Article(id=1198652608362676335, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0096, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1675267200000, receivedDateStr=2023-02-02, revisedDate=1677945600000, revisedDateStr=2023-03-05, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763710651721, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1691769600000, pubDateStr=2023-08-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763710651721, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763710651721, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763710651721, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198652605778985059, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='8', pageStart='0', pageEnd='2540', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1691769600000', pubDateStr='2023-08-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763710651106, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1763710739504, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596347, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596348, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=2016, endPage=2034, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198652609750990965, articleId=1198652608362676335, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=On improving the activity and selectivity of small molecule drugs, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Although small molecule drugs (SMD) are still mainstream for the treatment of diseases, large molecule biologicss of many advantages, pose a challenge to the further discovery and use of SMD. The advantages of SMD are the convenience of oral administration and good patient compliance. However, the challenge with SMD is to integrate the PD, PK, selectivity and safety into a chemical structure. Because of their small size and surface area they often bind to various proteins, and off-target actions can cause adverse reactions. In this sense, selectivity is critical. Based upon target as the core to construct a chemical structure, it is necessary to consider the requirements of all the attributes, but achievement of the full-dimensional optimization is difficult. Modern drug discovery has been greatly enhanced by molecular biology and structural biology, and new strategies and technologies have emerged, which have created many successful medicines. For example, under the guidance of structural biology, covalent binding drugs connect moderate "electrophilic warheads" to the appropriate positions of molecules, and upon binding to their targets the electrophiles are irreversibly linked to the target by covalent bonds. Molecular biology can be directly applied to the development of antibody-coupled drugs (ADC). The antibody (A) acts as a carrier and a guide (for PK), and carries toxic molecules (D) into cancer cells, thus playing a killing role (for PD). The separate pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic entities are coupled (C) by linkers. PROTACs are also bifunctional molecules, which recruit a target protein and ubiquitin ligase E3 to form a ternary complex, which then acts as a catalyst to ubiquitinate the target protein and lead to degradation by the proteasome. In addition, in recent years, the combination of two fixed-dose drugs has improved selectivity, safety, and long-term benefit with many severe diseases, and can be regarded as an innovative strategy of physical combination. This review discusses some successful examples to briefly present the principles from the perspective of medicinal chemistry and therapeutic application.

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小分子药物目前仍是治疗的主流, 特异性治疗的生物药日益显示其优势, 构成了对小分子药物创制和应用的挑战。小分子药物的优势是方便口服, 患者依从性好。构建小分子药物的难点, 是将药效、药代、选择性和安全性都融于化学结构之中。由于尺寸小, 表面积不大, 小分子药物就会对众多蛋白有不同程度的适配性结合, 导致脱靶引起不良反应, 在这个意义上选择性作用是首要的。在以靶标为核心构建和优化分子结构, 又需要全盘顾及各个属性的要求, 往往顾此失彼, 达到全维度的优化实在勉为其难。本世纪的药物创制, 广泛注入了分子生物学和结构生物学元素, 涌现了新的策略和技术, 并获得了成功, 满足了患者的需求。例如共价结合药物, 是在结构生物学指引下, 将适度的“亲电弹头”连接在分子的恰当位置, 在分子互补性的结合中, 加以共价键不可逆锁定。分子生物学直接应用于抗体偶联药物(ADC) 的研制中, 抗体(A) 作为载体和导向(药代), 将毒性分子(D) 传输到癌性细胞内, 发挥杀伤作用(药效)。隔离的药效和药代分子实体靠连接基偶联(C) 成ADC分子。PROTAC也是双功能分子, 招募靶蛋白和泛素连接酶E3, 形成三元复合物, 犹如催化剂, 使靶蛋白发生泛素化, 导致被蛋白酶体降解。此外, 近年来药物固定的配伍应用, 在提高选择性、安全性、长效性和治疗效果方面也有长足进步, 可视作不拘一格的物理合用的创新策略。本文列举一些成功实例, 从药物化学和治疗应用的视角, 简要讨论上述内容。

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Muscarinic cholinergic receptor agonist and peripheral antagonist for schizophrenia New Eng J Med, 2021, 384: 717-726., articleTitle=Muscarinic cholinergic receptor agonist and peripheral antagonist for schizophrenia, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1198960124091007921, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652608362676335, doi=10.1038/d41573-022-00025-1, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2022, volume=21, issue=null, pageStart=175, pageEnd=176, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[40], rfOrder=39, authorNames=null, journalName=Nat Rev Drug Discov, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Jayatunga MK, Xie W, Ruder L. AI in small-molecule drug discovery: a coming wave? 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Atropisomer stability and KRASG12C activity as a function of cryptic pocket arene identity and substitution pattern

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No. Generic name Structure Company Target Indication
52 Ruxolitinib 2011
Incyte/Novartis
JAK-1/-3 Myelofibrosis
53 Tofacitinib 2012
Pfizer
JAK-1/-2 Rheumatoid arthritis
54 Baricitinib 2017
Incyte/Lilly
JAK-1/-2 Rheumatoid arthritis,
alopecia
55 Peficitinib 2018
Astellas
JAK-1/-2/-3,
TYK-2
Ulcerative colitis
56 Upadacitinib 2019
Abbvie
JAK-1 Rheumatoid arthritis
57 Fedratinib 2019
Sanofi/Celgene
JAK-2 Myelofibrosis
58 Delgocitinib 2020
Japan Tobacco
JAK Topical atopic dermatitis
59 Abrocitinib 2021
Pfizer
JAK-1 Atopic dermatitis
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The marketed JAK-1/-2/-3 kinase inhibitors

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No. Generic name Structure Company Target Indication
52 Ruxolitinib 2011
Incyte/Novartis
JAK-1/-3 Myelofibrosis
53 Tofacitinib 2012
Pfizer
JAK-1/-2 Rheumatoid arthritis
54 Baricitinib 2017
Incyte/Lilly
JAK-1/-2 Rheumatoid arthritis,
alopecia
55 Peficitinib 2018
Astellas
JAK-1/-2/-3,
TYK-2
Ulcerative colitis
56 Upadacitinib 2019
Abbvie
JAK-1 Rheumatoid arthritis
57 Fedratinib 2019
Sanofi/Celgene
JAK-2 Myelofibrosis
58 Delgocitinib 2020
Japan Tobacco
JAK Topical atopic dermatitis
59 Abrocitinib 2021
Pfizer
JAK-1 Atopic dermatitis
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No. Name Antibody Linker Payload DAR Target Indication
