Article(id=1201124479960310291, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1201124478286786612, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0838, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1688659200000, receivedDateStr=2023-07-07, revisedDate=1692547200000, revisedDateStr=2023-08-21, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1764299991836, onlineDateStr=2025-11-28, pubDate=1710172800000, pubDateStr=2024-03-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764299991836, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-28, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1764299991836, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764299991836, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1201124478286786612, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2024', volume='59', issue='3', pageStart='493', pageEnd='788', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1764299991434, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764300490467, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1201126571420639892, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1201124478286786612, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1201126571420639893, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1201124478286786612, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=543, endPage=553, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1201124480413295127, articleId=1201124479960310291, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress of anti-gout small molecules targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Currently, clinically used drugs for the treatment of gout inflammation, such as colchicine, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and glucocorticoids, can only relieve the pain of joint inflammation and have severe hepatorenal toxicity and multiple organ adverse reactions. The NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a key complex that induces the onset of gout inflammation and has become a crucial target in the development of anti-gout drugs. This article reviews the research progress of anti-gout small molecules targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome and their bioactivity evaluation methods in the past five years, in order to provide information for the development of specific drugs for the treatment of gout inflammation.

, correspAuthors=Xin-yong LIU, Peng ZHAN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Zhen-qian WANG, Zhi-jiao ZHANG, Xin-yong LIU, Peng ZHAN), CN=ArticleExt(id=1201124482887934516, articleId=1201124479960310291, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=靶向NLRP3炎症小体的抗痛风小分子化合物研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

目前治疗痛风炎症的临床常用药物如秋水仙碱、非甾体抗炎药及糖皮质激素仅能缓解关节炎症疼痛, 并且具有严重的肝肾毒性和多器官不良反应。NOD样受体热蛋白结构域相关蛋白3 (NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3, NLRP3) 炎症小体是诱导痛风炎症发作的关键信号因子, 已成为抗痛风药物研发的重要靶标。本文综述了近5年靶向NLRP3炎症小体的抗痛风小分子化合物及其活性评价方法的研究进展, 以期为研发治疗痛风炎症的特异性药物提供参考。

, correspAuthors=刘新泳, 展鹏, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*刘新泳, E-mail: ;
展鹏, E-mail:
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靶向NLRP3炎症小体的抗痛风小分子化合物研究进展
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王振谦 , 张志姣 , 刘新泳 * , 展鹏 *
药学学报 | 综述 2024,59(3): 543-553
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药学学报 | 综述 2024, 59(3): 543-553
靶向NLRP3炎症小体的抗痛风小分子化合物研究进展
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王振谦, 张志姣, 刘新泳* , 展鹏*
作者信息
  • 山东大学药学院, 药物化学研究所, 化学生物学教育部重点实验室, 山东 济南 250012

通讯作者:

*刘新泳, E-mail: ;
展鹏, E-mail:
Research progress of anti-gout small molecules targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome
Zhen-qian WANG, Zhi-jiao ZHANG, Xin-yong LIU* , Peng ZHAN*
Affiliations
  • Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
出版时间: 2024-03-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0838
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目前治疗痛风炎症的临床常用药物如秋水仙碱、非甾体抗炎药及糖皮质激素仅能缓解关节炎症疼痛, 并且具有严重的肝肾毒性和多器官不良反应。NOD样受体热蛋白结构域相关蛋白3 (NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3, NLRP3) 炎症小体是诱导痛风炎症发作的关键信号因子, 已成为抗痛风药物研发的重要靶标。本文综述了近5年靶向NLRP3炎症小体的抗痛风小分子化合物及其活性评价方法的研究进展, 以期为研发治疗痛风炎症的特异性药物提供参考。

NOD样受体热蛋白结构域相关蛋白3  /  炎症小体  /  痛风  /  尿酸钠  /  小分子化合物  /  生物活性评价

Currently, clinically used drugs for the treatment of gout inflammation, such as colchicine, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and glucocorticoids, can only relieve the pain of joint inflammation and have severe hepatorenal toxicity and multiple organ adverse reactions. The NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a key complex that induces the onset of gout inflammation and has become a crucial target in the development of anti-gout drugs. This article reviews the research progress of anti-gout small molecules targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome and their bioactivity evaluation methods in the past five years, in order to provide information for the development of specific drugs for the treatment of gout inflammation.

NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3  /  inflammasome  /  gout  /  monosodium urate  /  small molecule  /  bioactivity evaluation
王振谦, 张志姣, 刘新泳, 展鹏. 靶向NLRP3炎症小体的抗痛风小分子化合物研究进展. 药学学报, 2024 , 59 (3) : 543 -553 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0838
Zhen-qian WANG, Zhi-jiao ZHANG, Xin-yong LIU, Peng ZHAN. Research progress of anti-gout small molecules targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2024 , 59 (3) : 543 -553 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0838
痛风是一种由单钠尿酸盐(monosodium urate, MSU) 晶体沉积所致的关节病, 与嘌呤代谢紊乱和/或尿酸排泄障碍所致的高尿酸血症直接相关, 属代谢性风湿病范畴。当人体长期处于尿酸过饱和状态(血尿酸浓度 > 420 μmol·L-1) 时, 尿酸会在骨关节或脏器处形成尿酸盐晶体沉积, 导致急性痛风炎症的发生; 并在短期内出现红、肿、热、剧烈疼痛等症状, 给患者带来极大的痛苦[1]。近年来, 随着人们生活水平的提高及饮食结构的改变, 加之不良的生活习惯, 痛风的发病率在我国呈现持续上升及逐年低龄化的趋势, 当前痛风已成为我国第二大代谢性疾病。痛风的治疗分为急性期和慢性期治疗, 从整体上看, 现有抗痛风药物大部分以治疗慢性期的降尿酸药物为主; 而针对急性期痛风炎症治疗的药物则相对匮乏。当前, 用于治疗急性痛风的临床一线药物有会引起肝肾衰竭的秋水仙碱, 能诱发感染和精神异常的糖皮质激素等, 治标不治本[2, 3]。因此, 寻找结构新颖、高效低毒的抗痛风新药迫在眉睫。
研究发现, MSU晶体是一种损伤相关分子, 能够通过触发先天免疫系统的激活引起强烈的炎症反应; 在痛风炎症发作过程中的一个关键环节是MSU晶体刺激引起NOD样受体热蛋白结构域相关蛋白3 (NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3, NLRP3) 炎症小体的激活。NLRP3炎症小体作为天然免疫炎症反应过程中的关键信号因子, 被激活后将介导白细胞介素-1β (interleukin-1β, IL-1β) 等关键促炎细胞因子的释放, 引起血管扩张、中性粒细胞聚集, 最终导致急性痛风炎症的发作[4, 5]。因此, NLRP3炎症小体是抗痛风药物研发的重要靶标。本文综述了近5年靶向NLRP3炎症小体的抗痛风小分子化合物及其活性评价方法的研究进展, 以期为研发治疗痛风炎症的特异性药物提供参考。
炎症小体是一种由胞浆内模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors, PRRs) 如Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors, TLRs) 参与组装的多蛋白复合体, 一般由感受器、半胱天冬氨酸蛋白酶以及衔接蛋白所组成, 是先天免疫系统的重要组成部分[6, 7]。其中, NLRP3炎症小体由NLRP3、半胱天冬氨酸蛋白水解酶1 (cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase 1, caspase-1) 和凋亡相关斑点样蛋白(apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD, ASC) 组成(图 1), 是目前研究最广泛且最深入的炎症小体之一, 与痛风炎症的发生密切相关[4, 8]
作为NOD样受体家族中重要的一员, NLRP3由一个PYD结构域(pyrin domain)、一个NACHT结构域(nucleoside triphosphatase domain) 和一个LRR重复序列(leucine-rich repeat domain) 组成(图 1), 在先天免疫系统中发挥重要作用[4]。其中, PYD结构域主要介导NLRP3与下游信号分子之间的相互作用; NACHT结构域主要由Walker A与Walker B基序所组成, 具有ATP酶(adenosine triphosphatase, ATPase) 活性, 负责调节NLRP3的寡聚化及炎症小体的组装; 而LRR序列则是负责感应刺激信号来引发NLRP3的激活。这些刺激信号包括病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PAMPs) 如脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS)、肽聚糖及酵母多糖等, 损伤相关分子模式(damage-associated molecular patterns, DAMPs) 如三磷酸腺苷(adenosine triphosphate, ATP)、神经酰胺、脂肪酸, 以及结晶性物质, 如二氧化硅、MSU晶体以及胆固醇晶体[5, 6]
