缺铁条件下的存活至关重要, 此外其在细菌生物膜的形成中也发挥着重要的作用, 因此靶向铁载体对治疗鲍曼感染有巨大的潜力[78]。铁载体合成与表达系统是新抗菌剂的重要靶点[79-82]
破坏参与不动杆菌素生物合成和利用的任何因素都可能导致细菌在缺铁环境生长受阻[83, 84]
BasE是一种芳基酸腺苷酸化酶(aryl adenylate enzyme, AAAE), 这类酶普遍参与儿茶酚或含酚铁载体的生物合成[85]。BasE通过催化2, 3-二羟基苯甲酸和ATP的缩合形成活化中间体, 并将其结合到BasF上, 该复合体参与前不动杆菌素的产生。因此开发BasE酶抑制剂能够有效破坏不动杆菌素的生物合成[82]。Neres等[85]从市售化合物库中筛选出6-苯基-1-(吡啶-4-甲基)-1H-吡唑啉[3, 4-b]吡啶-4-羧酸(图 3), 这种吡唑啉吡啶化合物与BasE活性位点亲和力Kd值低至2.14 nmol·L-1, 可以与BasE底物竞争结合到活性位点上, 从而阻断BasE酶的活性, 抑制不动杆菌素的合成[6, 82]。然而, 这种化合物实际对鲍曼不动杆菌的生长几乎没有抑制作用, 具体原因有待进一步研究[60]
Bohac等[86]将前不动杆菌素氧化为结构更具刚性和稳定性的氧化前不动杆菌素(OxPreAcb, 图 4)。刚性的OxPreAcb不容易异构成不动杆菌素, 干扰铁载体的运输。此外, 它与不动杆菌素竞争转运蛋白BauB的结合位点, 抑制携带铁的不动杆菌素的转运。研究发现, OxPreAcb以剂量依赖的方式抑制鲍曼不动杆菌的生长, 1.56 μmol·L-1时可以完全抑制细菌生长[60, 86]
丝膜蛋白能够与铁形成1∶1的配合物, 在热力学性质上比2∶1的不动杆菌素铁配合物更为稳定[19]。研究发现, 不动杆菌素和丝膜蛋白单独存在时都能促进鲍曼不动杆菌的生长, 但同时存在时却抑制细菌的生长。可能是因为这两个铁载体结构相似, 都具有儿茶酚的结构片段, 竞争结合铁载体转运蛋白BauB[71], 这种竞争也可以解释为什么大多数鲍曼不动杆菌临床分离株只保留了不动杆菌素生物合成和利用相关基因簇而放弃了产生丝膜蛋白[66], 这也说明冗余的铁载体螯合铁反而会诱导铁饥饿。研究表明, 与不动杆菌素单独存在相比, 不动杆菌素与丝膜蛋白联用反而使鲍曼不动杆菌细菌密度下降, 细菌生长30 h后, 联用组与不动杆菌素组相比A600值低0.5以上[61]。可以根据以上现象对丝膜蛋白及其衍生物进行开发, 使其与原生铁载体产生竞争性拮抗, 抑制铁摄取[61]
通过使用“特洛伊木马”策略, 利用细菌对铁的需求, 迷惑细菌铁摄取系统, 将不利因素带入细菌胞内是针对鲍曼不动杆菌感染的有效手段[87]。铁载体可以与抗生素或铁模拟物(如镓Ga3+) 结合, 进入细菌后抗生素会通过抑制细菌DNA复制、蛋白质合成或细胞壁合成而发挥抗菌活性; 而镓等铁模拟物则导致细胞内铁金属蛋白的错误金属化, 影响感染进程。
将天然或合成的抗菌药物与铁载体共价连接, 并利用细菌的铁载体摄取系统帮助这种化合物内化, 能够有效提高抗生素进入细菌胞内的水平, 降低抗菌药物剂量, 克服细菌耐药性[87]。这种治疗细菌感染的“特洛伊木马”策略随着头孢地尔(cefiderocol, 图 5) 的开发而备受关注。头孢地尔是一种儿茶酚-头孢菌素结合物, 是由日本盐野义公司开发的新型抗菌药物, 于2019年11月经美国食品药品监督管理局(USFDA) 批准上市, 可用于治疗由革兰阴性杆菌引起的复杂性尿路感染和院内获得性细菌性肺炎/呼吸机相关细菌性肺炎, 成为USFDA批准的第一种具有铁载体功能的抗菌药物[88]。头孢地尔通过邻苯二酚结构螯合铁离子后被铁载体受体转运至胞内, 通过作用于青霉素结合蛋白3 (penicillin binding protein 3, PBP3) 抑制肽聚糖的合成进而发挥抗菌活性。相比于前几代的头孢菌素, 头孢地尔对耐药革兰阴性菌的抗菌活性更具优势[89]。目前, 头孢地尔临床耐药株的总体分离率较低, 但一项基于2020至2023年间的78项研究的荟萃分析显示, 在鲍曼不动杆菌中头孢地尔非敏感菌株的分离率也已升至8.8%[90]。研究发现, 使用酶抑制剂如阿维巴坦能够有效恢复耐药菌株对头孢地尔的敏感性, 因此细菌对头孢地尔的耐药机制并非归因于细菌铁转运系统的下调, 而是主要与细菌β-内酰胺酶(如ADC型AmpC酶) 的过表达有关[91]