66 Gemtuzumab ozogamicin Anti-CD33 IgG4 2-3 CD33 AML
67 Brentuximab vedotin Anti-CD30 IgG1 4 CD30 Hodgkin's lymphoma, ALCL
68 Trastuzumab emtansine Anti-HER2 IgG1 3.5 HER2 Breast cancer
69 Inotuzumabozogamicin Anti-CD22 IgG4 6 CD22 Lymphocytic leukemia
70 Polatuzumab vedotin Anti-CD79b 3.8 CD79 Large B-cell lymphoma
71 Enfortumab vedotin Anti-Actin4 IgG1 3.8 Nectin-4 Urothelial carcinoma
72 Trastuzumab deruxtecan Anti-HER2 7.8 HER2 Breast cancer
73 Sacituzumab govitecan Anti-Trop2 IgG1 7.6 TROP-2 recepter Breast cancer
74 Belantamab mafodotin Anti-BCMA IgG1 4 BCMA Multiple myeloma
75 Loncastuximab tesitine Anti-FD19 IgG1 ? CD-19 Recurrent refractory large B-cell lymphoma
76 Tisotumab vedotin Anti-CD142 4.1 Tissue factor
77 Mirvetuximab soravtansine Anti-FAα IgG1 4 Folic acid receptor α (FRα) FRα(+) epithelial ovarian carcinoma
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List of ADC and compositions approved by FDA. DAR: Drug-antibody ratio

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No. Name Antibody Linker Payload DAR Target Indication
66 Gemtuzumab ozogamicin Anti-CD33 IgG4 2-3 CD33 AML
67 Brentuximab vedotin Anti-CD30 IgG1 4 CD30 Hodgkin's lymphoma, ALCL
68 Trastuzumab emtansine Anti-HER2 IgG1 3.5 HER2 Breast cancer
69 Inotuzumabozogamicin Anti-CD22 IgG4 6 CD22 Lymphocytic leukemia
70 Polatuzumab vedotin Anti-CD79b 3.8 CD79 Large B-cell lymphoma
71 Enfortumab vedotin Anti-Actin4 IgG1 3.8 Nectin-4 Urothelial carcinoma
72 Trastuzumab deruxtecan Anti-HER2 7.8 HER2 Breast cancer
73 Sacituzumab govitecan Anti-Trop2 IgG1 7.6 TROP-2 recepter Breast cancer
74 Belantamab mafodotin Anti-BCMA IgG1 4 BCMA Multiple myeloma
75 Loncastuximab tesitine Anti-FD19 IgG1 ? CD-19 Recurrent refractory large B-cell lymphoma
76 Tisotumab vedotin Anti-CD142 4.1 Tissue factor
77 Mirvetuximab soravtansine Anti-FAα IgG1 4 Folic acid receptor α (FRα) FRα(+) epithelial ovarian carcinoma
), ArticleFig(id=1198960117828911409, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198652608362676335, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
No. Name/code No. Target Indication Company Phase
78 ARV471 ER ER+/HER2-breast cancer Pfizer/Arvinas
79 Bavdegalutamide ARV110 AR Castration-resistant prostate cancer Arvinas
80 AVR766 AR Castration-resistant prostate cancer Arvinas Ⅰ/Ⅱ
81 RNK05047 BRD4 Solid tumor and lymphoma Ranok Ⅰ/Ⅱ
82 CFT8634 BRD9 Synovial sarcoma and SMARCB1 deletion solid tumor C4 Therapeutics Ⅰ/Ⅱ
83 CG001419 Trk Lung cancer and pancarcinoma Cullgen Ⅰ/Ⅱ
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The list of PROTACs under clinical study at phase Ⅱ or Ⅰ/Ⅱ

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No. Name/code No. Target Indication Company Phase
78 ARV471 ER ER+/HER2-breast cancer Pfizer/Arvinas
79 Bavdegalutamide ARV110 AR Castration-resistant prostate cancer Arvinas
80 AVR766 AR Castration-resistant prostate cancer Arvinas Ⅰ/Ⅱ
81 RNK05047 BRD4 Solid tumor and lymphoma Ranok Ⅰ/Ⅱ
82 CFT8634 BRD9 Synovial sarcoma and SMARCB1 deletion solid tumor C4 Therapeutics Ⅰ/Ⅱ
83 CG001419 Trk Lung cancer and pancarcinoma Cullgen Ⅰ/Ⅱ
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提高小分子药物的活性和选择性
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郭颖 , 郭宗儒 *
药学学报 | 专家论坛 2023,58(8): 2016-2034
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药学学报 |专家论坛 2023 , 58 (8) : 2016 -2034
提高小分子药物的活性和选择性
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郭颖, 郭宗儒*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 北京 100050
通讯作者:
*郭宗儒, E-mail:
On improving the activity and selectivity of small molecule drugs
Ying GUO, Zong-ru GUO*
Affiliations
  • Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2023-08-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0096
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小分子药物目前仍是治疗的主流, 特异性治疗的生物药日益显示其优势, 构成了对小分子药物创制和应用的挑战。小分子药物的优势是方便口服, 患者依从性好。构建小分子药物的难点, 是将药效、药代、选择性和安全性都融于化学结构之中。由于尺寸小, 表面积不大, 小分子药物就会对众多蛋白有不同程度的适配性结合, 导致脱靶引起不良反应, 在这个意义上选择性作用是首要的。在以靶标为核心构建和优化分子结构, 又需要全盘顾及各个属性的要求, 往往顾此失彼, 达到全维度的优化实在勉为其难。本世纪的药物创制, 广泛注入了分子生物学和结构生物学元素, 涌现了新的策略和技术, 并获得了成功, 满足了患者的需求。例如共价结合药物, 是在结构生物学指引下, 将适度的“亲电弹头”连接在分子的恰当位置, 在分子互补性的结合中, 加以共价键不可逆锁定。分子生物学直接应用于抗体偶联药物(ADC) 的研制中, 抗体(A) 作为载体和导向(药代), 将毒性分子(D) 传输到癌性细胞内, 发挥杀伤作用(药效)。隔离的药效和药代分子实体靠连接基偶联(C) 成ADC分子。PROTAC也是双功能分子, 招募靶蛋白和泛素连接酶E3, 形成三元复合物, 犹如催化剂, 使靶蛋白发生泛素化, 导致被蛋白酶体降解。此外, 近年来药物固定的配伍应用, 在提高选择性、安全性、长效性和治疗效果方面也有长足进步, 可视作不拘一格的物理合用的创新策略。本文列举一些成功实例, 从药物化学和治疗应用的视角, 简要讨论上述内容。

选择性  /  共价结合药物  /  抗体偶联药物  /  PROTAC  /  药物组合

Although small molecule drugs (SMD) are still mainstream for the treatment of diseases, large molecule biologicss of many advantages, pose a challenge to the further discovery and use of SMD. The advantages of SMD are the convenience of oral administration and good patient compliance. However, the challenge with SMD is to integrate the PD, PK, selectivity and safety into a chemical structure. Because of their small size and surface area they often bind to various proteins, and off-target actions can cause adverse reactions. In this sense, selectivity is critical. Based upon target as the core to construct a chemical structure, it is necessary to consider the requirements of all the attributes, but achievement of the full-dimensional optimization is difficult. Modern drug discovery has been greatly enhanced by molecular biology and structural biology, and new strategies and technologies have emerged, which have created many successful medicines. For example, under the guidance of structural biology, covalent binding drugs connect moderate "electrophilic warheads" to the appropriate positions of molecules, and upon binding to their targets the electrophiles are irreversibly linked to the target by covalent bonds. Molecular biology can be directly applied to the development of antibody-coupled drugs (ADC). The antibody (A) acts as a carrier and a guide (for PK), and carries toxic molecules (D) into cancer cells, thus playing a killing role (for PD). The separate pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic entities are coupled (C) by linkers. PROTACs are also bifunctional molecules, which recruit a target protein and ubiquitin ligase E3 to form a ternary complex, which then acts as a catalyst to ubiquitinate the target protein and lead to degradation by the proteasome. In addition, in recent years, the combination of two fixed-dose drugs has improved selectivity, safety, and long-term benefit with many severe diseases, and can be regarded as an innovative strategy of physical combination. This review discusses some successful examples to briefly present the principles from the perspective of medicinal chemistry and therapeutic application.

