Article(id=1201158424127037624, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1201158414379479837, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0473, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1681747200000, receivedDateStr=2023-04-18, revisedDate=1691164800000, revisedDateStr=2023-08-05, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1764308084755, onlineDateStr=2025-11-28, pubDate=1707667200000, pubDateStr=2024-02-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764308084755, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-28, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1764308084755, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764308084755, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1201158414379479837, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2024', volume='59', issue='2', pageStart='269', pageEnd='492', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1764308082432, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764308181123, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1201158828365669286, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1201158414379479837, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1201158828365669287, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1201158414379479837, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=322, endPage=335, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1201158424693268717, articleId=1201158424127037624, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Advances in methods and techniques for the study of polysaccharide in vivo processes and immunomodulatory mechanisms, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

In recent years, polysaccharides have received much attention because of their high safety and good immunological activity. The study of polysaccharide in vivo process is a key scientific problem that needs to be solved for polysaccharide drug development. Some progress has been made in the field of polysaccharide pharmacokinetics and immunomodulation. However, due to the lack of both chromogenic and light-absorbing groups and the complex molecular structure of polysaccharides, the in vivo processes and immunomodulatory mechanisms of polysaccharides have been slow to be investigated. The effective combination of multiple techniques can break the bottleneck of difficult tracing and unknown immunomodulatory mechanism of polysaccharides in vivo, and promote the development and utilization of polysaccharides. In this paper, we systematically summarize the key techniques in the study of polysaccharide in vivo processes and immunomodulatory mechanisms in order to provide technical references and research ideas for the study of polysaccharide in vivo processes and immunomodulatory mechanisms.

, correspAuthors=Ping XIAO, Jin-ao DUAN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Chi-yun ZHU, Ping XIAO, Yue-yue FANG, Meng-ting LAI, Jin-ao DUAN), CN=ArticleExt(id=1201158426178052472, articleId=1201158424127037624, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=多糖体内过程与免疫调节机制研究方法和技术进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

近年来, 多糖因其安全性高、免疫活性好受到广泛关注。多糖体内过程的研究是多糖药物开发亟待解决的关键科学问题。目前在多糖药代动力学和免疫调节领域研究取得了一定进展。然而, 由于多糖既缺少生色基团, 又无光吸收基团, 且多糖本身分子结构复杂, 致使多糖体内过程和免疫调节作用机制的研究进展缓慢。有效地结合多种技术手段可以突破多糖体内难示踪、免疫调节机制不明的瓶颈, 促进多糖的开发与利用。本文系统归纳总结了近年来在多糖体内过程及其免疫调节作用机制研究中的关键技术, 以期为多糖的体内过程及免疫调节机制的研究提供技术借鉴和研究思路。

, correspAuthors=肖平, 段金廒, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*肖平, Tel: 86-25-85811917, E-mail: ;
段金廒, E-mail:
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A: Polysaccharide acts on the intestinal lymphatic system to regulate immunity after degradation by intestinal flora; B: Polysaccharides are degraded by intestinal flora to produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) to regulate immunity , figureFileSmall=Yu/F5bMzmr9wAM0LnPG4/A==, figureFileBig=dCsTX+LF/7eyQiG1ozTlQw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201158430531740313, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1201158424127037624, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=/fa/zntlGmsaFLh+kiENMA==, figureFileBig=hwp1G4jzXqp7IcQxydElEQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201158430632403614, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1201158424127037624, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= Structural general formula for fluorescent labeling of polysaccharides , figureFileSmall=/fa/zntlGmsaFLh+kiENMA==, figureFileBig=hwp1G4jzXqp7IcQxydElEQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201158430733066915, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1201158424127037624, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=6FKfbqMxfwklzs7tI2q4Ag==, figureFileBig=RhvhgxBiuEBA86xacTSIcw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201158430850507433, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1201158424127037624, language=CN, label=Figure 4, caption= Research technology on polysaccharide pharmacokinetics and immunomodulatory mechanism , figureFileSmall=6FKfbqMxfwklzs7tI2q4Ag==, figureFileBig=RhvhgxBiuEBA86xacTSIcw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201158430988919471, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1201158424127037624, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
GroupFluoresceinPolysaccharideRef.
Hydroxyl groups of polysaccharides (-OH)5-DTAFKonjac mannan, yeast polysaccharides[37, 38]
FITCAngelica polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides, Goji berry polysaccharides[39, 40]
RBITCDendroglossan polysaccharides, Dextran[41, 42]
MIADextran[43, 35]
Amino groups of polysaccharides (-NH2)AFSeaweed polysaccharides[44, 45]
Aldehyde group of polysaccharides (-CHO)APTSMalto-oligosaccharides[46]
ANTSSulfate phycosan[47]
), ArticleFig(id=1201158431106359987, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1201158424127037624, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Common fluorescent label types

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
GroupFluoresceinPolysaccharideRef.
Hydroxyl groups of polysaccharides (-OH)5-DTAFKonjac mannan, yeast polysaccharides[37, 38]
FITCAngelica polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides, Goji berry polysaccharides[39, 40]
RBITCDendroglossan polysaccharides, Dextran[41, 42]
MIADextran[43, 35]
Amino groups of polysaccharides (-NH2)AFSeaweed polysaccharides[44, 45]
Aldehyde group of polysaccharides (-CHO)APTSMalto-oligosaccharides[46]
ANTSSulfate phycosan[47]
), ArticleFig(id=1201158431223800505, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1201158424127037624, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
IsotopePolysaccharideConcentration siteMode of administrationRef.
99mTcLentinanHeartIntravenous injection[53]
Angelica polysaccharidesLiverIntravenous injection[33]
Ginseng polysaccharidesIntestinal mucosaOral administration[55]
FucoidanKidneyOral administration;
Intravenous injection
[57, 58]
125ITremella polysaccharidesLiver, kidneyIntravenous injection[59]
Hyaluronic acidJoint cavityOral administration[60]
Pullulan polysaccharidesLiverIntravenous injection[61]
14CHyaluronic acidJoint cavityOral administration[54]
3HDextran dextranIntestinal mucosaOral administration[42]
MannanLiverOral administration;
Intraperitoneal injection
[62]
), ArticleFig(id=1201158431366406848, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1201158424127037624, language=CN, label=Table 2, caption=

Polysaccharide radioisotope labeling and application

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
IsotopePolysaccharideConcentration siteMode of administrationRef.
