Article(id=1198656344397017507, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656343151313891, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1108, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1695657600000, receivedDateStr=2023-09-26, revisedDate=1698681600000, revisedDateStr=2023-10-31, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763711542462, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1702310400000, pubDateStr=2023-12-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763711542462, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763711542462, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763711542462, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198656343151313891, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='12', pageStart='3477', pageEnd='3726', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763711542164, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763711721609, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198657095835943176, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656343151313891, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198657095840137481, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656343151313891, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=3583, endPage=3598, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198656344640287141, articleId=1198656344397017507, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress of anti-Acinetobacter baumannii drug, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Compared with other drug-resistant strains, Acinetobacter baumannii has the characteristics of serious drug resistance, high mortality and difficulty to treat. As the phenomena of resistance to existing anti-Acinetobacter baumannii drugs continuously occurs, the development of new anti-Acinetobacter baumannii drugs is urgent. This review introduces the clinical application and research progress of anti-Acinetobacter baumannii drugs, aiming to provide help for the research and development of anti-Acinetobacter baumannii drugs.

, correspAuthors=Wen-xuan ZHANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Kang-fan LEI, Song WU, Wen-xuan ZHANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198656350101271145, articleId=1198656344397017507, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

鲍曼不动杆菌具有耐药性强、致死率高、难以治疗的特点。现有的抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物的耐药现象不断出现, 临床可用药物相对较少, 因此对于新型抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物的研发已迫在眉睫。本文综述了临床使用的和在研的抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物研究进展, 以期对抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物的研发提供帮助。

, correspAuthors=张文轩, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*张文轩, Tel: 86-10-83163542, E-mail:
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Agent Target FDA approval year Percentages of in vitro activity against CRAB isolates[14-20] Pearls Peril
Colistin Lipopoly-saccharides 1950s 98% (MICs = 2-8 mg·L-1) Lower rate of resistence Serious neurotoxicity and neutropenia
Polymyxin B Lipopoly-saccharides 1950s 80%-99% (MICs ≤ 2 mg·L-1) Less nephrotoxicity compared with colistin;
less interpatient variability drug exposure
About 1%-20% of clinical isolates have drug resistance;
limited data of randomized clinical trials
Minocycline Ribosome 30S subunit 1960s 54%-72% (defined by the CLSI breakpoint of ≤ 4 mg·L-1) Great oral bioavailability Related with hepatotoxicity, photosensitivity, irreversible skin discoloration and autoimmune diseases
Tigecycline Ribosome 30S subunit 2005 70% (MICs = 2-8 mg·L-1) Does well in skin soft tissue infection and joint infection About 30% of clinical isolates have drug resistance;
has nonlinear plasma protein binding
Cefiderocol Penicillin-binding protein 2019 89%-96% (defined by the CLSI breakpoint of ≤ 4 mg·L-1) Utilize active transport system of bacteria About 4%-11% of clinical isolates have drug resistance
Sulbactam-durlobactam Penicillin-binding protein; β-lactamase 2023 96% (based on FDA provisional breakpoint of ≤ 4 mg·L-1) Imporved inhibitory effiency for class D β-lactamase;
improved safety for patients
Limited post martket clinical data
), ArticleFig(id=1198960237857305095, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198656344397017507, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Preferred antibiotic options for the treatment of cabapemne resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB) infections. CLSI: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; MIC: Minimum inhibitory concentration

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Agent Target FDA approval year Percentages of in vitro activity against CRAB isolates[14-20] Pearls Peril
Colistin Lipopoly-saccharides 1950s 98% (MICs = 2-8 mg·L-1) Lower rate of resistence Serious neurotoxicity and neutropenia
Polymyxin B Lipopoly-saccharides 1950s 80%-99% (MICs ≤ 2 mg·L-1) Less nephrotoxicity compared with colistin;
less interpatient variability drug exposure
About 1%-20% of clinical isolates have drug resistance;
limited data of randomized clinical trials
Minocycline Ribosome 30S subunit 1960s 54%-72% (defined by the CLSI breakpoint of ≤ 4 mg·L-1) Great oral bioavailability Related with hepatotoxicity, photosensitivity, irreversible skin discoloration and autoimmune diseases
Tigecycline Ribosome 30S subunit 2005 70% (MICs = 2-8 mg·L-1) Does well in skin soft tissue infection and joint infection About 30% of clinical isolates have drug resistance;
has nonlinear plasma protein binding
Cefiderocol Penicillin-binding protein 2019 89%-96% (defined by the CLSI breakpoint of ≤ 4 mg·L-1) Utilize active transport system of bacteria About 4%-11% of clinical isolates have drug resistance
Sulbactam-durlobactam Penicillin-binding protein; β-lactamase 2023 96% (based on FDA provisional breakpoint of ≤ 4 mg·L-1) Imporved inhibitory effiency for class D β-lactamase;
improved safety for patients
Limited post martket clinical data
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抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物研究进展
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雷康璠 , 吴松 , 张文轩 *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(12): 3583-3598
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药学学报 | 综述 2023, 58(12): 3583-3598
抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物研究进展
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雷康璠, 吴松, 张文轩*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 天然药物活性物质与功能国家重点实验室, 北京 100050

通讯作者:

*张文轩, Tel: 86-10-83163542, E-mail:
Research progress of anti-Acinetobacter baumannii drug
Kang-fan LEI, Song WU, Wen-xuan ZHANG*
Affiliations
  • State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2023-12-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1108
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鲍曼不动杆菌具有耐药性强、致死率高、难以治疗的特点。现有的抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物的耐药现象不断出现, 临床可用药物相对较少, 因此对于新型抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物的研发已迫在眉睫。本文综述了临床使用的和在研的抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物研究进展, 以期对抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物的研发提供帮助。

抗鲍曼不动杆菌感染  /  作用机制  /  临床使用  /  药物研究现状

Compared with other drug-resistant strains, Acinetobacter baumannii has the characteristics of serious drug resistance, high mortality and difficulty to treat. As the phenomena of resistance to existing anti-Acinetobacter baumannii drugs continuously occurs, the development of new anti-Acinetobacter baumannii drugs is urgent. This review introduces the clinical application and research progress of anti-Acinetobacter baumannii drugs, aiming to provide help for the research and development of anti-Acinetobacter baumannii drugs.