selectivity  /  covalent binding drug  /  antibody-coupled drug  /  PROTAC  /  drug combination
郭颖, 郭宗儒. 提高小分子药物的活性和选择性. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2016 -2034 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0096
Ying GUO, Zong-ru GUO. On improving the activity and selectivity of small molecule drugs[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2016 -2034 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0096
在药物治疗领域里, 现今虽然仍以小分子药物为主流, 但以特异性治疗为特征的生物大分子药物之崛起, 日益显示其优势所在, 构成了对小分子药物创制和应用的挑战。以方便口服而应用的小分子药物, 集药效、药代、选择性和依从性等多种属性于化学结构之中, 是其特点, 也是创制难点。在以靶标为核心构建分子结构, 需全盘顾及各个属性的要求, 但往往顾此失彼, 达到全维度的优化状态实在勉为其难。这其中最难驾驭的是由于脱靶作用而引起的不良反应, 限制了治疗窗口, 因此选择性作用显得格外重要。
其实, 过分拘泥于传统新药物分子实体(NME) 的整合性创制理念, 往往会削足适履而达不到目的, 也延误患者之急需, 在COVID-19的3年疫情中尤显迫切。本世纪出现的一些平台技术就是突破了传统的创制理念, 将整合于一个结构之中的诸多属性, 从结构或组成上加以分割或分散处理, 整合为一个大分子或组方, 已成为行之有效的策略。本文就某些成功上市的新药为例, 简述为提高小分子药物的活性和选择性而采用的一些方法。
既往的共价结合药物, 大多是在小分子上连接亲电性较强的原子或基团, 例如氮芥连接在L-苯丙氨酸的美法仑(1, melphalan), 以提高肿瘤组织摄入药物, 其实并未达到对肿瘤组织的选择性摄入。至于至今应用的治疗睾丸精原细胞瘤的氮甲, 即N-甲酰溶肉瘤素(2, N-formylsarcolysin), 只是偶然幸运发现而已。
从生化上讲, 人体布满了亲核性基团, 不允许有强亲电的“虎狼基团”存在, 避免受到共价键结合的化学侵害。因而长时间来, 药物学家除抗肿瘤药物外避开共价结合药物的研究。分子和结构生物学的发展, 为研制特异性共价键结合药物提供了结构依据, 近些年来上市了不少高选择性共价结合药物。这类药物的共同特点是, 基于设定靶标的结合腔或裂隙, 设计或筛选出形状互补、电性(静电、氢键) 互补、发生疏水-疏水结合的分子或片段, 形成较强结合, 在此基础上基于结构生物学提供的结合腔中重要亲核性基团的空间位置和性质, 在配体分子的适当位置连接足以形成共价结合的相匹配基团, 选择的亲电性无过无不及, 是精准设计提高选择性的关键。
非小细胞肺癌患者表皮生长因子受体(EGFR) 酪氨酸激酶发生变异, 位点是L858R, 导致癌细胞对这个信号通路的依赖而发展。对此单变异型激酶, 第一代EGFR酪氨酸激酶抑制剂如吉非替尼(3, gefitinib) 和厄洛替尼(4, erlotinib) 成为治疗NSCLC一线治疗药。N1和N3分别与激酶发生氢键结合, C4连接的苯氨基结合于疏水腔, 喹唑啉的6/7位处于酶开口处, 用来修饰溶解性。但用药一段时间后60%患者出现耐药, 是由于激酶的ATP结合位点的门户残基(gatekeeper) 发生了T790M突变, 突变逃逸了34的抑制作用。还由于34对野生型的EGFR激酶也有抑制作用, 不能加大剂量。
为克服耐药性研制了第二代“替尼”, 是共价结合药物, 为不可逆抑制剂, 例如阿法替尼(5, afatinib)[1]和达可替尼(6, dacomitinib)[2]。化学结构类型基本不变, 以适配于ATP结合腔, 但在6位引入了有弱亲电性的不饱和酰胺, 后者由于靠近激酶开口处的残基Cys797, 从而在烯碳与巯基间发生麦克尔加成, 共价键结合导致不可逆抑制。56提高了抑制双突变激酶的活性, 因而对第一代药物发生耐药的患者有效。然而由于包括野生型在内的所有EGFR激酶开口处都有Cys797, 降低了选择性作用, 呈现不良反应。
AstraZeneca公司为克服上两代“替尼”的耐药性, 设定的目标是①对L858R和T790M双突变型的EGFR激酶(DM) 选择性抑制; ②不抑制野生型(WT) EGFR激酶; ③不抑制胰岛素生长因子1受体(IGF1R)。为此, 必须针对突变后生成的Met790的结构特征, 使化合物强效结合ATP结构域, “超过”因T790M变异提高的与ATP结合力, 所以目标的本质是提高选择性: 对双突变激酶高活性, 对野生型激酶和IGF1R无或低活性。
该公司完全摆脱了上两代的结构类型, 普筛出化合物7对双突变激酶活性强于野生型近百倍(IC50(DM酶) = 0.009 μmol·L-1), 然而对双突变细胞的活性降低了90倍(IC50(DM细胞) = 0.77 μmol·L-1), 可能难以摄入细胞内, 进而优化对DM细胞的活性, 而且7中加入亲电性基团, 以期与酶开口处的Cys797发生共价结合(相同于第二代抑制剂)。经分子模拟, 将亲电性基团丙烯酰胺连接在苯胺的间位, 这是易于同Cys797的巯基发生共价结合的位置。合成的化合物8在细胞水平上对单突变(AM) 和双突变(DM) 的活性都强于野生型(WT)。化合物8与EGFR激酶结合的复合物晶体证明丙烯酰胺确实与Cys797形成了共价键结合[3]
为改善物化性质对吲哚和对麦可尔基团作构效关系变换, 优化出化合物9, 后者对双突变细胞的活性为IC50(DM细胞) = 0.096 μmol·L-1, 对野生细胞活性很弱IC50(WT细胞) = 23 μmol·L-1, 选择性高达240倍。为了提高共价结合的效率, 将碱性和麦可尔基团分散在苯环的不同位置, 化合物10对双突变细胞的活性为IC50(DM细胞) = 0.000 6 μmol·L-1, 对野生细胞活性IC50(WT细胞) = 0.145 μmol·L-1, 溶解性为222 μmol·L-1。然而10对胰岛素生长因子受体1有较高抑制活性, 有潜在引起高胰岛素血症等不良反应。该脱靶作用的原因是IGF1R激酶的ATP结合域的门户氨基酸是甲硫氨酸, 与耐药(双突变) EGFR激酶的门户氨基酸相同。这个脱靶作用对治疗剂量是个限制因素。从而对嘧啶环的4和5位取代基作进一步SAR优化, 最终得到化合物11, 对双突变细胞的活性为IC50(DM细胞) = 0.015 μmol·L-1, 对野生细胞活性IC50(WT细胞) = 0.480 μmol·L-1, 对IGF1R激酶IC50 = 2.9 μmol·L-1, 对hERGs钾通道的抑制作用很弱, IC50 = 16.3 μmol·L-1