99mTcLentinanHeartIntravenous injection[53]
Angelica polysaccharidesLiverIntravenous injection[33]
Ginseng polysaccharidesIntestinal mucosaOral administration[55]
FucoidanKidneyOral administration;
Intravenous injection
[57, 58]
125ITremella polysaccharidesLiver, kidneyIntravenous injection[59]
Hyaluronic acidJoint cavityOral administration[60]
Pullulan polysaccharidesLiverIntravenous injection[61]
14CHyaluronic acidJoint cavityOral administration[54]
3HDextran dextranIntestinal mucosaOral administration[42]
MannanLiverOral administration;
Intraperitoneal injection
[62]
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多糖体内过程与免疫调节机制研究方法和技术进展
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朱赤云 , 肖平 * , 方悦悦 , 赖梦亭 , 段金廒 *
药学学报 | 综述 2024,59(2): 322-335
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药学学报 | 综述 2024, 59(2): 322-335
多糖体内过程与免疫调节机制研究方法和技术进展
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朱赤云, 肖平* , 方悦悦, 赖梦亭, 段金廒*
作者信息
  • 南京中医药大学 江苏省中药资源产业化过程协同创新中心/中药资源产业化与方剂创新药物国家地方联合工程研究中心/国家中医药管理局中药资源循环利用重点研究室, 江苏 南京 210023

通讯作者:

*肖平, Tel: 86-25-85811917, E-mail: ;
段金廒, E-mail:
Advances in methods and techniques for the study of polysaccharide in vivo processes and immunomodulatory mechanisms
Chi-yun ZHU, Ping XIAO* , Yue-yue FANG, Meng-ting LAI, Jin-ao DUAN*
Affiliations
  • Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Resources Recycling Utilization, National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
出版时间: 2024-02-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0473
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近年来, 多糖因其安全性高、免疫活性好受到广泛关注。多糖体内过程的研究是多糖药物开发亟待解决的关键科学问题。目前在多糖药代动力学和免疫调节领域研究取得了一定进展。然而, 由于多糖既缺少生色基团, 又无光吸收基团, 且多糖本身分子结构复杂, 致使多糖体内过程和免疫调节作用机制的研究进展缓慢。有效地结合多种技术手段可以突破多糖体内难示踪、免疫调节机制不明的瓶颈, 促进多糖的开发与利用。本文系统归纳总结了近年来在多糖体内过程及其免疫调节作用机制研究中的关键技术, 以期为多糖的体内过程及免疫调节机制的研究提供技术借鉴和研究思路。

多糖  /  药代动力学  /  免疫调节  /  作用机制  /  新技术

In recent years, polysaccharides have received much attention because of their high safety and good immunological activity. The study of polysaccharide in vivo process is a key scientific problem that needs to be solved for polysaccharide drug development. Some progress has been made in the field of polysaccharide pharmacokinetics and immunomodulation. However, due to the lack of both chromogenic and light-absorbing groups and the complex molecular structure of polysaccharides, the in vivo processes and immunomodulatory mechanisms of polysaccharides have been slow to be investigated. The effective combination of multiple techniques can break the bottleneck of difficult tracing and unknown immunomodulatory