anti-Acinetobacter baumannii infection  /  mechanism of action  /  clinical use  /  current situation of drug research
雷康璠, 吴松, 张文轩. 抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物研究进展. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (12) : 3583 -3598 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1108
Kang-fan LEI, Song WU, Wen-xuan ZHANG. Research progress of anti-Acinetobacter baumannii drug[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (12) : 3583 -3598 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1108
鲍曼不动杆菌(Acinetobacter baumannii) 俗称AB菌, 又称鲍氏不动杆菌, 属于革兰阴性菌, 是一种严格需氧、非乳糖发酵的条件致病菌。其不具鞭毛, 移动性不高, 但生命力极强, 可广泛地存在于大自然中。该菌是医院感染的重要病原菌, 主要引起呼吸道感染, 也可引发菌血症、泌尿系统感染、继发性脑膜炎、手术部位感染、呼吸机相关肺炎等。鲍曼不动杆菌感染多发于住院患者身上, 其最为显著的特点是多药耐药性。据全国细菌耐药监测网(China Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System, CARSS) 2022年度的报告, 17 691株碳青霉烯类耐药鲍曼不动杆菌对多数抗菌药如复方磺胺甲噁唑、阿米卡星、头孢哌酮-舒巴坦、左氧氟沙星和庆大霉素等的耐药率达到70%以上。对头孢吡肟、环丙沙星、美罗培南和哌拉西林-他唑巴坦等的耐药率达90%以上。据美国疾病控制与预防中心统计, 鲍曼不动杆菌多药耐药发生的概率是其他革兰阴性菌如肺炎克雷伯氏菌、铜绿假单胞菌等的4倍[1]。同时, 鲍曼不动杆菌具有致死率高、治疗难度大的特点。鲍曼不动杆菌占美国所有医院获得性感染的10%以上, 在败血症和肺炎患者中的死亡率超过50%, 对大多数一线抗生素具有耐药性[2], 被世界卫生组织称为对人类最具威胁性的菌株之一。
鲍曼不动杆菌的基因组在面对逆境和压力时会迅速发生突变, 因而其具有极强的环境适应性, 是其能够适应其他病原体不能适应的恶劣环境, 具有强耐药性和感染性的基础。鲍曼不动杆菌强大的环境适应性, 主要表现为抵抗干燥环境的能力、运动转移能力和生物膜形成能力。
长时间处于干燥环境中, 不仅使得细菌细胞内部的水分流失, 还会诱导氧化应激反应。此外, 干燥与湿润条件交替的环境还会造成细菌DNA的损伤[3]。因此在应对干燥环境带来的危害时, 鲍曼不动杆菌表面的多糖合成增加, 形成糖屏障, 进而防止水分过度流失[4]。同时, 鲍曼不动杆菌中促使两个同源DNA分子碱基配对的RecA蛋白和促使过氧化氢分解成氧气和水的过氧化氢酶表达增加, 有助于DNA修复和抵抗细胞内高浓度的过氧化氢[5]
生物膜在鲍曼不动杆菌与其宿主的相互作用中至关重要, 同时促进了医疗器械等引起的相关感染[6]。鲍曼不动杆菌中存在Csu pili (type Ⅰ chaperone-usher pilus system)[7]、PANG (poly-β-1, 6-N-acetylglucosamine)[8]、由Ⅰ型分泌系统分泌的生物膜相关蛋白和重复毒素结构域蛋白(repeats-in-toxin)[9]分别有助于鲍曼不动杆菌在非生物表面, 如聚苯乙烯及宿主表面形成生物膜, 进而诱发感染。
细菌的运动性和其致病性相关。鲍曼不动杆菌有两种独立的运动形式, 即表面相关运动和轴向运动。其中, 轴向运动依赖于Ⅳ型菌毛的伸展和收缩。鲍曼不动杆菌不具鞭毛, 移动性不高, 其运动依赖于1, 3-二氨基丙烷(1, 3-diaminopropane, DAP)、脂寡糖(lipooligosaccharide, LOS) 及群体感应的产生[10]
当鲍曼不动杆菌入侵机体时, 上皮细胞会先释放抗微生物的多肽作为第一道防线。同时, 细胞因子和细胞趋化因子募集吞噬细胞聚集在感染部位, 中性粒细胞最先到达, 释放氧自由基清除入侵细菌。此外, 细菌表面的lipid A和LOS可被人体内的PRR (pattern recognition receptor) 和TLR4 (Toll-like-receptor 4) 受体识别, 启动机体内的免疫反应。然而一些鲍曼不动杆菌可以持续存在于细胞质中的膜结合空泡中, 对此, 人体处于细胞内的PRR (TLR9) 可检测到细菌的DNA, 启动免疫级联反应将鲍曼不动杆菌清除[11]。对于一些从细胞膜的膜结合空泡中逃离的鲍曼不动杆菌, 胞内的PRR核苷酸结合寡聚化结构域蛋白1 (NOD1) 和NOD2以及下游的丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶2 (RIP2) 启动, 限制了鲍曼不动杆菌在上皮细胞的增殖[12]。PRRs的识别导致NF-κB (nuclear factor-κB)、丝裂原激活的蛋白激酶通路(mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway) 的激活并伴随着促炎细胞因子的产生。然而促炎细胞因子的产生是一把双刃剑, 其可以帮助清除病原体的同时也可能引起宿主细胞发生凋亡、细胞焦亡和细胞坏死等。此时, 细菌将会进一步侵染宿主细胞[13]
目前, 美国感染病学会(Infectious Diseases Society of America, IDSA) 推荐的可用于治疗耐碳青霉烯的鲍曼不动杆菌(cabapemne resistant Acinetobacter baumannii, CRAB) 感染的主要药物如表 1[14-20]所示。在不同临床分离株中, 表现出较高体外活性的药物包括多黏菌素类(黏菌素、多黏菌素B)、四环素类(米诺环素、替加环素)、β-内酰胺类(氨苄西林-舒巴坦、舒巴坦-度洛巴坦)、新型β-内酰胺酶类药物(头孢地尔) 等。针对鲍曼不动杆菌的多药耐药现象, 临床上通常采取联合用药的方式进行治疗。