化合物11确定为候选化合物, 定名奥希替尼(osimertinib), 经临床前和临床研究, 证明对晚期非小细胞肺癌特别是用一线替尼类药物治疗后疾病恶化的患者有效, 于2015年11月美国FDA批准上市[4]
在B细胞抗原受体的信号通路中, Bruton酪氨酸激酶(BTK) 起着重要作用。BTK是Tec激酶家族的成员, 为非受体型胞浆酪氨酸激酶, 主要表达于造血细胞。与BTK同属于Src激酶家族的另一激酶, 称作淋巴细胞特异性蛋白激酶(LCK), 主要表达于T淋巴细胞, 功能是调节免疫应答。BTK和LCK激酶的ATP结合域具有相似性, 分子模拟表明结合位点大同小异, 但BTK的残基为Cys481, LCK为Ser481, 半胱氨酸巯基的亲核性强于丝氨酸的羟基, 研制者基于这个差异用于设计并研制出BTK选择性不可逆抑制剂伊布替尼(12, ibrutinib), 于2013年经FDA批准上市[5, 6]。分子的主要骨架异嘌呤二苯醚定位于BTK激酶的ATP结合腔中, 弱亲电性基团丙烯酰胺靠近Cys481, 与巯基发生麦可尔加成反应。伊布替尼是治疗与B淋巴细胞相关的套细胞白血病的一线用药。
AstraZeneca于2017年上市阿可替尼(13, acalabrutinib)[7]是第二代BTK不可逆抑制剂。
与伊布替尼相比, 阿可替尼更具有选择性作用, 是在结构优化中注重了降低对野生型EGFR、Tec的结合, 避免了对正常激酶的脱靶, 提高了靶标特异性并增强了BTK的效力, 从而减少不良反应。阿可替尼用丁炔酰胺作为共价结合基团与Cys481的反应具有更高的选择性和体内靶标覆盖率, 包括抑制ERK、IKB和AKT下游靶标的酪氨酸磷酸化, 但不抑制正常EGFR、ITK和Tec活性。
我国百济神州公司针对伊布替尼的口服生物利用度低(F < 10%), 剂量大, 治疗窗口较窄的缺点, 而且对野生型EGFR呈现抑制, 引起皮疹和腹泻等不良反应。研制高选择性抑制剂, 理念也是以竞争激酶ATP结合腔为作用模式, 抑制剂模拟ATP腺嘌呤环, 并变换杂环的结构骨架, 设计了氨基吡唑酰胺类化合物, 酰胺是为了形成分子内氢键, 用假杂环模拟平面性稠合的嘧啶环[8]。在适宜的位置连接麦克尔加成基团, 以实现不可逆抑制。经过数轮的SAR研究, 研制出BTK新一代不可逆抑制剂泽布替尼(14, zanubrutinib), 于2019年经FDA批准在美国上市, 成为治疗套细胞淋巴瘤和慢性淋巴性白血病/小淋巴细胞淋巴瘤的第三个有效药物。
泽布替尼与BTK激酶共晶结构显示, 分子定位于ATP结合腔, 酰胺基与铰链上Glu475和Met477形成氢键网络, 哌啶的氮原子也与Met477发生氢键结合, 吡唑的氮原子经水分子(氢键) 介导与Lys430的侧链氨基形成氢键, 二苯醚的末端苯环与Phe540发生T-型π-π相互作用, 麦克尔基团与Cys481巯基的距离2.9 Å, 处于有利发生共价结合的范围。此外, 酰胺基与哌啶氮的分子内氢键(图 1中未示) 也验证了最初模拟嘧啶酮结构的设想[9]
丙肝病毒(HCV) 是正链单链RNA病毒, 其中NS3蛋白酶对丙肝病毒的生长和增殖具有重要作用, 成为研制丙肝药物的靶标。NS3酶的水解机制是由三元体构成: N端的His57和Asp81, 以及C端的Ser139。图 2是Asp-His-Ser三元体经广义酸/碱催化水解肽键过程的示意图。三元体与底物形成氢键, 提高了肽键羰基的亲电性, 丝氨酸的羟基向羰基作亲核进攻, 促进了肽键水解。设想抑制NS3蛋白酶的一个重要反应位点, 是与该三元体结合, 尤其希望与Ser139发生共价键结合。
由于NS3水解多肽的活性中心表浅而无特征, 为寻找先导化合物, 将某些亲电性基团连接到长肽链中, 例如醛、酮、三氟甲基酮和α酮基酰胺等, 以得到有较强结合作用拟肽类先导物, 然后简化和修饰成小分子化合物。发现十一肽化合物15的活性Ki = 1.9 nmol·L-1, 亲电性基团酮基酰胺在十一肽的P1和P1′之间, 这个位置很重要[10]15的相对分子质量为1 265, 距离口服吸收的物化和药代要求甚远, 结构需要简化。
化合物15的高活性, 在于它与NS3活性中心的结构匹配, 以及酮基酰胺的亲电性和所处的适宜位置并与丝氨酸残基发生形成共价结合而使复合物稳定化, 如图 3所示[11]
将化合物15的C端4个氨基酸Met-Ser-Tyr-Ser-NH2切除, 得到临近端点含有酮基酰胺的七肽酰胺(16), 活性Ki = 43 nmol·L-1, 虽然下降25倍, 但相对分子质量降低到796[12]16作结构简化, 于P1′处引入一个苯基甘氨酸以增加P2′的疏水性, 删除P4~P6的三个氨基酸残基, 成为五肽的化合物17, Ki = 98 nmol·L-1, 活性低于16一倍, 但相对分子质量又减少了100余。X-射线晶体学分析表明, P2的侧链接近酶的Arg155, 后者应带有正电荷。但在抑制剂中引入羧基并未形成盐键, 没有提高活性。设想P2可能与Arg155的亚烷基链发生疏水性结合。变换不同的烷基发现P2为较小的环丙基有利于结合, 进而将P1′的烷基也变换成环丙基, 得到化合物18, 活性明显提高, Ki = 15 nmol·L-1, 但对感染细胞未见活性, EC90 > 5 μmol·L-1, 原因可能是游离羧基的存在不利于进入细胞膜[13]
进一步经过多位点变换, 发现P2为二甲基环丙基并脯氨酸、P3为叔丁基甘氨酸并且氨基用叔丁氧羰基修饰, P2′的羧基制备成二甲酰胺以消除负离子和有利于穿越细胞膜, 得到化合物19, 活性为Ki = 5 nmol·L-1, 对感染细胞的EC90 = 0.1 μmol·L-119活性有明显提高, 但药代性质不佳, 生物利用度F = 4%, 达不到临床前最低要求(AUC ≥ 1.0 μmol·L-1·h, 生物利用度F ≥ 10%), 这是因为分子仍然偏大, MW = 725, 仍需结构小型化。
根据前面述及的去除P1′和P2′的甘氨酰苯基甘氨酸仍保持活性, 将化合物19的这两个氨基酸删除, 使α-酮基酰胺处于端点, 并将一个叔丁基改为环己基, 化合物20的活性Ki = 25 nmol·L-1, 对感染细胞的EC90 = 0.4 μmol·L-1, 虽活性有所减弱, 但分子尺寸显著减小, MW = 532。