mechanism of polysaccharides in vivo, and promote the development and utilization of polysaccharides. In this paper, we systematically summarize the key techniques in the study of polysaccharide in vivo processes and immunomodulatory mechanisms in order to provide technical references and research ideas for the study of polysaccharide in vivo processes and immunomodulatory mechanisms.

polysaccharide  /  pharmacokinetics  /  immunomodulation  /  mechanism of action  /  new technology
朱赤云, 肖平, 方悦悦, 赖梦亭, 段金廒. 多糖体内过程与免疫调节机制研究方法和技术进展. 药学学报, 2024 , 59 (2) : 322 -335 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0473
Chi-yun ZHU, Ping XIAO, Yue-yue FANG, Meng-ting LAI, Jin-ao DUAN. Advances in methods and techniques for the study of polysaccharide in vivo processes and immunomodulatory mechanisms[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2024 , 59 (2) : 322 -335 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0473
多糖是一种由10个及以上的单糖聚合而成的天然高分子化合物[1], 广泛存在于动植物中和微生物中, 具有多种生物活性, 比如调节免疫[2]、抗肿瘤[3]、抗氧化和降血糖[4]等生理功能。其中, 免疫调节作用被认为是其最重要的一种生物活性。研究人员[5]从组织器官水平、细胞水平、分子水平以及肠道菌群出发, 深入研究多糖免疫调节作用及其机制, 证明了多糖免疫调节作用并非单一环节, 而是多环节、多靶点调节机体的免疫功能。相比多糖的药效学研究, 其药动学的研究进展较为缓慢。由于多糖的相对分子质量较大且无荧光基团或紫外吸收, 使得多糖的示踪和检测成为难点。本文对近年来多糖体内药动学研究、免疫调节作用机制研究的技术进行总结, 以期为多糖体内过程及其免疫调节机制研究提供一定的技术参考。
口服给予多糖后, 部分多糖难以被唾液或胃液中的酶消化[6]。肠道中寄生着丰富的肠道菌群, 以拟杆菌门和厚壁菌门为主, 也包括少量放线菌门和变形菌门[7]。这些肠道微生物能够分泌多糖降解酶降解多糖, 可促进机体对多糖的消化和吸收。此外, 小肠肠黏膜表面积较大, 富含丰富的小肠绒毛和肠毛细血管, 并且存在特殊的转运体, 这些结构特征有助于多糖的体内吸收。因此, 多糖主要是通过肠道吸收后进入体内并发挥药理活性[8, 9]
图 1所示, 多糖在肠道的吸收方式主要有: 细胞旁路通道转运、跨细胞途径和M细胞介导的转运[10]。多糖通过细胞旁路吸收是一个被动转运的过程, 并且由肠上皮细胞紧密连接(tight junction, TJ) 控制, 肠道不同节段的上皮细胞紧密连接的空隙各不相同, 当肠上皮细胞紧密连接完全打开时, 大分子量多糖即可吸收[11]。多糖的跨细胞途径吸收主要指多糖在肠细胞顶膜处通过胞吞作用从肠腔转运至细胞外液[12]。M细胞在内吞吸收多糖作用中非常活跃, 与肠上皮细胞不同, M细胞的顶端膜缺乏正常的微绒毛, 呈现出褶状结构, 其基底膜深凹呈囊状, 一些肠道相关的淋巴细胞聚集在此处形成派尔集合淋巴结(Peyer's patch, PP), 且M细胞表面含有多种多糖的特异性受体, 可识别外源性多糖并运输给PP中的淋巴细胞[13]。因此, M细胞介导的转运途径对多糖的肠道吸收具有十分重要的意义。
随着研究的不断深入, 多糖免疫调节机制的研究已经达到分子和受体的水平。Toll样受体、清道夫受体、补体受体3和Dectin-1等是目前研究发现的主要多糖受体[14, 15]。多糖通过识别并结合免疫细胞表面的特定受体, 激活细胞内下游信号通路, 进而促进相关细胞因子的表达, 从而启动免疫反应并发挥免疫调节作用。多糖与Toll样受体结合后, 通过激活髓样分化蛋白88 (MyD88) 来促进核转录因子-κB (NF-κB) 和丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPK) 分泌促进肿瘤坏死因子-α (TNF-α)、白细胞介素-1β (IL-1β)、白细胞介素-6 (IL-6) 等促炎细胞因子[16]。多糖和清道夫受体结合后, 激活p38丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPKp38) 及NF-κB两条信号通路, 继而促进TNF-α和白细胞介素-12 (IL-12) 的分泌[17]。补体受体3 (CR3) 能识别β-葡聚糖, 与白细胞分化抗原14 (CD14) 形成复合体, 共同激活磷脂酶(PLC), 继而激活蛋白激酶(PKC) 和磷脂酰肌醇-3-激酶(PI3-K), 通过MAPK或NF-κB信号通路调控相关细胞因子的表达[18]。Dectin-1与β-葡聚糖特异性结合后, 激活细胞内酪氨酸激酶(Syk), 进而激活MAPK或NF-κB信号通路并释放细胞因子。此外, dectin-1能增强Toll样受体介导的NF-κB信号通路, 共同发挥作用, 引起免疫应答[19]