当NLRP3感应到MSU晶体等引起的丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶7 [(never in mitosis gene A)-related kinase 7, NEK7] 激活信号时, 会同ASC的PYD结构域相互作用而结合, 随后ASC通过募集结构域(caspase recruitment domain, CARD) 募集pro-caspase-1, 聚集组装成NLRP3炎症小体复合物(NLRP3 inflammasome complex)。然后被激活的炎症小体促使ASC将pro-caspase-1切割成具有活性的caspase-1 (图 1); 该分子随后促进IL-1β等促炎细胞因子加工成熟、释放, 诱导炎症反应的发生[9]
IL-1β是一种与免疫炎症反应密切相关的多功能细胞因子, 由固有免疫细胞如巨噬细胞、中性粒细胞经MSU晶体等刺激NLRP3炎症小体后产生并释放。IL-1β通过与内皮细胞或滑膜细胞表面的IL-1受体复合物相结合后引发一系列细胞反应, 促进炎症细胞因子与趋化因子的表达, 进一步引起血管扩张、中性粒细胞聚集至关节处, 引发炎症级联反应, 从而介导急性痛风炎症的发作[9]。同时, Martinon等[10]发现, 相比于野生型小鼠, 在IL-1β或IL-1受体缺陷的腹膜炎小鼠及气囊小鼠模型中, MSU晶体诱导的痛风关节炎症显著减轻, 甚至几乎被完全抑制; 表明IL-1β在痛风发病机制中发挥关键作用, 而IL-1β与NLRP3炎症小体的激活密切相关。
NLRP3炎症小体与痛风炎症的发作密切相关, 其各组成成分在MSU诱导的痛风炎症中均发挥不可或缺的作用。Hoffman等[11]发现, 相较于野生型小鼠, NLRP3基因敲除小鼠腹腔中注射MSU晶体后会非常显著地抑制关节滑膜细胞中IL-1β等炎症因子的分泌、减轻小鼠各关节肿胀炎症。Bauer等[12]利用MSU晶体刺激从ASC基因敲除小鼠中提取的巨噬细胞, 发现IL-1β的产生释放被显著抑制; 并且在ASC基因敲除的急性痛风关节炎小鼠模型中观察到炎症症状减轻、中性粒细胞渗出减少。此外, Bauer等[12]还发现在MSU诱导的小鼠腹膜炎模型中添加caspase-1抑制剂或敲除caspase-1基因后, 可以观察到炎症部位中性粒细胞渗出及IL-1β分泌均显著减少。这些研究结果证实了NLRP3炎症小体在痛风炎症发病机制中的重要作用。因此, 通过靶向NLRP3炎症小体有望成为一种治疗痛风炎症的新策略。
NLRP3炎症小体的激活组装需要经过两个步骤, 分别为启动阶段和激活阶段(图 2)。启动阶段, 又被称为信号1阶段, 由细胞表面的TLRs受体引发, 控制着炎症小体组装与激活所需的所有细胞组件以及pro-IL-1β等促炎细胞因子前体的表达。激活阶段, 又被称为信号2阶段, 由多种特定的PAMPs和DAMPs触发, 介导NLRP3炎症小体的激活组装及随后IL-1β等炎性细胞因子的产生, 促进炎症反应的发生[8, 9]
首先, 在MSU晶体激活巨噬细胞等免疫细胞膜上TLRs的过程中, TLRs需要通过识别并结合内源性配体蛋白S100A8、S100A9或长链脂肪酸来调节激活状态。Holzinger等[13]发现, 痛风患者和注射MSU晶体的小鼠中产生了高表达量的S100A8和S100A9, 并且与野生型小鼠相比, S100A9基因敲除小鼠降低了对MSU晶体刺激的反应性。此外, Joosten等[14]发现在痛风炎症小鼠模型中只有同时注射长链脂肪酸和MSU晶体才能观察到关节炎症反应的发生, 而单独注射MSU或长链脂肪酸均不足以引发炎症反应。
之后, 已激活的TLRs-NF-κB信号通路活化核因子κB (nuclear factor kappa-B, NF-κB) 并促使其进入细胞核内, 诱导IL-1β、NLRP3等炎症相关因子(inflammation-associated factors) 基因的转录, 增加其胞内表达水平, 为后续激活阶段做准备[9]
此外, 在启动过程中生成的NLRP3处于不活跃的构象状态之中, 需要进行一系列翻译后修饰过程如磷酸化(phosphorylation, Pho) 和去泛素化(deubiquitination, Dub) 修饰才能被活化, 并参与之后的激活阶段。NLRP3各组分的泛素化或去泛素化修饰对于NLRP3炎症小体的激活与组装至关重要。去泛素化修饰通过控制NLRP3的降解速率与自结合能力来调节NLRP3的激活, 是炎症小体活化的关键前提条件。例如, 含BRCA1/BRCA2复合体3 (BRCA1-BRCA2-containing complex 3, BRCC3) 通过调控NLRP3的K63去泛素化来促进炎症小体活化。此外, NLRP3炎症小体活化也与NLRP3各组分的磷酸化或去磷酸化密切相关。例如, JunN-末端激酶1 (c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1, JNK1) 介导的S198残基的去磷酸化修饰可以阻止NLRP3寡聚化及其与ASC的相互作用, 抑制NLRP3炎症小体的激活组装[4, 9, 15]