体外实验研究发现, 黏菌素与美罗培南联用∑FIC (fractional inhibitory concentration) < 0.5, 表明二者在体外具有协同作用。其协同作用机制可能为, 黏菌素通过去极化细菌外膜, 使得更多的美罗培南进入细菌周质的目标位点。然而, 两项大型的随机临床试验表明, 黏菌素与美罗培南并无协同作用。在第一项试验中, 患者随机接受单独使用黏菌素或黏菌素联合剂量优化的美罗培南, 治疗由耐碳青霉烯类耐药菌引起的严重下呼吸道感染, 若患者在14天后存活且感染体征和症状趋于稳定则视为临床治疗成功。在该项试验中, 有198名患者接受单独使用黏菌素治疗, 208名患者接受黏菌素联合美罗培南治疗。通过观察耐碳青霉烯类鲍曼不动杆菌感染患者的治疗情况后发现, 单独接受黏菌素治疗的患者临床治疗失败比例为83% (121/151), 接受黏菌素和优化剂量的美罗培南治疗的患者临床失败比例为81% (130/161), 黏菌素与黏菌素-美罗培南治疗效果相差不大[21]。体内临床试验与体外实验结果的差异, 可能由药物到达体内感染部位的浓度与其在体外发生协同作用的浓度不同引起, 或与药物在体内达到有效抑制和杀死细菌浓度的时间有限有关。
多黏菌素B与黏菌素相比, 更容易集中在呼吸道上皮细胞黏液和肺实质中。此外, 多黏菌素B在体内明显比黏菌素更快到达稳定浓度, 并且在有或没有肾功能不全的患者中表现出一致的暴露量[22]。Qureshi等[23]提出, 采用3种药物联用, 即氨苄西林-舒巴坦、碳青霉烯类和多黏菌素B, 用于治疗耐碳青霉烯鲍曼不动杆菌感染。其中, 多黏菌素B可帮助氨苄西林-舒巴坦和碳青霉烯类药物进入细菌内部, 作用于青霉素结合蛋白(PBP1/3和PBP2), 发挥抗菌作用。一项临床试验表明, 接受氨苄西林-舒巴坦、多黏菌素B和碳青霉烯类3种药物联合治疗的患者在30天内的死亡率较低(0%; 0/7)。
与基于多黏菌素或舒巴坦的联合疗法不同, 目前缺乏有关四环素疗法与治疗耐碳青霉烯类鲍曼不动杆菌感染的其他抗生素的随机对照试验数据。由于样本量小、给药方案不规范、感染类型多种多样, 观察性研究产生了不同的结果。
米诺环素(图 1) 是四环素的半合成衍生物, 最初于20世纪60年代推出, 是一种广谱抗菌剂。对临床分离的耐碳青霉烯的鲍曼不动杆菌MIC约为1 mg·L-1。因其可以被胃肠道迅速吸收(95%~100%), 具有较高的口服生物利用度, 使得米诺环素可以进行口服给药, 以帮助减少患者的住院时间和费用。1966~2003年间, 在米诺环素的使用过程中, 每年总体不良事件发生率为1.3‰。然而米诺环素的长期使用与肝毒性、光敏性、不可逆的皮肤变色和自身免疫现象的出现有关, 例如系统性红斑狼疮[24]。尽管米诺环素很有前景, 但仅在临床上进行了观察性研究。在迄今为止最大规模的研究中, 55名患者接受了单独的米诺环素治疗(n = 3) 或各种组合治疗(n = 52), 临床成功率和感染相关死亡率分别为73%和25%[25]。尽管结果令人鼓舞, 但鉴于所使用的组合种类繁多以及在使用米诺环素的过程中剂量选择较为保守(每次100 mg, 每天两次)。因此, 必须开展有关米诺环素的随机对照试验, 为临床治疗指南的制定提供坚实的基础[26]
替加环素结构如图 2。与其他治疗方案相比, 替加环素的单一疗法在菌血症和肺炎患者的治疗中死亡率更高。目前基于替加环素的首选组合并未确定, 在对29项临床试验和2 529名服用替加环素后的患者进行分析后发现, 包括黏菌素、舒巴坦和替加环素在内的3种药物组合与其他方案相比临床治愈率更高[27]。替加环素进入体内后, 受到非线性血浆蛋白结合的影响, 其暴露在呼吸道、血清和尿液中的量不是很理想[28]。此外, 临床上替加环素的耐药现象较为严重, 只有31%和69%的耐碳青霉烯鲍曼不动杆菌分离株对替加环素的MIC分别低于0.5和1 mg·L-1[28]。当使用标准剂量时, 只有当重症患者的MIC为1 mg·L-1或更低时, 才有超过90%的概率达到替加环素PK-PD目标(fAUC: MIC)。为达到相同的PK-PD目标, 临床上治疗MIC ≥ 2 mg·L-1的耐碳青霉烯鲍曼不动杆菌感染, 需使用更高剂量, 即患者需接受每天至少两次100 mg的剂量[29]
革兰阴性细菌产生的β-内酰胺酶是目前抗生素耐药现象的最重要的驱动因素之一。这些酶是β-内酰胺类抗生素的水解酶, 据氨基酸序列关系, 可分为4个类别, 其中A、C和D类发挥β-内酰胺酶活性的部位为丝氨酸, B类酶由需要二价锌离子发挥作用的金属酶组成。传统的β-内酰胺酶抑制剂如克拉维酸、舒巴坦和他唑巴坦等主要对某些A类β-内酰胺酶发挥抑制作用。
舒巴坦(图 3), 可靶向Acinetobacter baumannii-calcoaceticus complex中的PBP1a (penicillin binding protein)、PBP1b和PBP3并使之饱和, 具有自发耐药频率低, 高剂量下使用不良反应少的特点。因此, 当与其他抗生素联合使用治疗鲍曼不动杆菌感染时, 舒巴坦被认为是最有效的联合药物之一。
作为一种β-内酰胺酶抑制剂, 舒巴坦在临床上已与氨苄西林、头孢哌酮和头孢曲松联合使用, 除了用作β-内酰胺酶抑制剂外, 舒巴坦还具有针对不动杆菌属和一些其他病原体的内在抗菌活性。但由于许多临床不动杆菌菌株表达一种或多种β-内酰胺酶, 包括不受舒巴坦有效抑制的D类β-内酰胺酶, 因此临床上, 舒巴坦的耐药现象较为常见。与其他β-内酰胺类药物一样, 舒巴坦在体内以游离形式存在的浓度超过最低抑菌浓度的持续时间(fT > MIC) 是反映其抗菌作用的重要指标[30]。因舒巴坦在危重患者的体内暴露量差异较大, 临床上舒巴坦给药剂量的确定, 需要综合考虑患者肌酐清除率、患者感染情况和引起感染的鲍曼不动杆菌对于舒巴坦的易感性程度等因素。经剂量优化, 氨苄西林-舒巴坦可以有效去除感染部位的鲍曼不动杆菌且具有自发耐药频率较低的特点[30]