正常情况下, 肠道菌群与机体免疫调节系统处于动态平衡状态, 维持着肠道微生态的稳定[20]。多糖进入肠道后与肠道菌群发生相互作用, 这些微生物群介导的生物转化将大分子多糖降解为低聚糖或单糖, 同时, 多糖也能够调节肠道菌群相对丰度[21, 22], 如图 2A所示, 多糖被分解后作用于肠系膜淋巴系统、派尔集合淋巴结以及肠上皮内淋巴细胞, 从而下调TGF-β、干扰素-γ (INF-γ)、IL-1β和IL-6等炎症因子来减轻炎症反应[23]
多糖的免疫调节活性与肠道菌群的作用密切相关。多糖进入肠道后在肠道菌群的作用下降解为单糖或低聚糖, 经代谢最终生成一系列短链脂肪酸(SCFAs)。而SCFAs对调控宿主免疫具有重要作用[7]。SCFAs主要通过激活免疫细胞趋化、分化、增殖和凋亡来参与机体免疫调控, 这些调控过程主要通过激活G蛋白偶联受体(GPCRs) 和抑制组蛋白去乙酰化酶(HDAC) 活性来实现[24]
图 2B所示, SCFAs与G蛋白偶联受体109a (GPR109a) 结合, 抑制NF-κB的激活, 从而下调TNF-α、白细胞介素-2 (IL-2)、IL-6和转化生长因子-β (TGF-β)等炎症因子的表达, GPR109a的激活还可促进Treg细胞的转录因子Foxp3的表达, 使得Treg细胞数目增加, 从而抑制炎症的发生[25]。SCFAs通过激活GPR41促进缺氧诱导因子1α (HIF-1α) 的表达来上调抗炎因子白细胞介素-22 (IL-22) 的产生, 提高肠道细胞的免疫活性[26]。G蛋白偶联受体43 (GPR43) 的激活可促进Th1细胞的分化以及炎性因子白细胞介素-10 (IL-10) 的释放[27]。此外, SCFAs可直接通过抑制HDAC活性来调节免疫反应, 当HDAC受到抑制后会导致NF-κB失活, 从而减少促炎细胞因子的生成[28]。SCFAs能够刺激肠黏膜中B细胞分泌免疫球蛋白A (IgA), 并且其诱导分泌型免疫球蛋白A (sIgA) 的释放, 维持机体免疫平衡[29]
多糖能够与细胞膜表面的分子结合形成糖蛋白, 进而参与信号传导并发挥免疫调节作用。然而由于多糖本身无发光基团, 导致其难以在复杂体系中定性或定量分析, 进而使得多糖在体内的吸收、分布、代谢和消除的相关研究存在相对不足, 这在一定程度上限制了多糖药代动力学的深入研究。目前, 多糖体内药动学研究以荧光标记法和同位素标记法较为常用。
荧光标记法是将多糖分子上的活性基团(如羟基、氨基、羧基等) 与荧光素以共价偶联的方式进行结合, 通过检测荧光强度对多糖进行定性、定量分析。被标记后的多糖因具有荧光发光基团, 可排除内源性多糖物质的干扰[30]。研究人员通过该技术实现对多糖的吸收、分布、代谢、排泄各环节的监测, 有利于多糖药代动力学的深入研究。
Liang等[31]采用荧光素5-异硫氰酸酯(FITC) 标记半乳糖基化壳聚糖(GC) 的方法研究其在小鼠体内的器官靶向性, 结果表明FITC-GC在静脉注射5 min后在肝脏显著富集, 48 h后仍可在肝脏中检测到。相比之下, FITC-GC在肝脏中比FITC-CS (未加半乳糖修饰的壳聚糖) 富集浓度更高。Kaneo等[32]研究了静脉注射后大鼠血浆中FITC标记的阿拉伯半乳聚糖(FA) 的全身分布与消除, 研究发现, FA在静脉注射30 min后在血浆中被清除, 随后主要分布在肝脏和肾脏中。Zhang等[33]研究了经FITC标记的当归多糖(ASP) 静脉给药后的药代动力学信息, 研究发现, ASP在静脉注射后能够迅速从血液中消除并以高特异性分布到肝脏, 且在体内未发生降解。荧光标记法不仅可以给多糖定量, 还可以确定多糖在体内是否被降解, 这是荧光标记法的优点。然而, 荧光标记法在多糖药代动力学研究中仍存在一定的不足, 荧光标记后的多糖的敏感性不强, 仅能在浓集器官和血液中检测到, 因此会增加操作的复杂性。
图 3所示, FITC中的异硫氰酸酯基团与氨基具有高反应性[34], 在一定条件下可直接发生亲核加成反应, 因此, FITC被广泛用于多糖的荧光标记。而羟基对N-甲基靛红酸酐(MIA) 的反应基团苯并噁嗪环具有特异性反应, 直接以偶联的方式结合[35]。含糖醛酸的酸性多糖可用含氨基的荧光素ANDSA直接标记[36], 用过量的1-乙基-3-(3-二甲基氨丙基)-碳化二亚胺(EDC) 将多糖活化后, 直接加入荧光素ANDSA接入发光基团。因此, 不同多糖荧光标记的位置也各不相同, 常用的荧光标记位点主要分为三类, 见表 1[35, 37-47]
放射性同位素由于其放射强度和半衰期各不相同, 在体内的药物代谢动力学研究会呈现不同的特点。为了解决多糖体内检测技术的局限带来的一系列难题, 放射性同位素标记技术也开始运用到多糖的代谢动力学研究中, 由于放射性同位素能够自发地发射特征谱线, 在体外与多糖分子结合后可以利用核探测器、电子计算机断层扫描(computed tomography, CT) 对多糖进行定量、定位检测, 用于追踪多糖在体内发挥免疫调节作用的代谢途径[48]。常用的放射性同位素有: 14C、3H、125I、99mTc等[49-51]
Gao等[52]125I标记银耳多糖(TFPS) 研究银耳多糖经尾静脉注射后在大鼠体内的吸收、分布特征, 结果显示, TFPS绝大部分分布在肝、肾中, 且在血液中的清除速率较慢, 且大部分由肾脏排除。Zhang等[53]通过99mTc标记香菇多糖(LNT) 后研究其静脉注射药动学, 结果显示, 99mTc-DTPA-LNT具有较好的线性(r2 > 0.998)、精密度(< 7%)、准确度(95.01%~104.51%) 和回收率(~90%)。Oe等[54]使用14C标记透明质酸, 口服后的血药浓度显示, 灌胃4 h后才能在血液中检测到并于8 h达到峰值, 超过90%的透明质酸通过呼吸或尿液排出体外。此外, 放射性同位素标记多糖可结合成像技术观察多糖的体内分布, 为研究多糖免疫调节作用提供更多便捷途径。Zhang等[33]结合通过99mTc标记当归多糖(ASP) 研究ASP静脉注射后的体内分布, 结果显示, 99mTc标记的当归多糖主要分布在肝脏。Chen等[55]通过99mTc标记人参多糖(GPS) 并给大鼠灌胃后, 发现在肠道中观察到40%的放射性, 但在心脏、肝脏和肾脏中未发现。由此推测, 被标记的人参多糖可能通过肠黏膜吸收进入体循环。Hagert等[56]采用18F标记甘露聚糖研究其在体内分布, 结果显示甘露聚糖在腹膜内注射6 h内可迅速到达关节和骨髓。