启动阶段后, MSU晶体进一步通过与细胞膜相互作用, 来引发一系列细胞反应, 导致包括钾离子(K+) 外流、线粒体活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 产生释放并引起线粒体扰动以及溶酶体破裂释放组织蛋白酶B (cathepsin B, CTSB) 等上游信号反应的发生, 进一步使NLRP3激活因子NEK7激酶被激活, 随后NEK7诱导NLRP3炎症小体的激活、组装, 使pro-caspase-1加工成熟; 然后活化的caspase-1促使pro-IL-1β加工成熟, 并促进IL-1β在内的促炎细胞因子释放至胞外[4, 9]
在MSU晶体激活NLRP3炎症小体信号通路介导生成IL-1β后, IL-1β通过与内皮细胞或滑膜细胞表面的IL-1受体复合物相互作用, 激活NF-κB信号通路, 并促使NF-κB进入细胞核内启动促炎细胞因子的转录与表达、触发炎症级联反应, 引起血管扩张、中性粒细胞迅速聚集至MSU晶体沉积部位, 导致急性痛风炎症的发作[9]
由于NLRP3炎症小体的激活涉及许多复杂的信号级联反应, 因此, 可以通过多种作用方式来抑制其激活, 最终减少IL-1β等炎性细胞因子的产生与释放。例如抑制上游信号通路中的NF-κB信号分子、抑制NLRP3的翻译后修饰、抑制caspase-1的激活以及直接靶向NLRP3的组成成分如NACHT结构域等[16-18]。因此, 根据作用方式的不同, 可以将靶向NLRP3炎症小体的抗痛风小分子化合物分为两种, 即作用于NLRP3激活通路上下游关键因子的间接靶向抑制剂和作用于NLRP3各组成成分的直接靶向抑制剂(图 2)。
在启动阶段, 通过靶向TLRs-NF-κB信号通路来抑制NLRP3炎症小体各组成成分及多种促炎细胞因子的转录与翻译, 导致胞内存在的NLRP3各组成成分的数量不足以使免疫细胞对MSU刺激信号做出反应而激活、组装NLRP3炎症小体[4, 9, 19]。目前, 已有报道靶向TLRs或NF-κB的小分子抑制剂。
2021年, Li等[20]发现天然产物化学单体β-石竹烯(β-caryophyllene, 1, 图 3) 通过靶向TLR4, 能够抑制滑膜组织中NLRP3、caspase-1、ASC和IL-1β的表达, 显著减轻了MSU晶体诱导的痛风性关节炎大鼠踝关节的炎症症状。2022年, Franco-Trepat等[21]报道了抗抑郁症药物阿米替林(amitriptyline, 2, 图 3) 通过与TLR4结合, 下调了NLRP3各组分的基础性及诱导性表达, 阻断了MSU刺激软骨细胞、滑膜细胞时TLR4介导的免疫炎症反应, 保护踝关节功能。
2018年, Ruiz-Miyazawa等[22]发现了橙皮苷甲基查尔酮(hesperidin methylchalcone, HMC, 3, 图 3) 通过抑制NF-κB的激活来下调MSU介导的NLRP3、caspase-1、ASC和IL-1β的表达、减少关节部位中性粒细胞的聚集, 进而减轻MSU引起的急性痛风炎症小鼠的机械性痛觉过敏、氧化应激损伤以及关节炎症水肿。此外, 胡椒碱(piperine, 4, 图 3)、柚皮素(naringenin, 5, 图 3) 等[23, 24]也被报道能够通过抑制NF-κB的激活来减轻MSU刺激NLRP3炎症小体激活引起的体内外炎症反应。
2013年, Py等[25]报道了一种泛素异肽酶抑制剂G5 (6, 图 3) 通过抑制去泛素化酶BRCC3诱导的NLRP3去泛素化来抑制ATP激活的巨噬细胞中NLRP3炎症小体的激活、减少IL-1β的分泌; 并且6在不表达NLRP3的未激活巨噬细胞中不能引起相关反应, 表明6泛素化修饰的特异性。
在NLRP3被活化后进入激活阶段。MSU晶体通过与巨噬细胞等免疫细胞膜相互作用引发一系列细胞反应, 通过引起K+外流、线粒体ROS产生与释放引起线粒体扰动以及溶酶体破裂等上游信号过程, 诱导NLRP3炎症小体的激活组装以及caspase-1的活化[4, 19]。因此, 靶向激活NLRP3炎症小体的上下游信号分子可能成为一种研究策略。例如直接抑制K+外流的β-羟丁酸(3-hydroxybutyric acid, β-HB, 7, 图 3)[26], 通过靶向细胞膜上嘌呤能受体配体门控离子通道7 (purinergic receptor 2X7, P2X7R) 间接抑制K+外流的Z1456467176 (8, 图 3) [27], 抑制线粒体ROS产生与释放的抗氧化剂表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯(epigallocatechin gallate, EGCG, 9, 图 3)、马钱子苷(loganin, 10, 图 3)、鞣花酸(ellagic acid, 11, 图 3) 及桉叶油醇(eucalyptol, 12, 图 3) 等[28-31]