20的环丙基用其他脂环替换, 发现环丁甲基活性最高, 再扩环活性下降, 提示对P1体积的恰当容纳度。P2处的偕二甲基环丙基并脯氨酸片段已优化为最佳状态。P3处的氨基变换为烷基、芳烷基、酰胺基、氨甲酰基、脲基、磺酰胺基或磺酰脲基, 发现用脲基代替氨甲酰氧连接基, 活性和其他性质最佳, 遂将这些优化因素综合成化合物2121的体外活性Ki = 14 nmol·L-1, 对感染细胞的EC90 = 0.35 μmol·L-1, MW = 519, 对HCV的NS3抑制活性强于人嗜中性弹性酶2 200倍, 有很高的选择性。21与NS3复合物单晶结构表明, 两个叔丁基分别和S4与S3疏水腔发生疏水相互作用, P2的二甲基环丙基并脯氨酸片段采取弯曲构象, 与酶的Ala156、His57和Arg155侧链发生最大程度的疏水性交盖, 环丁基占据了S1腔, 酮基酰胺的羰基与Ser139形成可逆的共价结合。定名化合物21为波普瑞韦(boceprevir), 经Ⅲ期临床研究证明对丙肝患者有显著治疗作用, 于2011年经FDA批准上市。
由Vertex和强生公司研制的替拉瑞韦(22, telaprevir) 是与波普瑞韦同时研制的丙肝治疗药, 于波普瑞韦批准10天后被批准上市, 替拉瑞韦的作用靶标也是NS3蛋白酶, 其研发策略也是以酶底物NS5A-5B为出发点, 筛选出十肽类似物, 后以含醛基的四肽作为先导物, 由于醛基的亲电性过强, 后演变成酮基酰胺的拟肽, 作用机制与波普瑞韦相同, 同酶的催化中心Asp139也发生可逆性的共价键结合[14]
蛋白酶体(proteasome) 与细胞内NF-κB讯号传导途径密切相关, 由于NF-κB在炎症过程和肿瘤细胞的发生发展扮演重要角色, 干扰NF-κB活化过程, 可间接或直接地阻断炎症和促成肿瘤细胞凋亡。所以蛋白酶体是研发抗炎和抗肿瘤药物的靶标。
哈佛大学的Goldberg在研究蛋白酶体抑制剂对细胞生长和增殖以确定其催化功能的过程中, 发现三肽化合物苄氧羰酰-亮氨酰-亮氨酰-亮氨醛(23, MG-132) 有抑制活性, Ki = 4 nmol·L-1 [15]。化合物23与蛋白酶体的复合物单晶结构分析表明, 它连接在活性中心β亚基的N端[16], 醛基与苏氨酸残基的羟基发生亲电加成, 生成具有共价键结合的半缩醛, 虽然是可逆性结合, 但酶的活性受到强效抑制。
化合物23的结构域P1、P2和P3都是异丁基, 变换这些疏水片段以优化活性, 发现P1位置仍以异丁基最佳, P2和P3变换为萘基, 增强了活性, 例如化合物24Ki = 0.24 nmol·L-1, 25Ki = 0.015 nmol·L-1, 提示增加P2和P3的疏水性有利于提高活性。
然而醛基的化学性质活泼, 可与多种亲核基团发生加成反应, 选择性不高, 例如对组织蛋白B (cathepsin B) 和钙蛋白酶(calpain) 也有抑制作用。为此, 用其他亲电性基团, 例如氯甲基酮和三氟甲基酮替换醛基, 但未显示出活性。苯并噁唑酮(26, Ki = 214 nmol·L-1) 和二酮酯(27, Ki = 45 nmol·L-1), 活性显著低于化合物23
用硼酸置换醛基得到的化合物28, 活性显著提高, Ki = 0.03 nmol·L-1强于先导物23大约100倍。硼元素处于周期表第3族, 外层电子有一p空轨道, 可与O和N的未偶电子对形成配位键。化合物27与蛋白酶体的活性中心N端的苏氨酸侧链的羟基发生特异性配位结合, 而抑制组织蛋白酶B的活性很低, Ki = 6 100 nmol·L-1, 弱于蛋白酶体20万倍。这是因为硼酸难于与半胱氨酸蛋白酶的巯基结合, 因为B←S配位键是不稳定的。
三肽硼酸28抑制蛋白酶体的活性达到1×10-11 mol·L-1浓度, 这样高的活性意味着为改善成药性而变换结构有较大余地, 例如降低三肽的分子尺寸。其实, 减少一个氨基酸残基成二肽醛(29) 仍有抑制蛋白酶体活性, Ki = 1 600 nmol·L-1, 而且对丝氨酸蛋白酶不显示活性, 提示二肽醛仍具有选择性作用, 尤其是当P2结构域为萘环时, 含硼酸基化合物30的活性提高, Ki = 97 nmol·L-1, 选择性显著提高, 化合物31Ki值为0.62 nmol·L-1。由三肽28 (MW = 491) 简化为二肽31 (MW = 384), 相对分子质量降低了107, 活性虽然有所降低, 仍在高活性范围, 而且对人的其他蛋白酶如白细胞弹性酶、凝血酶和组织蛋白酶等活性很低, 表明对蛋白酶体具有高选择性抑制作用。由于化合物31具有优良的活性和成药性, 确定为候选化合物, 定名为硼替佐米(bortezomib), 经临床前和临床研究, 硼替佐米于2003年FDA批准上市治疗多发性骨髓瘤[17, 18]
革兰阳性致病菌由一层细胞膜构成, 而阴性菌由外膜和内膜双层结构构成, 阴性菌更难以摄入药物, 因而抗革兰阴性菌的药物较少。日本盐野义公司基于细菌增殖生长需要从宿主细胞摄取铁离子, 是靠细胞壁上的载铁蛋白转运摄入菌体内。Ito等[19]利用该蛋白的嗜铁属性, 合成了含有儿茶酚和噻唑结构的头孢菌素, 研发出头孢德罗(32, cefiderocol)。分子低能构象儿茶酚和噻唑环在空间上的靠近容易螯合铁离子成33, 33被载铁蛋白结合经主动转运摄入, 就这样携带着抗菌的头孢进入菌体内, 后者与青霉素结合蛋白作用, 阻断细胞壁的合成而杀死细菌。32对多种有氧阴性菌(包括多药耐药菌) 抑制活性MIC50 < 2 μg·mL-1, 具有可克服碳青霉烯类抗药性3种主要机制(孔蛋白通道改变、β-内酰胺酶失活、外排泵高量产生) 的独特能力。临床显示对复杂尿路感染以及难治的肠道感染疗效显著, 头孢德罗于2019年经FDA批准上市。
变构调节(allosteric modulation) 是指小分子化合物与酶蛋白分子活性中心以外的某一部位特异结合, 引起酶蛋白分子构象变化, 从而改变酶的活性。经变构结合而激活酶活性的称为正向调节, 即激动剂, 比如酶的辅因子; 抑制酶活性的负向调节即变构抑制剂(allosteric inhibitor)。变构位点与酶活性中心的位点相隔离, 之间没有竞争性结合, 所以变构抑制剂对活性中心发生变异的蛋白仍然有疗效, 也为联合用药提供了选择。
变构抑制剂作为药物的最大优势是提高选择性, 酶或受体多存在同工酶和亚型, 结构和功能的差异较小, 导致结合于活性中心的化合物(正构药物) 缺乏选择性作用, 变构结合腔则各有不同, 避免了脱靶作用。
RAS基因家族编码的鸟苷三磷酸酶(GTPase) 包括NRAS、HRAS和KRAS, 对细胞生长和增殖扮演重要角色。KRAS是最常见的肿瘤驱动基因之一, 在人癌的突变率占30%, 最常发生的是G12C-KRASG12C变异。虽然以RAS为靶标的药物研究已30多年, 但因该蛋白缺乏适宜的结合腔穴而成效甚微, 被认为是非成药性靶标。该KRASG12C隐藏在变构腔穴中。
Patricelli等[20]用带有弱亲电基团的化合物探索与隐藏的Cys12发生共价结合, 以发现与变构位点有结合力的苗头和先导物, 发现Cys12隐藏于H95/Y96/Q99构成的结合腔内(图 4)。苗头化合物经过优化得到化合物ARS-1620 (34), p-ERK-IC50 = 0.831 μmol·L-1 (p-ERK指细胞外调节蛋白激酶的磷酸化, 是将信号从表面受体传导至细胞核的关键步骤)。安进公司也以同样的策略优化出化合物35[21], p-ERK-IC50 = 0.220 μmol·L-1