与荧光标记多糖相比, 放射性同位素对多糖的检测更敏感且不会受蛋白质或核酸等自带荧光的物质的干扰, 具有能够实现对血药浓度和体内分布情况的全面检测的优点。不同同位素标记的多糖经不同给药方式后在体内的分布情况有差异, 见表 2[33, 42, 53-55, 57-62]。然而, 放射性同位素标记技术仍存在部分缺点, 例如放射性同位素的强放射性对人体有一定的危害。此外, 由于放射性同位素的衰变, 其生物样品也不能够长期稳定储存。
激光扫描共聚焦显微成像技术(laser scanning confocal microscopy, LSCM) 是通过荧光探针标记活生物组织切片、活体、荧光材料等样品, 在荧光显微镜基础上配合使用激光扫描, 对样品进行逐点扫描, 出现共聚焦图像[63]。随着现代生物医学技术的发展, 该技术不仅可以用于获取多糖分子在体外细胞的实时分布及定位信息, 还可以用来表征多糖在机体中的空间分布情况, 例如多糖在体内的药代动力学研究[64]。该技术为检测多糖在机体内的靶向分布以及免疫调节作用机制研究提供了更有效的检测技术[65]
Shao等[66]利用激光扫描共聚焦显微镜研究荧光标记过的党参多糖(CPP) 口服吸收后在小鼠体内的药代动力学信息。研究证实CPP口服吸收后在胃、肠、肾、肝都有分布且可以被转运至细胞内。Zou等[67]从不同来源的香菇中分离β-葡聚糖并根据其表征结果选取免疫活性较高的秋栽蘑菇中的葡聚糖(AG) 对荷瘤小鼠进行灌胃给药, 通过激光扫描共聚焦显微镜观察AG在小鼠体内的分布情况。结果显示, 灌胃72 h后AG在脾脏组织中浓度较高并可到达肿瘤部位。激光扫描共聚焦显微成像技术介于传统光学显微和电子显微之间, 能够呈现出较高分辨率的三维图像, 且具有高灵敏度和空间结构灵活性观察的优势。随着研究的不断深入, 这样一种显微成像技术能够平衡普通显微镜和电子显微镜的优劣特点, 既要有对活体细胞的表面和内部进行实时观测的能力, 又要具有较高的三维分辨能力[68]。为研究者研究多糖药代动力学特征提供强有力的技术支撑。
分光光度法是通过测定多糖在特定波长处或一定波长范围内的吸光度, 对体内多糖进行定性、定量分析的方法。近年来, 分光光度法因其高灵敏度、高准确度以及适用范围广等特点[69], 被广泛用于医药领域。其中, 对多糖的定性与定量分析对研究多糖体内药代动力学以及生物活性具有重要意义。
Bi等[70]通过荧光分光光度计测定大鼠不同组织中虎杖多糖(PRP) 的含量及其荧光强度, 研究口服和静脉注射PRP的药代动力学和组织分布特征, 结果显示口服时肺组织中浓度最高, 静脉注射时肝组织中浓度最高。Li等[71]采用荧光分光光度法检测南瓜多糖(PPc) 的组织分布的含量, 研究口服PPc后的药代动力学信息, 研究表明, PPc在血液中的循环时间较长, 且在口服7.45 h后多糖在肝脏和肾脏的浓度较高。Li等[72]运用紫外分光光度法并结合硫酸-蒽酮显色检测体内猪苓多糖(PPS) 含量, 从而研究PPS的药代动力学信息, 结果显示PPS在肝、肾和肺组织中浓度较高。
分光光度法具有稳定性好、操作简便回收率高、重现性好等优点, 且不要求大型仪器, 降低了检测成本。但一些分光光度法只适用于总多糖的检测, 无法区分成分复杂的单糖组成, 因此仍需配合其他技术进行研究。
色谱分析法是利用不同极性多糖在不同相中选择性分配, 对其进行分离、定量的方法。近年来, 随着色谱分析技术的迅速发展, 高效液相色谱法(HPLC)、高效凝胶渗透色谱法(HPGPC)、液相色谱-质谱联用法(LC-MS) 和超高效液相色谱联合三重四极杆质谱法(UPLC-QqQ-MSMS) 等方法已用于多糖定性和定量分析, 对发展多糖药代动力学研究具有重要意义。
高效液相色谱法通过多糖的色谱峰高或色谱面积的参考与对比, 结合代谢组学对多糖进行定量分析, 在多糖药代动力学研究中发挥重要作用。Zhang等[73]通过柱后荧光衍生化的高效液相色谱法研究低分子量硫酸化多糖(GFS) 的药代动力学信息, 结果表明胃内给药后GFS的生物利用度较低且血清中的多糖浓度太低而无法检测到, 只能在给药2 h后检测到GFS。Falcão等[74]采用高效液相色谱研究铁力木树叶中的多糖在关节炎模型大鼠体内的分布情况, 研究表明不同剂量的多糖灌胃给药后到达关节部位的时间存在差异且对炎症浸润的影响, 其中以200 mg·kg-1剂量下效果最佳且炎症浸润较少。A等[75]通过高效液相色谱法分析海藻酸多糖(ALG) 的体内分布, 研究结果显示, 分子量在48 kg·mol-1及以下的ALG生物聚合物在24 h内通过肾脏清除, 而分子量较高的ALG保留在体循环中, 并且在给药7 h内, 肝脏和小肠的聚集浓度最高。
高效凝胶渗透色谱利用体积排阻原理可有效分离大分子多糖, 且配合特定的色谱应用软件可对色谱行为进行统计分析并测定重均分子量、分布系数等关键信息, 从而分析多糖的药代动力学参数。Xia等[76]建立了高效凝胶渗透色谱荧光检测荧光标记的枸杞多糖(LBP) 研究LBP胃内给药后的药代动力学特征, 结果显示, LBP在体内半衰期长, 消除缓慢, 92.18%从粪便中排出, 在肠道停留时间最长。Liu等[77]采用高效凝胶液相色谱法对酶降解猴头菇多糖(HEP) 进行表征并分析HEP在注射环磷酰胺后的小鼠体内的分布情况, 结果表明, HEP在小鼠脾脏中浓度最高。Ma等[78]采用高效凝胶液相色谱法及液相色谱柱后衍生化方法研究糖胺聚糖及其衍生物(AHGs) 在体内吸收, 结果显示AHGs主要在肠道中进行吸收和转运。