之后, 当NLRP3感应到激活信号后开始募集并结合ASC组分, ASC再募集pro-caspase-1并促使其活化成熟为caspase-1; 该组分进一步促进pro-IL-1β等促炎细胞因子加工、成熟, 诱导炎症反应的发生[5]。因此, 可以通过靶向衔接蛋白ASC或caspase-1来阻断IL-1β等促炎细胞因子的产生, 间接抑制NLRP3炎症小体促炎信号通路。2016年, Lee等[32]报道了咖啡酸苯乙酯(phenethyl caffeate, CAPE, 13, 图 3) 通过直接靶向ASC来抑制MSU诱导的NLRP3-ASC相互作用, 阻断了后续caspase-1的成熟及IL-1β的产生。2019年, Wu等[33]发现了黄连碱(coptisine, 14, 图 3) 能够直接与caspase-1的活性部位结合抑制caspase-1的蛋白酶活性(IC50 = 10.08 ± 0.03 μmol·L-1), 显著减少了MSU刺激RAW264.7巨噬细胞引起的IL-1β分泌。2022年, Cao等[34]报道了一种非肽类caspase-1小分子抑制剂NSC697923 (15, 图 3) 通过与caspase-1的活性口袋相结合, 抑制其蛋白酶活性(IC50 = 1.737 μmol·L-1), 阻断下游IL-1β等促炎细胞因子加工成熟并释放到胞外。
目前, 虽然已有不少靶向NLRP3上下游信号通路的小分子化合物被报道, 但这些化合物大多为非特异性靶向, 可能会导致先天免疫反应被严重抑制, 损伤宿主的免疫防御系统、增加感染的风险; 与直接靶向NLRP3蛋白阻断NLRP3炎症小体组装的特异性抑制剂相比, 具有选择性低、不良反应大等缺点[9]。因此, 研发新型安全、高效的特异性靶向NLRP3小分子化合物已逐渐成为该领域的热门方向。
根据靶向NLRP3的作用机制不同, 可以将选择性直接靶向NLRP3的设计策略分为两类: 靶向NLRP3的NACHT结构域, 通过抑制ATPase活性来影响NLRP3激活; 靶向NLRP3的其他结构域如PYD, 来抑制NLRP3的激活。其中, 已报道的大多数化合物均以非共价结合的方式作用于NLRP3的NACHT结构域, 阻断其ATPase活性及随后的NLRP3炎症小体激活组装[19]
2015年, Coll等[35, 36]报道了一种从许多二芳基磺酰脲类IL-1β成熟抑制剂中筛选发现的强效、高选择性NLRP3小分子抑制剂MCC950 (16, 图 4); 它通过与NLRP3中NACHT结构域的Walker B基序以非共价结合的方式阻断ATPase活性, 使NLRP3保持自身抑制状态。该化合物能够显著抑制ATP、MSU等刺激信号引起的NLRP3炎症小体激活以及IL-1β分泌, 但不影响pro-IL-1β等促炎细胞因子前体的表达、Absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) 炎症小体或Nod-like receptor family CARD domain-containing protein 4 (NRLC4) 等炎症小体的激活、线粒体ROS释放、钾离子外流等上游信号通路, 特异性强; 且该化合物在多种NLRP3介导的炎症疾病模型中表现出良好的抗炎特性; 并在小鼠骨髓来源的巨噬细胞(bone marrow macrophage, BMDM) 中IC50值达到8.1 nmol·L-1。化合物16是目前作用机制最明确且体内外活性较优的选择性NLRP3抑制剂, 但因其肝毒性而终止于治疗类风湿性关节炎的临床Ⅱ期试验[19]。因此, 16被广泛用于靶向NLRP3炎症小体研究中的工具分子及先导化合物来进行结构改造(图 4)。例如, 2022年, Narros-Fernandez等[37]报道了一种化合物16的衍生物4b (17, 图 4), 通过将16结构中的六氢茚并苯部分替换为间二甲基苯结构得到。它以浓度依赖性的方式抑制NLRP3激活引起的IL-1β分泌以及急性痛风小鼠模型的爪肿胀系数, 与阳性药物16的体外抗炎效果相当(17: IC50 = 0.23 nmol·L-1; 16: IC50 = 0.39 nmol·L-1); 并且通过计算机模拟预测及体外AML12肝细胞、J774A.1巨噬细胞毒性试验初步确定该化合物具有与16相当的安全性。此外, 16良好的体内外活性也吸引了多家医药公司对其进一步研发的兴趣。例如, 与化合物17的改造相似, IFM公司[38, 39]16的六氢茚并苯部分替换成带多个异丙基或卤素取代的苯环或苯并环戊烷结构来占据疏水口袋, 并将磺酰脲结构替换成N-乙酰磺酰胺结构探讨中间linker的可修饰空间, 获得了若干个NLRP3抑制剂; 其中代表化合物为18 (IC50 < 1 μmol·L-1, 图 4)、19 (IC50 < 160 nmol·L-1, 图 4)、20 (IC50 < 1 μmol·L-1, 图 4) 及21 (IC50 < 1 μmol·L-1, 图 4), 正在开展用于治疗痛风、克罗恩病及阿尔茨海默病的研究。Inflazome公司[40, 41]根据化合物在中枢、外周或者胃肠道不同的分布, 运用不同取代的含氮五元环或六元环亲水基团来替换16结构中与肝毒性相关的呋喃环结构获得了若干个NLRP3抑制剂; 其中代表化合物为22 (IC50 = 8.1 nmol·L-1, 图 4)、23 (IC50 < 160 nmol·L-1, 图 4) 及24 (IC50 < 10 nmol·L-1, 图 4), 正在开展这些化合物用于治疗NLRP3诱导的多种炎症性疾病的研究。