35的口服生物利用度低, 而体内清除率很高, 安进公司比较了3435的结合模式发现34的喹唑啉环结合于H95的隐性腔内, 从而设计了通式为36化合物系列, Y处引入疏水性片段是34所没有的, 根据是利用结构生物学提供的信息。
用生化和细胞活性评价化合物的活性, 发现37活性最强, 酶-IC50 = 0.101 μmol·L-1, 细胞p-ERK-IC50 = 0.335 μmol·L-1
分析37与KRASG12C复合物晶体结构(图 5), 发现喹唑啉酮、7位连接的取代苯和哌嗪的2位还有可优化的空间, 从而变换了这些位置的原子或基团, 例如7位连接不同取代基的苯环、萘环苯并咪唑杂环、喹唑啉酮8位的氮杂、哌嗪2位的甲基取代等, 在不同的组合中, 对化合物在酶、细胞、选择性、过膜性(MDCK)、溶解性、小鼠的生物利用度、清除率、分布容积和半衰期等多参数进行比较, 优选出38R-异构体。38产生光学异构的原因是喹唑啉酮与异丙基苯的单键旋转受到阻碍, RS活性有较大差异。然而克服阻转的活化能并不很高, ΔG = 26 kcal·mol-1, 25 ℃半衰期(t1/2) = 8天, 说明不能得到稳定的纯优映体。
为解决这个阻转异构, 采用的策略是提高旋转异构的能垒, 使ΔG > 30 kcal·mol-1, 以得到稳定的立体异构体; 或降低旋转异构的能垒ΔG < 20 kcal·mol-1, 成为可以自由旋转的混合物, 或者设计没有手性轴的分子。研制者设计了两种方法测定化合物的阻转异构问题: 用变温核磁(VT-NMR) 测定快速旋转异构的化合物; 用时间过程1H NMR的变化测定慢速旋转异构的化合物。在系列变换异丙基苯中发现4个化合物有较强的活性和稳定的阻转异构体, 结构与数据列于表 1中。
动物实验表明R-39的药效和药代性质优胜, 但在解决多晶性时发现晶型比原先用的无定形粉末的生物利用度降低了10%, 这对于控制血药浓度是不利的。为解决R-39的这个问题, 再做结构优化: 通过降低喹唑啉酮环上亲脂性和提高R-39的极性表面积, 例如用吡啶代替苯环等, 最终发现了化合物44, 其R-构型活性显著强于S型, 二者的阻转异构的自由能垒ΔG > 31 kcal·mol-1, 25 ℃下t1/2 > 180年, 提示R-44是非常稳定的优映体。图 6R-44与KRASG12C的结合图。R-44定名为索托雷塞(sotorasib), 临床研究表明治疗小细胞肺癌有很高的应答率。2021年FDA批准为首款治疗KRAS变异的靶向药物[22, 23]
慢性粒细胞白血病(CML) 是血液干细胞过度增殖发生的, 由于第22号和第9号染色体交互易位, 导致22号染色体变短(被称作费城染色体), 成为人类癌症与基因变异之间关系的最早的证据。染色体易位的分子基础是Bcr-Abl编码的蛋白酪氨酸激酶过于活化所致。所以, 抑制Abl酪氨酸激酶的活性, 阻止ATP对蛋白的磷酸化治疗CML。伊马替尼成为最早以分子靶向为目标的抗癌药物。在这以后上市了不少针对Bcr-Abl发生变异的CML药物, 但都是以抑制ATP结合为特征, 因而发生普遍的耐药性问题。
诺华公司基于Abl激酶C端半段处存在变构区域, 天然变构底物是正十四烷酸(豆蔻酸), 为正向调节剂, 参与酶功能的自调节作用。诺华公司根据伊马替尼-Abl1晶体结构的特征, 用核磁共振15N, 1H-HSQC分析了化合物与激酶变构区的信号, 测定C端螺旋-1的构象, 特别是Val525的信号变化, 以评价化合物的结合状态, 通过基于片段的分子筛选发现了与豆蔻酸竞争结合变构位点的两个苗头物4546, 但都没有抑酶活性。去除影响4546结合的酯基和正己基(在变构腔中会与螺旋-1发生碰撞), 通过基团的变换连接4546, 得到的化合物47虽然有结合作用但仍没有活性(没有影响螺旋-1中Val525的信号变化), 将二氯换成三氟甲氧基化合物48, 根据是借用了化合物GNF2含有的OCF3基团(GNF2对Abl SH3/2/1的活性很高, IC50 = 0.009 μmol·L-1), 拉电子的OCF3基团将螺旋-1诱导成非活性构象, 48呈现出细胞活性(GI50 = 8 μmol·L-1), 核磁共振的Val525信号明显降低。进而对中间的苯基取代基和哌嗪环变换, 49的结合与抑制细胞活性明显提高。48的结合模式显示吗啉环电荷密度分散, 影响结合作用, 从而变换为芳香环提高疏水结合作用。化合物50通过嘧啶环和3-羟基吡咯烷基的引入, 活性大幅提升(Kd = 0.023 μmol·L-1; GI50 = 0.017 μmol·L-1)。与变构区的晶体结构显示, CF3中的一个氟原子(对称的三氟之一) 与变构区的亮氨酸L359的羰基发生不利的正交极性相互作用, 从而用氯原子取代OCF3中的一个氟原子实现了活性的进一步提升, 再用吡唑环代替嘧啶环降低了与hERG钾通道的结合, 最终研制出Abl1变构抑制剂51, 定名为阿思尼布(asciminib)。51对重组Bcr-Abl1的Luc-Ba/F3细胞生长半数抑制率(IC50) 野生型和T315I突变型分别为1和25 nmol·L-1, 临床结果表明对既往接受治疗费城染色体阳性慢性髓系白血病(Ph+CML) 的耐药患者有治疗效果, 于2021年获FDA批准[24, 25]
图 7显示了变构药物阿思尼布和正构药物尼罗替尼(nilotinib) 与Bcr-Abl1结合位点的区别, 前者结合于变构区, 后者占据ATP结合区。
Janus激酶家族是非受体型酪氨酸激酶, 包含JAK-1、JAK-2、JAK3和TYK-2等4个亚型, 分别结合于膜上细胞因子受体的胞内域, 导致Janus激酶催化转录蛋白的信号转换因子和激活因子发生磷酸化, 再经二聚化转移至核内。其中TYK-2与JAK-2二聚化调节白介素IL-12和IL-23信号通路, 是炎症和免疫性疾病重要蛋白靶标。抑制TYK-2激酶对某些自身免疫性疾病有治疗作用, 例如多发性骨髓瘤、溃疡性结直肠炎和牛皮癣等。该靶标重要之处还在于抑制TYK-2不影响免疫系统, 不增加真菌感染的风险, 这与JAK-1和JAK-2抑制剂因免疫力下降而发生真菌感染有明显区别。
由于JAK家族的催化结构域(JH1) 的高同源性, 以此作靶标难以实现选择性作用。而TYK2存在有与JH1结构域相邻但无催化活性的假激酶结构域(JH2), 成为实现选择性的突破口。Tyk2 JH2与Tyk2 JH1非常相似, 但两个结合腔有差异。Tyk2 JH2与ATP的结合非常弱, Kd = 24 μmol·L-1
自2011年首创的泛JAK激酶抑制剂问世以来, 在本品之前已有8个药物上市, 表 2列出的52~59都是JAK-1/-2/-3单一或组合靶标的抑制剂, 对TYK-2没有或弱活性。这些药物有引起免疫力下降的不良反应。