阿维巴坦, 一种新型的二氮双环辛酮类的β-内酰胺酶抑制剂目前处于开发后期阶段, 可以抑制许多临床相关的A类、C类β-内酰胺酶和部分D类β-内酰胺酶如OXA-48 (oxacillinase enzyme), 但对鲍曼不动杆菌作用不明显[31]。2017年, Durand-Reville等[32]在对D类β-内酰胺酶X-射线晶体结构研究的基础上, 以阿维巴坦为先导物分子, 通过调整分子的大小、极性及化学反应性, 发现了度洛巴坦(图 4), 具有广泛的D类β-内酰胺酶抑制活性。此外, 度洛巴坦在阿维巴坦的基础上, 进一步提高了对A类和C类β-内酰胺酶的抑制活性。其对A类和C类β-内酰胺酶Kinact/Ki为106~107 (mol·L-1)-1 s-1, 对D类β-内酰胺酶Kinact/Ki为104~106 (mol·L-1)-1 s-1, 相较于阿维巴坦分别高出100倍和1 000倍。舒巴坦会被一些新型的β-内酰胺酶, 如TEM-1、ADC-30和OXA降解, 因而对临床分离的鲍曼不动杆菌具有较弱的抗菌活性。当舒巴坦与度洛巴坦联用时, 舒巴坦的MIC90降低了16倍, 达到4 mg·L-1, 且对4株临床分离的鲍曼不动杆菌自发耐药频率很低(在4×MIC下, ≤ 8×10-10)。度洛巴坦与舒巴坦的协同作用可在所有的耐药鲍曼不动杆菌中观察到, 其中包括731株美罗培南耐药株、56株多黏菌素耐药株和778株多药耐药株。舒巴坦-度洛巴坦在小鼠大腿和肺部感染模型中疗效显著并呈剂量依赖性。在高达2 000 mg·kg-1的14天重复剂量毒理学研究中, 度洛巴坦在大鼠和狗中都有很好的耐受性, 在眼科检查、尿液检查、血液学和器官检查中并未发现异常。2019年5月舒巴坦-度洛巴坦进入临床Ⅲ期研究阶段, 患者被随机分为黏菌素治疗组和舒巴坦-度洛巴坦治疗组。研究发现, 舒巴坦-度洛巴坦相比于黏菌素, 发挥了更好的临床治疗效果(28天死亡率分别为19%和32%) 且肾毒性的发生率较低(分别为13%和38%)[33], 现已获得FDA的批准。
头孢地尔(cefiderocol, 图 5) 于2019年10月获得美国食品药品监督管理局批准, 用于治疗尿路感染(urinary tract infections, UTIs), 并于2020年9月获得批准, 用于治疗医院获得性肺炎和呼吸机相关的细菌性肺炎。头孢地尔由头孢菌素部分和儿茶酚型铁载体组成, 因其携带铁载体, 可通过活性铁转运蛋白进入细菌周质。随后头孢菌素部分与铁载体部分解离, 作用于青霉素结合蛋白以抑制细菌细胞壁的合成。头孢地尔独特的化学结构使其较为容易地进入细菌内部并免受孔道蛋白丢失、外排泵过度表达和被β-内酰胺酶水解的影响[34]。头孢地尔的标准剂量是每8 h注射2 g, 使用过程中最常见的不良反应是血清丙氨酸转移酶(ALT) 和天冬氨酸转氨酶(AST) 的升高, 但并不引起明显的肝损伤[35]
现有数据表明, 在大约1 900株对碳青霉烯类药物不敏感的鲍曼不动杆菌中, 头孢地尔对95%耐药鲍曼不动杆菌的MIC ≤ 4 mg·L-1[18]。在一项Ⅲ期临床试验中, 将300名获得性肺炎患者随机分为头孢地尔给药组和高剂量输注时间延长的美罗培南给药组, 其中有36名患者被确诊为鲍曼不动杆菌感染。经观察, 两组14天的死亡率均为28%左右, 实验结果表明, 头孢地尔的治疗效果并不逊色于剂量优化美罗培南。另有临床试验表明, 接受头孢地尔治疗的患者与接受黏菌素治疗的患者相比, 治疗失败的发生率更高, 分别为17%和7%[36]
目前对头孢地尔的获得性耐药频率的估计尚不清楚, 从大型随机试验的结果来看, 来自患者的大约4%至15%的分离株, 在使用头孢地尔后, MIC增加了4倍。其耐药性现象出现可能与运输铁载体-抗生素复合物的TonB依赖的铁转运蛋白途径(介导跨外膜的底物特异性运输) 突变有关[37]。临床上, 推荐头孢地尔与其他药物联合使用, 以延缓头孢地尔耐药现象的出现。在小鼠大腿感染模型中, 与单独使用头孢地尔相比, 头孢地尔与氨苄西林-舒巴坦、头孢他啶-阿维巴坦或美罗培南联合使用时, 表现出对鲍曼不动杆菌更强的杀灭作用, 并有效地防止了头孢地尔耐药现象的出现[38]
尽管近年来, 相继有治疗鲍曼不动杆菌感染的药物获得FDA批准, 对于多黏菌素类药物、β-内酰胺类药物和四环素类药物也在进行深入的联合用药和剂量优化研究, 但总体上抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物在市场上仍然较为匮乏且耐药现象依然严峻。加快新型抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物的研发速度是非常必要的, 下文综述了治疗鲍曼不动杆菌感染的新靶点及药物研究情况。
细菌生物膜被定义为包裹在生物分子, 脱氧核糖核酸和脂质, 处在细胞外基质中的细菌表面附着群落, 是传染病治疗的重大障碍, 在生物膜状态下, 细菌对抗生素的耐药性是浮游状态下的1 000倍, 是细菌慢性感染和复发的重要原因[39]。生物膜在鲍曼不动杆菌与其宿主相互作用中起重要作用, 容易引起医疗器械相关感染。鲍曼不动杆菌表面附着有许多多糖偶联物, 通常包括荚膜多糖、糖化蛋白、脂多糖和肽聚糖, 对生物膜的形成和维持有很大的贡献, 同时也为细菌感染宿主细胞提供便利(图 6)。以鲍曼不动杆菌的生物膜、脂多糖和荚膜多糖为作用靶点, 进行相关药物研究, 具有较好的临床应用价值。
细菌可通过评估释放到环境中的细胞外信号小分子, 来确定其细胞密度并协调其种群行为, 这种现象被称为群体感应[40]。鲍曼不动杆菌的群体感应系统包括abaI合成酶和abaR受体(信号转导作用)。目前为止, 开发新型群体感应抑制剂来对抗包括生物被膜形成在内的毒力因素是治疗细菌感染的新策略。即通过设计模拟自身诱导因子的结构(图 7化合物1), 与abaR受体结合, 使细菌保持浮游状态。该类分子与其他药物联用时, 可以增强联用药物的药效作用并降低耐药性的发生概率。与传统抗菌剂相比, 群体感应抑制剂发挥抗菌作用是通过扰乱细胞间的通讯而不是杀死细菌, 将极大地减少耐药性发生的概率。
喹唑烷酮具有良好的抗菌性能, 其3位的芳基对抗菌性能非常重要[41]。Yang等[42]提出将3位的芳基替换为异羟肟酸基团, 得到的3-羟基-2, 3-二氢喹唑林- 4(1H)-酮类化合物, 可在减弱其抗菌活性的同时增强其抗生物膜的活性。进一步构效关系研究表明, 在1位引入吸电子取代的苄基, 可明显提高对生物膜的抑制率。例如图 8所示化合物2, 其对鲍曼不动杆菌生物膜的抑制率可以达到34.1%。据美国实验室和临床标准协会的建议, 通过CLSI推荐的微量棋盘稀释法可以清楚地观察到该分子与庆大霉素的协同作用。这项实验显示了该类化合物在临床上的潜在应用前景。