液相色谱-质谱联用法对于分子量较大且分散的多糖代谢物灵敏度及分离度高, 也是代谢物鉴定和检测的常用方法之一。Suzuki等[79]采用液相色谱-质谱联用法(LC-MS) 分析N-葡聚糖在低致病性禽流感鸡体内的组织分布并对不同组织的多糖进行结构分析, 研究表明, N-葡聚糖在鸡气管和肺组织中的浓度较高且两个部位多糖的结构存在差异。Yu等[80]通过LC-MS检测并分析糖胺聚糖(GAGs) 在体内降解后的组织分布, 研究发现, 血浆和尿液中的含量较高, 同时在脑脊液中也检测出GAGs的降解产物硫酸乙酰肝素(HS) 和硫酸软骨素(CS)。
色谱分析法建立了一种快速、高灵敏度的检测多糖的定性定量分析方法, 能够消除非多糖成分的干扰, 提高检测的专属性。但部分色谱技术操作繁琐, 成本高昂, 且对实验室操作环境要求较高, 因此, 对满足普通实验室工作的展开仍有一定探索空间[81]
由于多糖自身没有可发光的基团, 因此多糖与免疫细胞的结合以及多糖在生物体内如何发挥免疫调节作用很难进行深入探究[16]。随着生物技术的发展, 荧光标记技术在免疫调节机制方面的研究已经发挥越来越重要的作用, 使多糖经吸收后参与免疫调节的各个环节实现可监测[82], 有利于多糖免疫调节相关机制的深入研究。
Wang等[83]采用荧光标记法与免疫学实验结合探讨淫羊藿活性多糖(EPS) 对荷瘤小鼠的免疫调节作用的影响。结果表明, EPS能促进树突状细胞成熟, 提高免疫调节细胞因子的水平。此外, 它可能通过调节宿主免疫系统功能来抑制荷瘤小鼠的肿瘤生长。Chen等[84]对海洋丝状真菌Phoma herbarum YS4108中分离得到的天然多糖(YCP) 进行荧光标记, 探讨YCP对树突状细胞(DCs) 和T细胞介导的特异性免疫的影响及其机制。研究证明了YCP可以通过结合Toll样受体促进T细胞活化、增殖和IFN-γ的分泌, 还可通过TLR4促进DCs分泌CD80、CD86和IL-12, 增强对模型小鼠黑色素瘤的特异性杀伤作用。Yu等[85]通过荧光标记黑木耳多糖(PSG-1) 研究PSG-1对巨噬细胞活化过程中的免疫调节作用及其机制, 结果表明, PSG-1通过TLR4/ROS/PI3-K/Akt/MAPK/NF-κB信号通路诱导TNF-α分泌是对巨噬细胞发挥其免疫调节作用的主要途径。多糖的结构复杂多样, 将荧光标记技术应用于多糖免疫调节机制的分析仍处于初步阶段。免疫调节机制中具体的信号通路研究还需结合分子水平和细胞水平的分析技术进行研究。
细胞因子在多糖的整个免疫调节过程中以及细胞间的彼此作用上起到重要的调节功能, 如IL-6、IL-1β、TNF-α和IFN-γ等。多糖可以通过促进细胞因子的分泌来增强免疫调节作用, 因此, 细胞因子水平的高低在一定程度上反映着免疫调节状态。ELISA正是通过将抗原或抗体与某种酶结合形成酶标记抗原或抗体, 加入样品, 使其与抗体或抗原之间发生免疫学反应, 终止反应后并对多糖免疫调节信号通路中的细胞因子进行定量分析[86]
Liu等[87]通过酶联免疫吸附法检测巨噬细胞分泌的炎症因子水平, 从而研究石斛多糖(DSP) 的免疫调节活性。研究表明石斛多糖能够增加环磷酰胺免疫抑制小鼠血清中的TNF-α、IFN-γ和IL-6水平, 从而改善小鼠的免疫抑制状态。Wang等[88]研究板蓝根多糖(IRPS) 对病毒感染的大型白猪/长白猪杂交猪外周血树突状细胞分子变化的影响, 结果表明, IRPS能够促进树突状细胞成熟并增强动物病毒感染后的免疫细胞因子的分泌能力, 采用ELISA法检测出感染期间原代猪外周血单核细胞来源的树突状细胞(MoDC) 分泌的IL-12水平上调, IL-6水平下调。Xiong等[89]采用ELISA法研究环苜蓿多糖(CPP) 对脂多糖刺激的RAW264.7巨噬细胞免疫细胞因子分泌的影响, 结果显示CPP能够促进TNF-α和NO的释放, 抑制IL-1β的释放。此外, ELISA法可用于测定多糖免疫调节对血清中抗体水平的影响[90]。此种检验方法灵敏度高、重复性好且特异性高, 适合大批量的样品检测且检测成本较低。但ELISA法仍存在部分局限性, 一是在分子检测的基础上无法对免疫动物所产生抗体的特性进行评估; 二是基于该方法的检测原理, 多用来分析检测单一物质, 而对多组分或某一类化合物总量的检测比较局限。
qRT-PCR是通过往标准PCR体系中加入荧光物质, 根据荧光信号的积累实时监测每次循环后PCR产物的变化并生成荧光扩增曲线, 从而实现对多糖免疫调节机制中信号分子的基因表达进行定量分析[91]。免疫细胞释放的细胞因子是一类能与相应受体结合从而调节免疫反应的小分子蛋白, 比如白介素、干扰素和生长因子等。通过qRT-PCR技术检测细胞因子mRNA的相对表达量, 可研究多糖对细胞因子分泌的影响。
Li等[92]采用qRT-PCR技术研究白术多糖(AMP) 对TLR4信号通路调节小鼠脾功能的影响, 证明了AMP显著增加脾脏中TLR4、MyD88、TNF受体关联因子6 (TRAF6)、TNF受体关联因子3 (TRAF3) 和NF-κB的mRNA表达, 该多糖可能通过TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB这一信号通路来提高小鼠脾脏的免疫调节活性。Myoung-Sook等[93]通过qRT-PCR技术研究RAW264.7巨噬细胞在柑橘果皮多糖(CPP) 作用下分泌的相关因子和通路蛋白的基因表达情况, 结果表明该多糖通过TLR2/4路径减少巨噬细胞中白细胞介素-7 (IL-7) 和NO的分泌。Liu等[94]采用定量RT-PCR技术发现猴头菇多糖(HEP) 可以通过降低番鸭呼肠孤病毒(MDRV) 感染的雏鸭器官中Fas相关死亡结构域蛋白(FADD) 和细胞色素C (CytC) 表达水平从而减少细胞凋亡进而减轻免疫抑制。此种检验技术依靠检测信号通路中关键节点的mRNA水平来阐明多糖免疫调节的主要途径。传统的PCR技术由于无法给出准确的定量, 在实际应用中受到了很大的限制。随着技术不断改进和发展, 实时荧光定量PCR技术以其高敏感性和准确性在细胞因子定量中越来越受到青睐。