此外, 丝膜蛋白A和丝膜蛋白类似物结合达托霉素或头孢菌素后(图 6), 在体外对鲍曼不动杆菌的杀伤具有高度的有效性和选择性, 10 mg·mL-1时对感染致死剂量鲍曼不动杆菌的小鼠保护率可达80%[60, 92]。这也表明, 只对革兰阳性菌有效的抗生素(如达托霉素) 也可以通过结合铁载体, 进入革兰阴性菌的周质, 从而发挥对革兰阴性菌的抗菌活性[93, 94]
铁载体偶联抗生素是一个具有研究前景的抗鲍曼不动杆菌策略, 同时也为解决革兰阴性菌耐药提供了一种思路。不动杆菌素作为鲍曼不动杆菌重要的铁载体之一, 目前还没有基于它的特洛伊木马策略报道, 有待开发[60]
镓(Ga) 与铁的原子半径、化合价相似, Ga3+可以“迷惑”Fe3+结合蛋白, 与铁竞争摄取系统, 与铁形成代谢拮抗[95]。镓不具有铁的生物活性, 可以使铁依赖的酶失活, 抑制鲍曼不动杆菌的生长和生物膜的形成, 从而抑制感染进程[1, 75]。研究发现, 硝酸镓[Ga(NO3)3] 可以抑制铁载体途径的铁摄取, 体外表现出较好的抗鲍曼不动杆菌的活性(最低抑菌浓度MIC = 4 μg·mL-1)[95]。黏菌素是一种多肽类抗生素, 具有强力抗菌效果, 但由于其肾毒性较大, 通常仅用于急重症用药, 作为抵抗多重耐药革兰阴性细菌的最后一道防线, 然而随着全耐药鲍曼不动杆菌的出现, 最后一道防线也逐渐被突破[84]。Antunes等[64]通过棋盘实验发现, 硝酸镓和黏菌素在体外联合药敏实验中分级抑菌浓度(fractional inhibitory concentration, FIC) 值范围为0.13~0.5, 具有协同抗鲍曼不动杆菌的作用, 二者的联合使用是一种有潜力的治疗策略, 使用这种产生协同作用的药物组合也是应对细菌耐药的一种常见思路[78]
卟啉、血红素模拟物等与非铁金属络合能够迷惑铁血红素摄取系统, 干扰细菌铁摄取, 发挥抗鲍曼不动杆菌的活性[96]
镓卟啉(Gallium porphyrin, GaPP) 作为一种血红素模拟复合物, 能够与血红素竞争与受体的结合, 而干扰鲍曼不动杆菌对含铁血红素的摄取[87]。还有研究将镓卟啉与上文提到的硝酸镓联用, 破坏了细菌铁离子摄取的不同途径, 双重抑制基于铁载体和血红素途径的铁摄取[95], 在体外抗菌联合药敏实验中显示出协同作用(FIC = 0.5), 抗菌活性显著提升[95]
HemO是鲍曼不动杆菌摄取血红素铁的重要系统, 血红素加氧酶能够使血红素释放与之结合的铁供细菌利用。因此, 开发HemO抑制剂可能也是有效抑制细菌对血红素中铁的利用的潜在策略, 但有待进一步研究[34]
使用铁螯合剂可以对宿主铁进行隔离[17, 94, 97]。DIBI (图 7) 是一种外源性特异性铁螯合剂, 能够抑制鲍曼不动杆菌在铁补充条件下的生长, 对鲍曼不动杆菌临床分离株的最低抑菌浓度低至2 μg·mL-1, 还可抑制抗生素用药后存活菌群的恢复生长[1]。此外, DIBI在小鼠肺炎模型中也显示出对鲍曼不动杆菌清除作用, 低剂量的鼻内给药(11 μmol·L-1·kg-1) 可将肺部的细菌负荷降低为对照组的约1%, 并减少鲍曼不动杆菌向脾脏等其他脏器的转移[6]。可见, 外源性铁螯合剂对细菌铁摄取有良好的抑制效果。
先天免疫系统表达的内源性钙卫蛋白具有金属隔离功能, 能够结合包括亚铁离子在内的多种必需营养元素。钙卫蛋白是人类宿主营养免疫功能的关键蛋白[6]
钙卫蛋白[98]属于S100蛋白家族, 由两个亚单位即移动抑制因子相关蛋白8型和14型(MRP8和MRP14, 又被称为S100A8和S100A9) 所构成的异二聚物。当有过剩的Ca2+存在时, 钙卫蛋白由αβ异二聚体形式变换为α2β2型, 在界面上形成位点1 (His3Asp) 和位点2 (His6) 两个过渡金属结合位点, 对金属进行结合[99, 100]。其中, 位点1与锌离子之间存在高亲和力, 而位点2对Mn2+、Fe2+和Zn2+均具有高亲和力。在感染过程中, 钙卫蛋白从宿主细胞中释放出来, 隔离微生物可利用的亚铁离子, 以阻止微生物获取铁。