TYK2蛋白质具有多个结构域参与分子间和分子内的相互作用, 其功能是介导受体的催化结构域的激活。TYK2中存在一个伪激酶结构域JH-2, 本身没有催化活性, 但通过自抑制作用, 在调节受体介导的邻近催化结构域JH1的激活中却发挥关键作用。此外, 自然杀伤(NK) 细胞对肿瘤的监测也需要TYK2, 但无需TYK2的激酶活性。
若小分子将TYK2伪激酶结构域JH-2的构象稳定在阻止与激酶结构域JH-1之间的自抑制相互作用, 就可阻断受体介导的激活和催化结构域的活性。这种稳定化作用导致下游信号转导被阻断[26]
BMS对公司化合物库做高通量筛选, 发现化合物60对TYK-2 JH2有一定的活性和选择性, 用人和小鼠肝微粒体温孵有较高的代谢稳定性, 作为苗头化合物, 首先对C3的酰胺基作变换。酰胺的单甲基化物61的活性虽然略有下降, 但对TYK-2 JH2选择性提高了。
61与TYK-2 JH2复合物单晶结构显示经氢键网络固定在JH2铰链处, C3酰胺上的甲基适配于邻近Ala671形成的“丙氨酸腔”。由于多数激酶此处的氨基酸尺寸都大于丙氨酸(数百个激酶中只有9个是Ala), 这就解释了为什么60对JAK1/2也呈现结合, 而61明显降低了。
下一步优化61, 考察母核C4经NH连接的苯甲酰胺的变换对活性的影响, 化合物62对TYK-2 JH2和细胞活性, 都显著强于61, 62的过膜性和对人和小鼠肝微粒体的稳定高于6162曾作为高活性分子, 进行了深入研究, 发现肝微粒体对其有较强的代谢作用, 证明是母核3-甲氨基酰基被氧化代谢失去甲基, 预示该代谢产物因选择性降低而脱靶。为证明这个推断, 合成62N-氘代甲基化合物提高代谢稳定性。这个同位素效应用在了以后的优化上。
在优化61时发现了63活性和选择性进一步提高, 一是4′′位引入甲基消除抑制c-Kit作用; 另一是2′-甲氧基-3′-取代的酰氨基片段, 对TYK-2 JH2的IC50为0.3 nmol·L-1。化合物63与TYK2 JH2复合物单晶衍射分析表明, 3′的酰基氧原子与Arg738侧链的H-N形成氢键(3.1 Å), 酰胺的N-H与2′-OCH3的氧原子形成分子内氢键, 赋予N-吡啶甲基处于开阔的腔穴中。
为了克服酰胺的代谢或化学的不稳定性或构象的易变性, 63的C3′连接的酰胺片段用芳杂环置换。在药物化学中, 常常用五元芳杂环对酰胺片段作骨架迁越, 并确保N或O或NH作为氢键的接受体或给体的存在。SAR研究发现1-甲基-1, 2, 4-三唑化合物64对IFNα细胞活性高(IC50 = 4 nmol·L-1)。此外对小鼠肝微粒体的代谢稳定性也很高, 选择性作用也很强, 64对260种激酶的抑制活性很低, 低于对TYK-2 JH2活性的1 000倍, 其中包括JAK-1/-2/-3酶的JH-1结构域的活性。然而64对hERG钾通道有一定的抑制作用, IC50 = 31 μmol·L-1, 仍需继续优化。
下一步的结构改造是保持活性和选择性, 改善过膜吸收和代谢稳定性, 经过多轮优化, 母核吡啶换成哒嗪环, 6位的氨基芳杂环换成环丙基甲酰胺基, 3位的甲胺酰基换成三氘代甲基, 得到的化合物65过膜性强, 保持了酶和细胞的高抑制活性, 代谢稳定性高, 半衰期可达120 min, 对hERG钾通道没有抑制作用, 65作为候选物定名为氘可来昔替尼(deucravacitinib), 经临床研究证明口服治疗中/重型斑块状银屑病, 于2022年FDA批准上市, 成为首创的作用于TYK2的口服治疗银屑病的新药[27]
图 8是氘可来昔替尼与TYK2 JH2蛋白复合物晶体结构, 哒嗪环连接的C6胺基和C3酰甲胺基与酶的JH2域的铰链区形成三重氢键结合, 环丙基在铰链区的延伸处, 氘代甲基结合于TYK2 JH2特有的丙氨酸腔穴中(Ala671), 三唑与Arg736直接氢键结合。C2′的甲氧基与Lys642氢键结合, 并处于蛋白C端的表浅的疏水槽内。
抗体偶联药物(ADC) 是由单克隆抗体(mAb) 和毒物(payload, 本文称药物) 经连接基(linker) 共价结合为单一分子。设计ADC策略是基于单抗的高特异性靶向能力并作为运载体, 将本来缺乏靶向能力的强效杀伤药物, 经连接基成为单一分子。ADC靶向靶细胞, 内化进入肿瘤细胞, 溶酶体将药物释放, 与靶标(蛋白或核酸) 强效结合, 实现了对癌细胞的高效精准杀伤。所以, ADC是利用单抗对携带有相应抗原的肿瘤细胞的选择性, 利用药物对肿瘤靶标强效的杀伤性, 在靶细胞内利用生化或化学反应释放出强效药物而杀伤, 所以ADC也可认为是潜伏化的大尺寸前药(prodrug), 实现选择性。自第一个ADC药物Mylotarg® (gemtuzumab ozogamicin, 奥加米星吉妥组单抗) 于2000年获得FDA批准以来, 截至2022年全球共有11款ADC药物获批, 用于血液系统恶性肿瘤和实体瘤, 此外, 目前还有100多个ADC候选物处于临床试验的不同阶段。图 9[28-30]是ADC作用机制的示意图。
表 3中列出了经FDA批准上市的ADC药物, 为了叙述药物的结构特征, 将ADC“还原分解”成三部分: 单抗(antibody)、连接基(linker) 和药物(payload)。以示连接的方式, 读者也容易连接成ADC。表中DAR (drug-antibody ratio) 代表每个单抗分子缀合药物分子的平均值, 是ADC效率的一种量度。
奥加米星吉妥组单抗(66): ADC内化后, 腙键可以在内涵体酸性环境中水解, 释放出卡奇霉素的前体, 然后被谷胱甘肽还原为游离的活性卡奇霉素。后者与DNA小沟结合, 并经过Bergman环化作用, 从而产生高反应性双自由基, 引起序列选择性的DNA双链断裂。维布妥昔单抗(67): 连接基可裂解。ADC结合CD30后内化, 转运到溶酶体。溶酶体中蛋白酶裂解出药物释放到胞浆中将细胞杀伤。恩特曲妥珠单抗(68): 连接基是不可裂解的。4-(N-马来酰亚胺甲基) 环己烷-1-羧酸酯(MCC) 连接于单抗的Lys上。溶酶体内的蛋白酶只逐步将抗体水解, 遗留下Lys-MCC-美坦新(Lys-MCC-DM), 美坦新带着连接基与微管蛋白结合, 抑制微管的正常组装。伊组单抗奥加米星(69): 连接基含有腙片段, 在偏酸性癌细胞中裂解, 释放出卡奇霉素, 后者在亲核基团作用下, 烯二炔电荷转移环合, 生成1, 4失氢双自由基, 与DNA共价嵌合, 抑制细胞周期。维泊妥组单抗(70): 蛋白酶可裂解二肽连接基缬氨酸-瓜氨酸, 后者又分解出对氨基苄醇, 与微管抑制剂单甲基auristatin E (MMAE) 共价结合的氨基甲酸酯对酸也敏感。维恩妥人单抗(71): 连接基可酶解断裂。马来酰亚胺己酰基-缬氨酸-瓜氨酸(MC-Val-Cit) 连接在抗体的半胱氨酸残基上, 内吞后经溶酶体的蛋白酶水解, 释放出药物MMAE。德曲妥珠单抗(72): 连接基可裂解。四肽GGFG溶解性较好, 与药物连接点为氮杂缩甲醛, 在偏酸性的癌细胞中容易分解, 释放出药物。戈沙妥珠单抗(73): Trop2是肿瘤相关钙信号转导2受体, 该受体在三阴性乳腺癌中高表达。药物是喜树碱类拓扑异构酶Ⅰ抑制剂SN-38, 与连接基结合位点是敏感的C16羟基, 经碳酸酯连接, 对酸性是敏感的。玛贝妥单抗(74): BCMA单抗为无岩藻糖基化单克隆抗体, 抗体的半胱氨酸残基连接马来酰亚胺己酰基, 连接基与MMAF偶联。与抗原结合后在Fc区被岩藻糖基化, 增强了内化后的细胞毒性。替朗妥昔单抗(75): 连接基为酶可裂解的缬氨酸-丙氨酸和增加水溶性和稳定性的聚乙二醇, 连接的药物是非对称的吡咯并苯并二氮杂䓬 (PBD) 二聚体。释放出的二聚体与DNA嵌合。维替索妥人单抗(76): 组织因子(TF) 是参与肿瘤信号传导和血管生成的蛋白质, 多数实体肿瘤中TF高表达, 所以是ADC药物的理想靶标。连接基可裂解, 连接药物单甲基奥瑞他汀E (monomethyl auristatin E), 本品用于治疗宫颈癌, 有望治疗多种实体瘤。索米妥昔单抗(77): FAα在卵巢中高表达, 内化后连接基被裂解, 释放出的药物美登素(ravtansine, DM4) 阻断胞内微管网络形成, 抑制细胞增殖。