2018年, Marchetti等[42-44]发现了一种β-磺酰基腈类NLRP3抑制剂OLT1177 (25, 图 5), 通过与NLRP3中NACHT结构域结合, 抑制ATPase活性, 阻断NLRP3炎症小体的寡聚化组装。25能够显著抑制LPS、ATP等刺激信号引起的NLRP3炎症小体激活、caspase-1活化以及IL-1β分泌, 但不影响pro-IL-1β等细胞因子前体的表达、AIM2/NRLC4等其他类型炎症小体的激活、不影响线粒体ROS释放、钾离子外流等上游信号反应, 特异性强。25 (600 mg·kg-1) 在急性痛风炎症小鼠模型中显著减轻关节肿胀炎症、局部水肿及中性粒细胞浸润, 减少小鼠滑膜细胞中IL-1β等促炎细胞因子浓度; 并在人单核细胞衍生的巨噬细胞(human monocyte-derived macrophage, HMDM) 中表现出显著的抗炎作用, 于1 μmol·L-1下抑制60%的IL-1β分泌、70%的IL-18分泌。Ⅰ期临床试验报告显示, 25具有适当的体内暴露量及较长的半衰期, 健康人口服25表现出了良好的安全性及耐受性, 并且在任何测试剂量(100、300、1 000 mg·kg-1) 下未观察到任何毒性反应; 目前, 25已经进入用于治疗痛风炎症的Ⅱ期临床试验阶段。
2018年, Huang等[45]发现了抗过敏药物曲尼斯特(tranilast, 26, 图 5) 能够直接与NLRP3的NACHT结构域相结合, 通过阻断NLRP3寡聚化来抑制炎症小体的组装。26能够显著抑制ATP、MSU等刺激信号引起的NLRP3炎症小体激活以及IL-1β分泌, 在痛风患者新鲜分离的关节滑液细胞中加入26孵育后, caspase-1的活化以及IL-1β的分泌受到剂量依赖性抑制; 但不影响pro-IL-1β等前体细胞因子的表达、AIM2/NRLC4等炎症小体的激活、线粒体ROS释放、钾离子外流等上游信号通路, 特异性强。体内实验表明, 26对NLRP3炎症小体相关疾病的小鼠模型具有显著的预防或治疗作用, 如痛风性关节炎、2型糖尿病等。
2017年, Jiang等[46]报道了一种从囊性纤维化跨膜传导调节因子抑制剂中筛选发现的新型选择性NLRP3抑制剂CY-09 (27, 图 5), 能够通过与NACHT的Walker A基序结合来抑制NLRP3与ATP的结合, 阻断NLRP3的ATPase活性以及随后的炎症小体组装。研究发现, 27通过阻断NLRP3炎症小体激活抑制痛风患者新鲜分离的关节滑液细胞中caspase-1的活化及IL-1β的分泌, 并且在痛风、2型糖尿病及冷卟啉相关周期性综合征小鼠模型中表现出显著的预防或治疗作用, 但不影响pro-IL-1β等细胞因子前体的表达、AIM2/NRLC4等炎症小体的激活。
2021年, Zhang等[47]报道了一种从金色石斛中提取得到的NLRP3共价抑制剂erianin (28, 图 5)。2827的作用部位相同, 不同之处是其与Walker A基序的Cys463以共价结合的方式抑制NLRP3 ATPase活性(平衡解离常数KD值约为50 nmol·L-1), 阻断NLRP3炎症小体的组装。28抑制MSU诱导的BMDM中NLRP3炎症小体的激活, 在急性痛风小鼠模型中表现出强大的抗炎活性, 但不影响pro-IL-1β等前体细胞因子的表达、AIM2/NRLC4等炎症小体的激活。
2019年, He等[48]也报道了一种从中草药冬凌草中提取得到的NLRP3共价抑制剂冬凌草甲素(oridonin, 29, 图 5)。29通过与NACHT结构域中的Cys279共价结合, 特异性阻断NLRP3与NEK7 (一种激活NLRP3的关键信号分子) 之间的相互作用, 抑制NLRP3炎症小体的激活组装, 而不影响pro-IL-1β等前体细胞因子的表达、AIM2/NRLC4等炎症小体的激活、线粒体ROS释放、钾离子外流等上游信号反应。此外, 29治疗减轻了MSU注射诱导的野生型小鼠急性关节肿胀并抑制关节组织细胞中IL-1β分泌, 且在NLRP3基因敲除小鼠中没有出现此效应。
除了靶向NLRP3中NACHT结构域的小分子化合物外, 还有靶向NLRP3的PYD结构域的小分子化合物被报道。例如, 2020年, Yang等[49]发现了新型NLRP3抑制剂β-胡萝卜素(β-carotene, 30, 图 5)。表面等离子体共振(surface plasmon resonance, SPR) 实验发现, 30能够直接与PYD结构域结合, 进而抑制包括MSU晶体在内的多种激活剂诱导的BMDM中NLRP3炎症小体激活。在痛风性关节炎小鼠模型中, 口服30可减轻MSU晶体诱导的炎症症状, 且能够抑制从痛风患者分离的滑液细胞中IL-1β的分泌。