磷脂双分子层表面丰富的脂多糖是革兰阴性菌的标志, 是使得大多数药物难以渗透入细菌内部, 不能发挥药效作用的重要原因。因其使得细胞膜表面带有负电荷, 成为了阳离子抗菌肽(AMPs) 的主要靶标。
多黏菌素是一种阳离子多肽抗生素, 由环状十肽通过酰胺键连接到细菌表面的脂肪链上。多黏菌素通过与细菌外膜上的脂多糖结合, 可扰乱外膜的稳定性, 最终使得细菌死亡[43]。目前, 多黏菌素在临床上被视为治疗鲍曼不动杆菌感染的最后一道防线。遗憾的是, 仍然出现了鲍曼不动杆菌对多黏菌素耐药的现象[44]
抗菌肽具有广谱抗菌活性和杀菌速度快的特点。因抗菌肽与细菌细胞质膜产生非特异性相互作用, 细菌很难对没有特定靶点的抗菌肽产生抗药性, 因而具有广泛研究的价值[45]。然而抗菌肽具有同时裂解真核细胞膜和细菌细胞膜的能力, 极容易产生溶血现象[46]。如何提高抗菌肽选择性破坏细菌细胞膜的能力, 是发展抗菌肽需要克服的主要困难之一。
近期研究表明, 在抗菌肽的α-螺旋非极性表面插入赖氨酸残基, 利用其改变抗菌肽的总疏水性、疏水类型和位置, 不仅可以使抗菌肽的抗菌活性改善, 并且进一步大幅度降低了其溶血活性, 使得抗菌肽的治疗指数大幅度提高。2019年Mant等[47]以其团队从头设计的含26个氨基酸的α-螺旋抗菌肽为基础, 将多肽链非极性面中心特定位置上的正电荷氨基酸, 以精氨酸、赖氨酸、含特殊氨基的鸟氨酸、二氨基丁酸和二氨基丙酸进行替换, 使得在维持多肽MIC为0.6~1.0 μmol·L-1的同时, 大幅度降低了溶血性现象出现的概率, 将其治疗指数提高287倍。
派尼肽素(paenipeptin C) 是一种新型人工合成的线性脂肽抗生素, 其最初从Paenibacilluss sp.产生的线性和环状脂肽的天然混合物中分离得到[48]。2017年, Moon等[49]首次对其进行人工合成, 并从脂链的长度、带正电荷的氨基酸类型和数量, 以及总体疏水性的角度考虑, 对其进行了构效关系研究, 共合成了17个多肽。其中如图 9所示化合物3具有最强的活性, 其对碳青霉烯耐药的鲍曼不动杆菌MIC可达0.5 mg·L-1。实验表明, 派尼肽素类似物几乎没有溶血活性, 与利福平联用可显著降低利福平的MIC。派尼肽素类似物与利福平或克拉霉素联合应用于治疗鲍曼不动杆菌感染将会是一个非常有吸引力的临床选择。
鲍曼不动杆菌对多黏菌素产生耐药性通常由鲍曼不动杆菌的PmrAB双组分系统突变, 介导pmrA表达上调, 进而对细菌外表面的脂多糖进行修饰引起。鲍曼不动杆菌通过添加4-氨基-4-脱氧-L-阿拉伯糖(L-Ara-4N) 或磷脂乙醇胺(PETN) 来修饰脂多糖A (lipid A), 减少了细菌外膜与多黏菌素可结合的位点[50]。同时, 对于脂寡糖完全丧失的菌株, 鲍曼不动杆菌进化出补偿机制, 使得某些脂蛋白过度表达, 弥补脂多糖(lipid A) 的损失, 以维持细胞膜的稳定性[51]
目前, 针对于抑制PmrAB双组分系统以减少鲍曼不动杆菌耐药现象产生的研究正在进行。Harris等[52]报道了氨基咪唑类小分子佐剂(图 10化合物4), 可通过下调PmrAB系统以抑制鲍曼不动杆菌耐药性的产生。机制研究表明, 该佐剂可10倍以上下调PmrAB系统, 显著抑制了鲍曼不动杆菌对表面lipid A的修饰, 使得对于多黏菌素耐药的鲍曼不动杆菌在体外再次对多黏菌素敏感。实验结果表明, 化合物4与多黏菌素联用, 可使多黏菌素MIC降低1 024倍以上。细菌连续传代耐药性研究表明, 多黏菌素和化合物4联用8天后, 多黏菌素敏感和多黏菌素耐药的鲍曼不动杆菌均不能对联合治疗产生耐药性。
荚膜多糖(capsular polysaccharides, CPS) 主要由重复的寡糖单位组成, 是鲍曼不动杆菌的主要致病因子[53], 具有保护细菌免受外界环境影响和帮助其抵御宿主补体介导的损伤的能力, 是生物膜的重要组成部分。事实上, 缺乏荚膜多糖的菌株是无毒的, 很容易被补体杀死[54]。鉴于病原体的荚膜多糖不同于哺乳动物, 不太可能在人类中引发自身免疫反应或过敏, 以及以荚膜多糖结合物为基础的疫苗在抗其他菌株, 如肺炎链球菌和B型流感嗜血杆菌等中的成功应用, 吸引了部分科学家展开了针对于鲍曼不动杆菌荚膜多糖的疫苗研究[4]
目前已有20多个鲍曼不动杆菌的CPS结构, 在90多个血清型中被阐明。鲍曼不动杆菌ATCC17978的CPS由一个三糖重复单元组成[55]。该三糖单元也同时存在于ATCC NIPH146[56]、17961[57]、SMAL[58]和LUH5537[59]菌株中。Sianturi等[60]设计并合成了16个类似鲍曼不动杆菌17978的重复的单糖和低聚糖, 用于糖链微阵列研究。具体通过将所合成的多糖和低聚糖印刷到微阵列载片上, 并在鲍曼不动杆菌感染患者的血清和007sp参考血清中进行筛选, 找出可以与感染患者血清中抗体结合的类似鲍曼不动杆菌ATCC17978 CPS的人工合成寡糖。Sianturi等所合成的6个寡糖可以与IgG产生结合, 为进一步排除非特异性结合作用, 用HUMC1和ATCC 17978的鼠单抗C8筛选合成寡糖, 该单抗可以与乙酰化的低聚糖和四糖(图 11化合物5) 产生特异性的结合, 此外C8还与具有较短糖链的其他3个低聚糖结合, 但不与非乙酰化低聚糖结合, 表明2, 3-二乙酰氨基-4-O-乙酰基在与抗体结合中发挥的重要作用。因四糖(化合物5) 可与单抗C8产生强特异性结合, 目前四糖作为疫苗的候选物正在被进一步研究。
在进攻宿主时, 除了有荚膜多糖帮助鲍曼不动杆菌抵御宿主攻击外, 还存在有微量元素摄取系统, 使得鲍曼不动杆菌的代谢和营养摄取更具有灵活性。