钙卫蛋白能够通过稳定富氧溶液中的亚铁离子来改变铁氧化还原平衡, 从而在富氧与缺氧环境中隔离铁。钙卫蛋白与Fe2+的配位能力超过了其他已知的Fe2+结合蛋白。钙卫蛋白提供了一种以前很少受到关注的营养免疫形式: 宿主和微生物之间对亚铁离子的争夺。它的Fe2+隔离功能能够影响细菌的毒力和代谢, 进而抑制鲍曼不动杆菌的生存, 是值得研究的抗菌策略[96, 101-103]
为应对鲍曼不动杆菌耐药性的快速发展, 延缓抗生素后时代的来临, 开发新的抗菌策略势在必行, 抑制鲍曼不动杆菌铁摄取是切实有效的治疗方案。本文对鲍曼不动杆菌的一系列铁摄取机制与如何针对这些铁摄取机制采取有效措施这两方面进行了综述。对于鲍曼不动杆菌的铁转运系统、铁载体、血红素铁摄取途径的铁摄取机制, 本文列举了一系列正在使用的或者仍在基础研究阶段的对该病原菌的策略, 为鲍曼不动杆菌感染的防控提供了新思路。
目前, 鲍曼不动杆菌铁摄取的详细机制仍在研究中, 一些新技术手段的开发也为研究过程提供了方法, 如开发用于检测Fe2+及heme的小分子荧光探针作为有效监测工具, 可能应用于HemT系统铁摄取机制的深入探究[104]
而基于铁摄取的抗菌策略的有效性和安全性方面也存在以下值得注意或尚需解决的问题: ①由于铁获取系统的多重性, 单独抑制某个铁载体获取系统可能会导致其他铁摄取途径更为活跃[28], 产生补偿机制。因此, 同时靶向多个铁获取系统, 可能更有效地抑制细菌铁摄取, 如镓卟啉与硝酸镓的联用, 可双重抑制基于铁载体和血红素途径的铁摄取。然而考虑到安全性的问题, 基于多个细菌特异性的靶点的抗菌策略更为稳妥[97, 105]。②使用外源性铁螯合剂干扰细菌铁摄取的策略也存在一定的弊端, 一些铁摄取能力更强的病原体能够利用螯合物中的铁, 获得相对于初始病原体的竞争优势, 导致使用铁螯合剂治疗后的继发性感染。因此, 开发具有抗多种病原体活性的铁螯合剂至关重要[78]。③铁螯合剂和镓基化合物发挥对细菌铁摄取干扰的同时, 对于宿主影响也是不可避免的, 因此存在潜在毒性。目前报道的铁螯合剂都具有良好的耐受性, 但是改变它们的浓度或代谢方式可能对宿主细胞和组织产生不利影响, 因此对它们的使用方法要进行深入的研究并进行严格的规定[97, 106, 107]
作者贡献: 张芷萌负责文章的构思撰写及文献资料的收集整理; 庞晶和游雪甫负责文章的选题、内容讨论并对文章进行了细致的修改和校对。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明无利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(32141003)
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2024年第59卷第5期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1166
  • 接收时间:2023-10-15
  • 首发时间:2025-11-27
  • 出版时间:2024-05-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-10-15
  • 修回日期:2023-11-06
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国家自然科学基金资助项目(32141003)
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    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 抗感染北京市重点实验室, 北京 100050

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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