此外, 还有一些NLRP3小分子抑制剂的确切机制尚未被阐明。例如, 2018年, Zhou等[50]报道了一种黄嘌呤氧化酶(xanthine oxidase, XOD, IC50 = 3.87 μmol·L-1) 与NLRP3双靶点抑制剂4-(2-(4-氯苯基)-1-((4-氯苯)氨基)乙基)苯-1, 3-二醇(CBED, 31, 图 5), 它能有效抑制MSU诱导的THP-1细胞NLRP3炎症小体激活以及IL-1β分泌, 但与NLRP3的具体结合位点尚不明确。31能够显著改善MSU引起的急性痛风小鼠踝关节肿胀及组织病理学损伤, 且对小鼠体内其他生化指标无影响, 具有一定的安全性。2018年, Yang等[51]报道了一种天然膳食异硫氰酸酯衍生物萝卜硫素(sulforaphane, 32, 图 5), 能够抑制nigericin、MSU晶体及ATP等诱导的BMDM中NLRP3炎症小体激活, 且不影响AIM2/NRLC4等炎症小体的激活、线粒体ROS释放、钾离子外流等上游信号反应; 但其确切作用机制尚未被阐明。此外, 口服32可减轻小鼠MSU晶体诱导的小鼠脚垫肿胀及全身炎症症状。
在靶向NLRP3炎症小体的抗痛风炎症药物研发过程中, 抗炎活性筛选是关键环节; 因此, 建立稳定、安全、可靠的抗痛风炎症化合物活性评价方法尤为重要。靶向NLRP3炎症小体的抗痛风炎症活性筛选方法主要包括体外活性评价和体内活性评价方法两类。
由于NLRP3激活引起的主要细胞效应是IL-1β的产生与释放, 因此, 大多数文献[52, 53]所报道的体外初步抗炎活性筛选方法是: 在BMDM巨噬细胞或人单核巨噬细胞系THP-1巨噬细胞中检测给药前后IL-1β分泌量的变化, 来间接评价待测物的抗炎活性及选择性; 此外, 也有报道通过SPR实验或微量热泳动(microscale thermophoresis, MST) 实验来直接检测药物与NLRP3的结合亲和力。
Jiao等[52]在12孔板中以6×105个的细胞密度过夜培养BMDM巨噬细胞。用1 μg·mL-1的LPS启动活化巨噬细胞4 h后; 加入待测化合物孵育15 min, 然后用5 mmol·L-1的ATP激活巨噬细胞30 min或用200 μg·mL-1的MSU激活巨噬细胞20 h; 最后, 取上清液用酶联免疫吸附实验(enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA) 检测IL-1β的表达量变化。Jhang等[53]先将THP-1细胞用50 ng·mL-1 PMA处理48 h, 以诱导分化为巨噬细胞; 然后, 用1 μg·mL-1的LPS启动活化巨噬细胞24 h。加入不同浓度的表儿茶素孵育30 min后, 用500 μmol·L-1的MSU激活巨噬细胞23.5 h。最后取上清液用ELISA方法检测IL-1β的表达量变化。
在此基础上, 研究人员继续进行机制验证实验。一般通过以下四个作用机制验证实验, 来判断待测化合物是否间接靶向于NLRP3: ①通过充分裂解上述已激活巨噬细胞, 并进行蛋白免疫印迹(Western blot) 实验检测pro-IL-1β、pro-caspase-1等细胞因子前体的表达量变化。若给药前后没有变化, 则说明待测化合物不影响TLR、NF-κB等启动阶段信号分子; 反之, 则有可能影响。②通过将上述启动活化阶段的激活剂LPS分别替换为Poly (A: T) (一种AIM2炎症小体的特异性激活剂)、Salmonella (一种NLRC4炎症小体的特异性激活剂), 并重复上述激活操作后检测上清液IL-1β的表达量变化。若给药前后没有变化, 则说明待测化合物不影响AIM2、NLRC4炎症小体的活化; 反之, 则有可能影响。③对上述已激活巨噬细胞检测给药前后胞内钾离子水平, 判断待测化合物是否影响上游关键离子流动。④对上述已激活巨噬细胞进行线粒体深红色荧光探针(mitotracker deep red) 和线粒体绿色荧光探针(mitotracker green) 染色后, 通过流式细胞术/激光共聚焦显微镜检测给药前后胞内线粒体损伤情况和ROS释放量。若给药前后没有变化, 则说明待测化合物不影响线粒体损伤及ROS产生[45, 48]
Li等[20]通过运用SPR技术, 将NLRP3的重组PYD蛋白共价固定在CM5传感器芯片上。将在含有0.005% Tween 20和5% DMSO的缓冲液中培养的30 (图 5), 置于流动池中在25 ℃下以5 μL·min-1的流速进行测试。使用Biacore T200系统监测缔合/解离相, 并通过T200评估软件计算了结合亲和力常数, 证明了30与NLRP3的PYD结构域直接结合。Zhang等[47]通过MST实验, 将一定浓度的28 (图 5) 与200 nmol·L-1纯化的重组NLRP3蛋白在缓冲液中孵育40 min。然后, 将样品加载到NanoTemper玻璃毛细管中并使用80%的MST功率和100%的LED功率进行测试, 计算得到亲和力常数KD值, 证明了28能够与NLRP3直接结合。