锌是许多蛋白质结构辅因子, 同时也是鲍曼不动杆菌生存所必需的营养元素之一[61]。哺乳动物通过一种称为营养免疫的过程, 释放钙保护素, 限制鲍曼不动杆菌对于锌的摄取[62]。对此, 鲍曼不动杆菌可通过调节锌吸收抑制因子(Zn uptake-repressor, Zur) 来应对锌缺乏[63]。2022年, Lonergan等[64]发现当Zur脂蛋白A (Zur-regulated lipoprotein A, ZrlA) 的表达增加时, 有利于细菌维持其内膜的完整性和动态稳定性, 此外还具有帮助细菌摄取锌离子, 增强细菌耐药性的作用。因而, 开发ZrlA蛋白抑制剂, 与现有抗生素联用, 可能降低抗生素MIC并降低抗生素耐药性发生的概率。但是目前并未有相关ZrlA抑制剂报道。
铁是作为一种关键的酶辅因子参与细菌的增殖和感染等重要的生物过程。在生理pH条件下, 人血清中Fe3+的浓度约为10-24 mol·L-1。然而细菌生长所需的铁离子浓度至少要维持在10-6 mol·L-1, 预示着细菌在侵入宿主时, 必然会进化并分泌具有与铁高亲和力的物质, 通过螯合外部环境中非血红素宿主铁后重新输入细菌内部[65]。铁载体是大多数病原体生产和利用铁的小分子螯合剂, 用于主动化铁并与宿主的铁隔离免疫蛋白, 如转铁蛋白、乳铁蛋白等竞争非血红素宿主铁[66]。人类致病性鲍曼不动杆菌菌株最多可产生3种铁载体: 不动杆菌素(acinetobactins)、鲍曼铁蛋白(baumannoferrin) 和膜芽孢杆菌素(fimsbactins)[67]
不动杆菌素被认为是鲍曼不动杆菌致病力的主要因素, 因而通过干扰鲍曼不动杆菌素的生物合成和被利用的过程, 可使得鲍曼不动杆菌的感染能力降低并产生生长障碍。不动杆菌素的生物合成主要依赖编码非核糖体多肽合成酶(nonribosomal peptide synthetases, NRPS), 其中BasG和BasC参与关键前体物质N-羟基组胺的合成。BasJ和BasF参与关键前体物质2, 3-二羟基苯甲酸的合成。随后BasE蛋白和BasA蛋白, 一种独立的腺苷酸酶, 分别催化2, 3-二羟基苯甲酸和L-苏氨酸与BasF和BasB的硫醇结构域结合, 二者在BasD的催化作用下环化脱水得到负载在BasB上的儿茶酚基恶唑啉硫酯中间体。最后与N-羟基组胺发生亲核取代反应得到不动杆菌素Ab-Oxa。不动杆菌素的生物合成过程如图 12。Ab-Oxa可在生理条件下异构化成Ab-Isox, 由于其在酸性条件下异构化速度较慢, 中性和碱性条件下异构化速度较快, 考虑到感染部位呈酸性, 在存在感染时, 两种异构体均发挥螯合铁离子的作用。
不动杆菌素螯合铁离子被利用的过程如图 13所示, 参与该过程的主要蛋白质有: BauA——位于细菌外膜, 借助于TonB外膜受体提供的能量可以识别不动杆菌素与铁离子的复合体并将其运送至细胞周质内; BauB——位于细胞周质中, 可将复合体转运至渗透蛋白酶BauC和BauD与ATP结合蛋白BauE的内膜复合体上; 内膜复合体——包括BauC、BauD和BauE, 可将不动杆菌素铁离子复合体转运至细胞内; BauF——一种铁还原酶, 通过将Fe (Ⅲ) 还原为Fe (Ⅱ), 使铁离子从不动杆菌素的复合体上解离出来。其中BauA和BauB的晶体结构已被解析, BauA是一个由22条反平行的链、几个细胞外环和一个塞子结构域组成的β-桶状蛋白。实验发现, 在BauA的结合口袋中观察到的底物是Fe (Ⅲ)、Ab-Oxa和Ab-Isox。其中Ab-Oxa位于结合口袋的疏水区, 2位儿茶酚的羟基, 噁唑啉的氮原子, 羟基酸根的羟基和咪唑环上的氮原子, 与Fe (Ⅲ) 形成配位作用。Ab-Isox位于结合口袋的亲水区, 其儿茶酚部分的两个羟基占据余下两个位置的配位位点。
BauB是一个由α-螺旋连接两个球形结构域的蛋白, 在BauB的结合口袋中可以观察到两个AB-Isox分子和一个铁离子。两个Ab-Isox分子, 一个位于结合口袋的疏水区, 一个位于亲水区, 主要参与铁离子的络合过程[68]
基于对不动杆菌素的利用过程和生物合成过程的理解, 参与该过程的某些重要蛋白质可以作为药物开发的重要靶点。例如竞争性铁载体类似物抑制剂和BasE抑制剂等, 目前正在被广泛研究。
不动杆菌素的结构如图 12所示, 对于其结构的微小改变, 可能会完全改变其生物活性。2006年的一项研究表明, 绿脓菌素中的噻唑环被氧化成相应的芳香噻唑环, 可阻断绿脓杆菌对三价铁离子的转运[69]。受到类似研究的启发, Bohac等[70]提出猜想, 将Ab-Oxa的噁唑啉环氧化成相应的芳香噁唑啉环(图 14化合物6), 可能会使得该铁载体的骨架刚性增加, 以其作为类似物, 可干扰不动杆菌素的摄取过程, 达到抑制鲍曼不动杆菌的效果。Bohac等合成化合物6后发现, 与Ab-Oxa相比, 化合物6在0.78~50 μmol·L-1之间有明显的抑制鲍曼不动杆菌生长的作用。进一步研究发现在10 μmol·L-1 Ab-Isox存在的情况下, 化合物6对鲍曼不动杆菌的生长是呈竞争性和剂量依赖性的, 化合物6主要通过BauA被运送至细胞周质中, 其抑菌作用可被Fe (Ⅲ) 的补充而拮抗。随后的研究发现, 若化合物6被提前负载铁离子, 可以作为铁离子源被鲍曼不动杆菌利用, 发挥促生长作用。目前化合物6的抑菌作用机制并不明确。根据经验, 推测结构刚性更强的化合物6可与BauA产生更紧密的结合, 从而阻断了不动杆菌素的转运。
不动杆菌素模拟物的设计, 可作为一种抑制鲍曼不动杆菌生长的药物研究策略。
BasE酶参与不动杆菌素合成的启动以及将2, 3-二羟基苯甲酸装载入非核糖体多肽合成酶(NRPS) 的重要过程[71]。此外, BasE蛋白在哺乳动物中无同源蛋白, 因此是治疗鲍曼不动杆菌感染的理想靶标之一[72]。实验研究表明, 当通过同源重组的方法敲除basE基因后, 在铁离子浓度较低的情况下, 鲍曼不动杆菌的生长速率会严重受损, 当以质粒重新引入basE基因后, 同样在铁离子浓度较低的情况下, 鲍曼不动杆菌的生长速率有所上升。而在铁离子浓度较高的情况下, 有无basE基因对于鲍曼不动杆菌的生长情况影响较小[72]。Neres等[72]通过高通量筛选获得图 15所示苗头化合物7, 在此基础上通过进一步结构优化、构效关系探索和靶点药物结合表征等获得活性较优化合物, 与靶标的解离常数KD值达2 nmol·L-1。该类化合物及其类似物对BasE有较强的酶抑制作用, 但对鲍曼不动杆菌缺乏全细胞活性, 推测可能是与该类结构中的亲水性基团存在导致该类化合物的膜渗透性较差有关。