转录组测序技术(RNA-seq) 是利用高通量测序技术将细胞或组织中全部转录产物进行测序分析的技术, 是分析全部基因组序列、探索新的基因和研究未知基因的常用方法。近年来, RNA-seq技术已被运用到多糖免疫调节机制的研究中[86]。Zhao等[95]通过RNA-seq技术发现前胡多糖(PPDs) 主要通过TLR2/TLR4依赖性MAPK和NF-κB途径调节免疫反应。Qin等[96]通过RNA-seq技术检测RAW264.7巨噬细胞内细胞因子的mRNA水平并进行筛选, 从而研究绿豆表皮中的多糖对RAW264.7的免疫调节特性及分子机制, 结果表明有925个差异基因, 而KEGG分析发现, 绿豆表皮中的多糖通过TLR4介导的MAPK和NF-κB信号通路控制巨噬细胞的免疫应答。Wang等[97]采用RNA-seq技术分析筛选肠样Caco-2/DCs共培养模型中细胞因子和通路蛋白的基因上调和下调水平, 从而研究灵芝多糖对Caco-2以及树突状细胞(DCs) 的影响。研究发现灵芝多糖通过Caco-2的肿瘤坏死因子TNF-α和NF-κB信号通路调节DC细胞的免疫活性, 使DC的细胞因子及NF-κB途径的关键蛋白减少。RNA-seq技术对基因表达水平定量的范围更大, 更容易检测到表达量低的基因, 具有精密度高、分辨率高、成本低廉等特点, 不仅能检测出现有基因的转录本, 还可以发现新出现的转录本, 且与qPCR定量结果有良好的相关性。
大多数多糖通过结合细胞表面受体, 激活受体下游信号通路, 进而提高MyD88、TRAF6、运输关联膜蛋白(TRAM) 和p-NF-κB等蛋白在信号通路上的表达水平, 正向调节免疫功能。Western blot技术是检测蛋白质和蛋白质翻译后修饰的常用方法, 该方法通过分析蛋白着色位置和颜色深度获得特定蛋白质在免疫细胞中的表达情况, 从而研究多糖免疫调节信号通路中相关蛋白的表达[98]
Xu等[99]采用蛋白质印迹法检测MAPK、NF-κB和Jak-STAT通路的关键蛋白研究覆盆子多糖(RAP) 活化巨噬细胞的免疫调节机制。结果显示RAP促进了p38、ERK和JNK等蛋白的磷酸化, 证明了覆盆子多糖主要通过TLR2依赖性MAPK、NF-κB和Jak-STAT途径参与巨噬细胞的免疫调节机制。Huang等[100]采用蛋白质印迹法研究葫芦的果胶多糖(CMDP-4b) 的免疫调节机制, 研究表明CMDP-4b通过增强巨噬细胞的胞吞作用, 通过与细胞表面的TLR4和CR3作用促进细胞因子(IL-1β、TNF-α和IL-6) 和NO的产生, 从而激活MAPK和NF-κB信号通路, 表现出免疫调节活性。此外, 以同样方法研究证明了多糖能够增加血清中补体水平, 从而激活补体系统, 有效调节机体免疫[101]。目前, 已有研究者提出了升级版蛋白质印迹法的概念, 即基于免染技术的总蛋白定量方法[102], 利用可以在预制胶内使用的化学物质, 在凝胶制剂中掺入三卤代化合物, 与色氨酸残基发生共价反应, 所得的蛋白质可在UV辐射下发出荧光, 可通过成像系统作进一步检测[103]。此种方法旨在解决传统Western blot技术手工操作多、实验流程难规范以及不同实验室间难以进行数据比较等难题, 升级后的技术更具规范性、共享性和可读取性。
淋巴细胞主要包括T淋巴细胞和B淋巴细胞, 其中T淋巴细胞约占淋巴细胞的65%~85%, 成熟的T细胞主要分成CD4+T淋巴细胞和CD8+T淋巴细胞两大亚群。CD4+T细胞相关细胞因子和抗体的产生, CD8+T细胞能够抑制免疫应答[104]。因此, 常用两种细胞的比值来反映免疫调节作用。流式细胞术是通过检测免疫细胞上的中值荧光强度或每个免疫细胞结合的抗体, 从而对细胞分子进行定量分析[105]。目前, 该技术被广泛用于检测CD4+/CD8+T淋巴细胞比值。
Zhou等[106]采用流式细胞术对西洋参多糖(AGP) 的免疫调节作用机制进行研究。研究表明AGP能够提高环磷酰胺诱导免疫抑制组的CD4+/CD8+比值, 有效调节肠道免疫。Sun等[107]通过流式细胞术测定脓毒症急性肾损伤小鼠的细胞凋亡数目研究黄芪多糖(APS) 的免疫调节机制, 结果表明, APS可以减轻炎症、细胞凋亡来缓解脓毒症诱导的肾损伤。Yoshino等[108]通过流式细胞术研究发现香菇多糖(LNT) 对消化道癌患者具有免疫调节作用, 结果显示LNT能显著增加消化道癌患者外周血中CD4+ IFN-γ+T细胞百分比, 降低CD4+ IL-4+T细胞和CD4+ IL-6+T细胞百分比, 并改善Th1和Th2之间的平衡。
随着流式细胞术技术的日益成熟, 逐渐扩展到从单细胞水平去认识细胞在病理或生理状态下的变化, 成功应用于细胞计数、吞噬能力、蛋白质含量分析等方面, 且该技术检测速度快、灵敏度高且节约样本。因此, 建立完善、系统的流式细胞术技术有利于推动多糖免疫调节机制的进一步研究。然而, 这样的技术手段仍然不够完善, 如在样品处理阶段, 常加入抗凝剂来解决细胞凝集问题, 而抗凝剂的种类和浓度往往对血液样本有一定程度的影响。
高内涵分析技术是一种灵敏、快速且高分辨率的新技术, 可在保持免疫细胞结构和功能完整的前提下与光成像或细胞显微成像技术结合, 通过单次实验即可快速分析多糖免疫调节过程中免疫细胞的形态、分化、迁移和信号转导等信息[109]。目前, 该技术已成功用于活性成分筛选[91]、免疫调节[110]、药物作用机制研究[111]等方面。在多糖免疫方面, 通过建立针对炎性因子的多靶点筛选模型, 为发现新的具有免疫调节多糖提供一种有效的技术。此外, 高内涵技术常与荧光标记技术结合[112]用于多糖的免疫调节机制研究。
Yang等[113]通过高内涵分析技术研究铁棍山药活性物质多糖调节巨噬细胞的吞噬活性, 证明了铁棍山药多糖既能促进巨噬细胞增殖, 又能提高其吞噬能力。Zhang等[114]利用高内涵成像和分析技术建立了第一个脂多糖诱导的RAW264.7巨噬细胞标准化平台, 通过测量细胞因子NF-κB来筛选多糖药物并开展其免疫调节机制的研究。Xie等[115]对多糖进行高通量、高内涵的鉴定和定量, 检测到人血清中的总多糖, 这种改进的技术为支持多糖免疫调节作用的分析提供了强大的工具。高内涵技术具有高通量、多参数、信息直观的特点, 可在细胞培养的不同时间段进行分析, 是用于免疫调节研究的一种新手段。但该技术目前尚处于发展阶段, 还有部分技术难题需要解决, 如常用的荧光蛋白的灵敏度相对于多糖检测来说尚需提高, 且要控制试剂浓度, 最大程度降低毒性反应。