痛风性关节炎模型的建立通常是通过向小鼠踝关节内或爪子皮下注射一定量的MSU晶体构建小鼠急性痛风性关节炎模型, 以注射2~4 h后关节出现明显肿胀和机械性痛觉过敏判断造模成功与否。如Jiang等[54]通过向关节腔内注射MSU晶体的方式构建了痛风性关节炎小鼠模型, 证实了待测化合物的抗炎活性。此外, Narros-Fernandez等[37]报道了通过对小鼠爪子进行皮下注射MSU晶体的方式构建了痛风性关节炎小鼠模型, 并依据爪肿胀指数来判断小鼠的炎症程度。
此外, 也有文献报道选择大鼠作为研究对象, 且与急性痛风性关节炎小鼠模型造模方法类似。例如, Zhou等[55]通过在大鼠关节腔内注射MSU晶体建立了痛风性关节炎大鼠模型, 并通过该模型验证了Cyr61通过上调促炎细胞因子发挥了重要的免疫调节作用。此外, Li等[56]通过在Wistar大鼠踝关节内注射MSU晶体诱导了急性痛风性关节炎模型, 并探究了低分子量透明质酸的抗炎作用。
当前, 痛风的防治已经成为我国亟待解决的重大公共卫生问题, 安全、有效、特异性治疗急性痛风炎症的药物是庞大的痛风患者人群迫切的临床需求。然而, 目前用于治疗痛风炎症的临床常用药物如糖皮质激素、非甾体抗炎药以及秋水仙碱等主要以消除疼痛和减轻炎症为主, 治标不治本且毒副作用较多。近年来, 随着人们对于痛风作为一种自身免疫炎症性疾病的广泛认识, 抗痛风药物的研发已不再局限于上述非特异性抗炎药物; 而是开始转向研发靶向痛风炎症发作过程中的关键炎症因子如NLRP3、IL-1β的特异性小分子抑制剂, 期望为治疗痛风炎症提供新策略与新疗法。但是, 由于尚未充分阐明NLRP3的自身激活机制及其高分辨蛋白晶体结构, 为合理设计选择性靶向NLRP3炎症小体的小分子化合物带来巨大挑战, 目前, 尚未有相关小分子化合物被临床批准用于治疗痛风炎症。
目前已报道的NLRP3小分子抑制剂大多是从现有化合物中随机筛选发现的, 如16是从许多已报道的二芳基磺酰脲类IL-1β成熟抑制剂中筛选发现的, 27是从囊性纤维化跨膜传导调节因子抑制剂中筛选发现的, 26是一种已上市的抗过敏平喘药物[35, 45, 46]。此外, 不少文献[57]报道了从天然产物中发现的NLRP3抑制剂, 如29930等。天然产物来源丰富且大多不良反应较小, 可作为治疗痛风炎症的潜在化合物库。因此, 从天然产物中发现抗炎有效成分应得到充分重视。近年来, 已报道的文献专利中NLRP3小分子抑制剂的结构优化主要是针对16的改造, 通过构建药效团模型和构效关系分析, 运用骨架跃迁、生物电子等排等药物设计策略对16进行结构优化[17]
一般来讲, 治疗痛风需要两种互补的方法: 一种旨在降低血尿酸水平用于慢性期治疗, 另一种旨在减轻炎症反应来缓解急性期症状。因此, 通过靶向尿酸转运蛋白1 (urate transporter 1, URAT1) 促进尿酸排泄的同时, 靶向痛风炎症信号通路的关键成分NLRP3炎症小体来减轻炎症反应, 研发活性与选择性适度的URAT1-NLRP3双靶点小分子抑制剂来干预痛风的多个致病环节是该领域新颖的研究方向。
作者贡献: 王振谦是文章框架的构思者并负责内容的撰写和文献整理; 刘新泳和展鹏指导论文写作; 张志姣对论文进行了检查和修改。
利益冲突: 所有作者声明不存在利益冲突。
  • 山东省杰出青年基金(ZR2020JQ31)
  • 山东省重大科技创新工程项目(2019JZZY021011)
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0838
  • 接收时间:2023-07-07
  • 首发时间:2025-11-28
  • 出版时间:2024-03-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-07-07
  • 修回日期:2023-08-21
基金
山东省杰出青年基金(ZR2020JQ31)
山东省重大科技创新工程项目(2019JZZY021011)
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    山东大学药学院, 药物化学研究所, 化学生物学教育部重点实验室, 山东 济南 250012

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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genus
种数
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species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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