此后, Christoff等[73]使用高通量筛选的方法, 得到1, 2, 5-噁二唑类化合物, 其中部分衍生物(图 16化合物8) 对于鲍曼不动杆菌的MIC达0.5 mmol·L-1。以BasE为靶标的化合物, 还有待进一步研究和开发。
药物分子通过偶联铁载体, 利用细胞的主动转运功能可以较为容易地穿透生物屏障, 抵达治疗靶点。药物与铁载体的偶联物具有提高药物的有效性、减少潜在的不良反应、克服细菌的耐药机制并扩大已有药物的抗菌谱的优势[74]。天然铁载体偶联物, 阿波霉素(albomycins) 由三肽丝氨酸和硫代核糖类似物构成, 其中三肽部分为铁载体类似物, 可被外膜转运蛋白识别, 随后经ATP结合盒转运蛋白(ATP-binding cassette, ABC) 转运进入细胞, 硫代核糖类似物部分经丝氨酸蛋白酶释放, 剩余部分通过抑制氨基酰tRNA的合成阻止细菌蛋白质的合成[75]。受到白霉素的启发, 研究人员开始进行了铁载体偶联物的设计[76]。在设计过程中有两点需要注意的是, 该类化合物需在胞外环境和被摄取过程中保持稳定。同时, 在进入细菌内部后可以及时分解, 保持药物与靶点的相互作用[77]。Liu等[77]使用头孢菌素作为铁载体和革兰阳性菌抗生素噁唑烷酮类化合物的连接物设计了复合物9。当复合物9 (图 17) 进入细菌内部时, 噁唑烷酮类药物被头孢菌素的水解酶释放发挥作用, 该类化合物的MIC达到0.4 μmol·L-1 (图 17复合物9)。然而这一选择也带来一定的风险, 即药物分子可能会被β-内酰胺酶失活[78]
达托霉素(daptomycin) 是一种带负电荷的脂肽抗生素, 通过与细菌细胞膜结合, 导致膜的快速去极化使得离子外流, 并最终扰乱了DNA、RNA以及蛋白质的合成, 但其仅具有抗革兰阳性菌活性[79]。2017年, Ghosh等[80]将鲍曼不动杆菌的铁载体与达托霉素通过酰胺键连接, 得到图 18所示化合物10。体内药效实验研究发现, 当化合物10以25 mg·kg-1的剂量静脉给药时, 可使得小鼠的存活率达到80%。急性毒性实验研究发现, 当化合物10以250 mg·kg-1的剂量静脉给药时, 并未观察到明显不良反应, 表明化合物10具有良好的安全性。以上研究证明, 达托霉素即使比铁载体本身大得多, 也可以通过铁载体偶联克服革兰阴性细菌的难以渗透的问题。
细菌分泌系统的主要功能包括介导细菌质粒的转移、分泌对宿主细胞有毒的蛋白和从宿主细胞中摄取营养物质。鉴于其不是细菌生长所必须, 针对该类靶点的药物引起细菌耐药现象的可能性相对较低[81]。鲍曼不动杆菌中存在的是Tpye Ⅳ型分泌系统, 由ATP介导蛋白的分泌。参与该过程的一种激酶VirB11可作为靶点用于抑制剂的开发[82]。目前已有学者对于VirB11 ATPase HP0525的晶体结构进行了解析[83]。Sayer等[84]设计并合成了一系列咪唑并[1, 2-a]吡嗪衍生物, 具有VirB11的抑制活性, 结合分子对接技术通过结构修饰与优化, 得到如图 19所示的化合物11, 其IC50值为4 μmol·L-1
临床上现有的β-内酰胺酶类抑制剂仅对丝氨酸β-内酰胺酶, 即A类、C类和D类β-内酰胺酶有效[85]。在鲍曼不动杆菌中普遍存在的为碳青霉烯酶(OXA), 属于D类β-内酰胺酶, 因此对于D类β-内酰胺酶类抑制剂的研究, 是解决临床上鲍曼不动杆菌耐药的重要手段。2020年, Davies等[86]通过基于结构的理性设计将阿维巴坦六元环上的酰胺键替换为氟原子, 报道了一种新型二氮双环辛烷类化合物(如图 20所示ANT3310, 化合物12), 其对鲍曼不动杆菌中OXA-23的IC50值相较于阿维巴坦下降60倍, 与美罗培南联用可降低美罗培南的MIC至8倍。药代动力学研究表明ANT3310较阿维巴坦, 具有半衰期长、生物利用度高和清除率低的特点, 且其本身不具有抗菌活性, 是理想的与β-内酰胺类抗生素联用的药物[87]。2023年5月ANT3310在法国进入Ⅰ期临床试验。
截短侧耳素是一种50S rRNA亚基的强结合剂, 于1952年从两种担子菌Basidiomycete spp. (Pleurotus mutilusPleurotus passeckerianus) 中分离得到[88]
瑞他帕林(retapamulin) 是第一个上市的截短侧耳素类抗菌剂, 于2007年被美国药品监督管理局批准用于治疗金葡菌和化脓性葡萄球菌等革兰阳性菌引起的脓包疮和继发创伤性皮肤感染[88]。截短侧耳素类抗菌药物在临床上的成功应用, 吸引了众多科学家并对其展开研究, 以期扩大其抗菌谱, 提高对革兰阴性菌的抗菌活性。2017年, Siricilla等[87]报道了如图 21所示化合物13, 具有初步的抗鲍曼不动杆菌的活性, 其MIC为1.75 mg·L-1, 与妥布霉素和多黏菌素活性相当。进一步研究发现该分子与多西环素具有协同作用, 二者以35/1l联用时, 化合物13的杀菌浓度可达2 mg·L-1, 对于该化合物药代动力学性质的研究正在进行。
Ⅱ型细菌DNA拓扑异构酶包括DNA回旋酶和拓扑异构酶Ⅳ, 其功能是在DNA复制和转录过程中维持DNA处于适当的拓扑形态[89]。近期文献报道了一系列新的4-羟基-2-吡啶酮类化合物以Ⅱ型细菌DNA拓扑异构酶为靶标, 对包括鲍曼不动杆菌在内的野生型和耐药的革兰阴性菌均具有活性。为扩大其化学空间并探索具有提升抗菌活性和药代动力学性质的新型支架, 2018年Gerasyuto等[90]对该类结构进行了深入研究, 以图 22中化合物14为基础, 通过将甲基取代基环化并连接到4-羟基-2吡啶酮的苯环部分形成吲哚, 得到化合物15保持了抗菌活性。因该结构可通过连接吲哚和2-吡啶环的键旋转从而以多种构象状态存在, 进一步探索发现, 当二者之间以类七元环连接时, 构象限制的化合物16表现出良好的抗菌活性, MIC为0.78 mg·L-1。此外, 化合物16具有良好的药代动力学性质, 在小鼠体内具有中等清除量和中等的分布体积。