多糖药效学方面的研究逐渐增多, 以免疫调节作用尤为显著。然而多糖的体内过程研究较少, 成为制约多糖进一步开发的薄弱点, 所以多糖的体内药代动力学和免疫调节机制相关联的研究较少。但经阅读相关文献发现[6-10], 多糖体内过程与免疫调节机制研究中的关键技术有一定交叉。如图 4所示, 经荧光标记过的多糖在体内药动学研究过程中有独特的优势, 不仅能够通过分光光度法、色谱法等技术对多糖进行体内定量, 还可利用激光扫描共聚焦显微成像技术观察多糖体内分布。在此基础上结合细胞、分子水平检测技术检测多种免疫细胞数目或者相关蛋白表达, 以此开展多糖药代动力学和免疫调节机制的深入研究。
由于多糖口服吸收后的观测、分析涉及可视化处理以及定性定量分析。因此, 随着多糖药代动力学研究的不断深入, 对研究技术的要求也在不断提高。当前用于研究的技术中尚存部分问题亟待改善。首先, 荧光标记技术破解了多糖在生物体内难以检测的难题, 但部分荧光素在生物体内代谢困难及其生物毒性给多糖免疫机制的研究带来限制, 可以通过设计合适的化学反应, 在多糖中引入共轭结构实现发光基团自组装并能够具备生物可降解性。其次, 在放射性同位素标记技术的应用中, 放射性核素的安全性问题始终是首要问题, 因此, 该检测方法对操作人员和设备的要求应不断提高。更重要的是, 目前没有研究能够证明同位素标记法不会改变多糖的结构, 也无法区别体内多糖是以原型形式还是降解形式存在[49]。此外, 激光扫描共聚焦显微成像技术常与荧光标记技术结合, 用来表征多糖在体内的分布与降解。随着一系列技术的进步, 激光扫描共聚焦显微镜中的关键元件也在不断优化, 例如, 以光纤为基础的激光扫描共聚焦显微成像技术是未来重要的发展方向。由于光纤具有灵活性, 可将激光扫描共聚焦显微镜的体积做小, 使用起来更加小巧方便, 甚至做成内窥式显微镜, 直接进入体内活体成像[66, 67]
在免疫调节机制研究的相关技术方面, 可与较前沿的分析技术共同协作, 实现细胞因子水平、基因表达和相关信号通路蛋白表达的精确、标准化、数字化分析。首先, 针对上文所阐述的ELISA检测技术存在的局限[88], 可将其与其他检测方法联用, 如实时荧光定量PCR、色谱分析等技术, 以提高检测技术的灵敏性。其次, 为了获得蛋白质印迹法检测的最大程度的完整性和重复性, 研究者可通过良好的样品制备技术、检测方法以及软件分析的联合协作, 从而实现蛋白的准确定量分析[101]。此外, 随着流式细胞仪产品的不断更新, 流式细胞术对细胞的计数和识别已实现多种颜色的荧光分析, 且应用范围愈加广泛。值得注意的是, 荧光标记后的多糖经机体吸收后再使用流式细胞术进行检测分析时会出现荧光信号重叠现象, 重叠区域越大, 荧光信号检测的准确性越低。最后, 高内涵技术虽已成功应用于炎症因子的筛选和免疫调节等方面, 但目前高内涵分析技术与其他技术领域结合得不够深入, 较依赖于相关的技术革新[112]。例如, 可将该技术与荧光标记深度结合, 通过成像技术可用于获得免疫细胞形态、结构和相关信号通路变化等信息, 以扩大真实图像数据, 提高实验效率并降低实验成本。
多糖种类繁多, 不同来源的多糖结构存在很大差异, 给深入研究多糖免疫调节机制带来了一定困难。但相信在未来, 随着科研的进步, 会不断完善现有技术以及发展更多先进技术, 共同推进多糖体内过程与免疫调节机制的深入研究。
作者贡献: 朱赤云、方悦悦、赖梦亭负责文献调研和文章撰写; 肖平负责文章选题、指导写作及文章修改; 段金廒提供文章思路。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。
  • 江苏省中医药科技发展计划项目(MS2021004)
  • 江苏省中药资源产业化过程协同创新中心重点项目(ZDXM-2022-06)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(81703642)
  • 南京中医药大学自然科学基金青年项目(NZY81703642)
  • 国家中医药管理局中医药创新团队及人才支持计划项目(ZYYCXTD-D-202005)
  • 山东省重点研发计划(2021SFGC1203)
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2024年第59卷第2期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0473
  • 接收时间:2023-04-18
  • 首发时间:2025-11-28
  • 出版时间:2024-02-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-04-18
  • 修回日期:2023-08-05
基金
江苏省中医药科技发展计划项目(MS2021004)
江苏省中药资源产业化过程协同创新中心重点项目(ZDXM-2022-06)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(81703642)
南京中医药大学自然科学基金青年项目(NZY81703642)
国家中医药管理局中医药创新团队及人才支持计划项目(ZYYCXTD-D-202005)
山东省重点研发计划(2021SFGC1203)
作者信息
    南京中医药大学 江苏省中药资源产业化过程协同创新中心/中药资源产业化与方剂创新药物国家地方联合工程研究中心/国家中医药管理局中药资源循环利用重点研究室, 江苏 南京 210023

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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