2019年Hammad等[91]报道了苯基吡唑类化合物(图 23化合物17) 的广谱抗菌活性。该类型化合物对于鲍曼不动杆菌ATCC19606、ATCC BAA 1141、ATCC BAA 1747和ATCC BAA-1605的MIC可达4 mg·L-1。其中ATCC BAA-1605菌株是从一名阿富汗回国的受伤军人身上分离得到, 对大多数抗生素如美罗培南、亚胺培南、环丙沙星、头孢他啶、哌拉西林和氨曲南等具有耐药性[92]。此外, 药代动力学研究表明, 该类型化合物半衰期为10.5 h, 主要经CYP450酶(cytochrome P450 enzyme system) 代谢, 在体内具有良好的稳定性[91]。该项研究起源于苯基噻唑类化合物, 可抑制参与细菌细胞壁合成的两种重要蛋白质, 十一烯焦磷酸酶(undecaprenyl pyrophosphate phosphatase, UppP)[93]和十一碳烯基焦磷酸合成酶(undecaprenyl pyrophosphate synthase, UppS)[94], 具有良好的抗革兰阳性菌活性。为扩大其抗菌谱, Hammad等[91]通过将噻唑环替换为吡唑环, 以期增加该分子的极性作用使得分子能够顺利通过革兰阴性菌细胞外膜。然而实验及结果表明, 结构修饰后的苯基吡唑分子并不能抑制UppP和UppS。该类化合物靶点的确证还有待进一步研究。
噬菌体是从污水、患者痰液、临床样本或海洋样本中分离出来的一种可以感染细菌细胞的病毒。部分噬菌体展现出特异性的抗鲍曼不动杆菌作用, 因而其作为潜在的抗菌剂被广泛研究[95]。2012年发现的, 鲍曼氏噬菌体AP22能够溶解89株鲍曼不动杆菌菌株, 占当时所分离的130株临床菌株的68%[96]。以往噬菌体疗法受限于鲍曼不动杆菌噬菌体仅能感染有限的宿主, Lin等[97]提出使用一组噬菌体组合裂解细菌细胞, 可以克服单个噬菌体的窄谱问题。此外, 最近的研究表明, 鲍曼不动杆菌特异的噬菌体AB7-IBB1[98]和AB7ABB2[99], 还具有去除75%鲍曼不动杆菌预先形成的生物膜的能力, 表明了噬菌体疗法不仅在临床上具有治疗价值, 还在环境生物防治中具有应用前景。然而在噬菌体疗法被正式运用于临床之前, 需要考虑该疗法是否会导致新的耐药菌株的出现以及如何应对人类可能出现的炎症反应等问题[100]
光动力疗法的原理为通过使用光敏剂, 结合氧气、可见光或近红外光等条件, 产生活性氧。其中对于光敏剂的要求为一种无毒的光活性染料, 一般为芳香族分子, 当光敏剂被光子激发达到高能的激发状态时, 激发的光敏剂可在释放能量回到基态时与氧气产生相互作用, 产生活性氧, 这些活性氧可造成细菌细胞膜和DNA局部损伤, 达到杀菌效果。近期的一项研究表明, 聚氧离子生物聚合物壳聚糖可增强血卟啉的光杀菌作用[101]。将光敏剂与其他抗生素结合使用, 可增强抗生素杀菌活性。在一项使用小鼠烫伤模型的研究中, 四吡咯胆碱在红光照射下, 可将感染组织中的细菌数量减少1 000倍[102]。考虑到光动力疗法产生的活性氧对人体DNA和细胞的损伤作用, 其在临床上将主要应用于局部皮肤感染。
一氧化氮原子半径小, 是一种疏水自由基, 可以扩散到生物膜上进而对细胞膜成分产生影响[103]。一氧化氮可以与胞内和胞外蛋白质的硫醇集团反应, 导致细胞膜被破坏。此外, 一氧化氮可通过亚硝化中间体破坏细菌脂质层并诱导裂解DNA[104]。目前正在探索使用一氧化氮作为鲍曼不动杆菌伤口感染的局部治疗方案。在小鼠感染模型中, 含有一氧化氮的纳米颗粒已经被证明具有减少创伤部位的细菌负荷并加快小鼠感染伤口愈合的速度的作用[105]
鉴于全球范围出现多药耐药鲍曼不动杆菌的形势严峻, 开发新的预防和治疗方法迫在眉睫。本文综述了目前临床上使用的用于治疗鲍曼不动杆菌感染的抗生素及其特点, 并对近10年抗鲍曼不动杆菌药物的新靶点和研究进展进行了总结。现有治疗多药耐药鲍曼不动杆菌的药物主要包括多黏菌素类、四环素类、β-内酰胺类抗生素和β-内酰胺酶抑制剂, 临床上常采用联合用药进行治疗。总体上现有药物种类相对较少, 且分别存在不同的毒副作用和耐药问题, 因此临床上亟需新型抗生素。目前, 国内外对于抗鲍曼不动杆菌的药物研发策略主要有以下几个方面: ①抑制鲍曼不动杆菌表面生物膜、脂多糖或荚膜多糖等直接杀死细菌或者降低其感染宿主能力; ②抑制鲍曼不动杆菌的微量元素摄取系统, 使得鲍曼不动杆菌在宿主体内难以生存; ③利用鲍曼不动杆菌的主动运输系统使得抗生素成功进入到细菌内部, 扩大已报道分子的抗菌谱; ④抑制细菌分泌系统, 阻碍鲍曼不动杆菌营养的获取和耐药性基因的转移; ⑤抑制鲍曼不动杆菌的β-内酰胺酶, 增强β-内酰类抗生素的作用; ⑥抑制鲍曼不动杆菌的核糖体RNA、DNA拓扑异构酶以及其他靶点; ⑦利用噬菌体疗法、光动力疗法、一氧化氮疗法等。本文综述的在研药物大多仍处于临床前研究阶段, 后续的成药性研究及临床研究需要加速推进。
作者贡献: 雷康璠、张文轩负责组织文章的框架、文章的撰写及修改; 张文轩和吴松负责了文章的思路指导和审阅。
利益冲突: 所有作者声明不存在利益冲突。
  • 中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程(2021-I2M-1-069)
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2023年第58卷第12期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1108
  • 接收时间:2023-09-26
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-12-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-09-26
  • 修回日期:2023-10-31
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中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程(2021-I2M-1-069)
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    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 天然药物活性物质与功能国家重点实验室, 北京 100050

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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