研制ADC旨在满足临床需求。选定病种, 确定变异的抗原, 选择已经批准的相应单克隆抗体, 这是研制ADC的切入点。例如针对高表达叶酸α受体的卵巢癌, 公司确定了叶酸α受体单抗为载体, 研制成功了继PARP抑制剂奥拉帕尼等靶向药物后的首个治疗抗耐铂类药物的卵巢癌药物索米妥昔单抗(77)。日本第一/三共制药基于多种实体瘤高表达HER2蛋白, 因而选择HER2为靶标的单抗, 研制成功的德曲妥珠单抗(72), 已经批准数个实体瘤适应症(乳腺癌、胃癌、结直肠癌和非小细胞肺癌等)。选定靶标和单抗主要是临床医生和分子生物学家的任务。
在药物(payload) 方面, 上市的ADC都是本身难以成药的细胞毒物, 在基因水平上摧毁细胞增殖的毒性分子, ADC的单抗赋予了这些毒物以选择性—主要对癌细胞的DNA/RNA的复制或表达, 终止了细胞周期。
因而, 构建连接基(linker) 在一定意义上成为研制ADC的药物化学重点。内容包括: ① ADC分子中药物-抗体比值(DAR), 即每个单抗连接的药物分子数, 已上市的DAR = 2~8。DAR值过低作用强度不够, 过大有失稳定性风险; ②稳定性, 是连接基的最重要使命。要求在到达靶组织之前的循环血中ADC保持化学结构稳定不变, 不得有游离药物的泄露, 避免毒副作用; ③释放性, 要求ADC内化癌细胞后连接基迅速裂解(酶或化学分解), 癌细胞浆偏酸性, 是含有腙基(666769)、对氨基苄醇酯片段(7071737576) 和氮杂缩甲醛(72) 容易裂解的位点, 蛋白酶可水解含有缬-瓜二肽(7071) 和甘-甘-苯丙-甘四肽(72) 片段, 肽结构还有助于水溶性。含有聚乙二醇的7375更有利于溶解性。68的连接基是不可裂解的4-(N-马来酰亚胺甲基) 环己烷-1-羧酸酯(MCC) 与单抗的Lys连接, 溶酶体内的蛋白酶只逐步将抗体水解, 留下Lys-MCC-美坦新(Lys-MCC-DM), 后者与微管蛋白结合, 抑制微管的正常组装。
上一节讨论的ADC是类双功能分子: 单抗是导向载体, 药物杀伤靶标和细胞。本节讨论的蛋白水解靶向嵌合体(PROTAC) 也是双功能分子, 也是由三部分组成: 靶蛋白配体、E3泛素连接酶配体和连接基组成, 但属于小分子范畴。PROTAC能特异性结合靶蛋白, 同时募集并结合E3泛素连接酶, 后者催化靶蛋白多聚泛素化、被泛素化的靶蛋白通过被蛋白酶体系降解成氨基酸和寡肽。简言之, PROTAC将靶蛋白和E3连接酶(E3 ligase) 结合成三元复合物: 靶蛋白-PROTAC-E3连接酶, 此时E3连接酶介导E2泛素结合酶将靶蛋白泛素化。三元复合物解离, PROTAC复原, 被泛素化的靶蛋白被输送到蛋白酶体中降解, 降低了靶蛋白水平。复原的PROTAC分子作新一轮的催化结合, 循环多次, 理论上没有消耗[31]
PROTAC是小分子化合物, 可以口服是一大长处。而又不是一般药物靠占据/结合靶标活性(或变构) 位点作“消耗性”起效, 而是在借助双配体的介导, 靠蛋白酶体发生降解靶标蛋白的事件, 这个过程即使PROTAC结合靶蛋白/E3酶的作用较弱, 或浓度较低也同样能够发挥作用, 加之其“催化”的特性, 是通常药物所不及的。当然, 活性强是获得最大降解水平(Dmax) (> 90%) 和低半数降解浓度(DC50)。为此, 两种配体对靶蛋白和E3酶的强效亲和力是产生高Dmax结构基础。通过微调配体的结构、连接基的组成、长度和刚性以优化摄入细胞改善DC50[32]
PROTAC在全球药企和大学研制得很多, 但迄今还没有被批准上市的药物。目前处于临床研究的共24个, 6个在Ⅱ期和Ⅰ/Ⅱ期的列于表 4
本文仅以PROTAC技术发明人Crews创始的Arvinas公司研制的ARV471 (78) 和ARV110 (79) 为例简述PROTAC的化学特征, 这是目前已经完成Ⅱ期临床研究处于领先的项目。两个候选物分别是雌激素受体降解剂(SERD) 和雄激素受体降解剂(SARD)。分子的左侧(红色) 是结合雌/雄激素受体的配体。两个配体(片段) 分别借鉴雌/雄受体调节剂(SERM/SARM) 的结构优化或简化而来, 例如78与他莫昔芬(84, tamoxifen) 骨架、79与比卡鲁胺(85, bicalutamide) 骨架具有结构相似性。目前研制PROTAC的靶蛋白配体的结构大都源自于已有的药物或活性物。
与E3连接酶结合的配体是免疫调节酰亚胺药物(IMiDs), 分别是泊马度胺和来那度胺的类似物。它们高选择性地结合于E3连接酶CRBN, 促进靶蛋白的多聚泛素化。
PROTAC连接基与ADC不同, 是稳固的共价结合片段, 确保化合物的稳定性。为了保障良好的物理化学性质, 连接基多为亲水性片段, 7879是哌啶甲基哌嗪。
ARV-471的Ⅱ期临床表明单药治疗ER+/HER2-乳腺癌患者显示良好的耐受性和38%的临床获益率(完全缓解率、部分缓解率或疾病稳定率 > 24周), 优于氟维司群效果, 达到了试验的主要终点。
ARV110 (79) 的Ⅰ期和Ⅱ期临床试验结果显示, 在治疗携带AR T878X/H875Y (T878X=T878A或T878S) 突变的转移性去势抵抗性前列腺癌(mCRPC) 患者中表现出强力抗癌活性。在安全性上Ⅱ期临床试验推荐剂量表现出可控的耐受性。
小分子药物集活性、选择性、合理药代和安全性于化学结构之中, 实在勉为其难。即使多轮结构优化, 也未必体现了全优属性, 顾此失彼和退而求其次的通融倒是常态。但即便如此, 还存在难以消除的缺点, 在难以从结构层面上克服时, 用另一药物消除、缓解和抵消不利因素, 提升治疗效果也是一种策略[33]
现已应用较少的磺胺类抗菌药主要从尿中排出, 但由于磺胺的偏酸性在尿液中溶解度低, 容易发生结晶尿和在肾脏沉积, 造成肾脏损伤, 因此磺胺药同时服用碳酸氢钠, 提高尿液pH值, 增加在尿液中的溶解, 这是改善药物排泄的历史悠久的例子。
另一与磺胺配伍应用的是磺胺增效剂, 例如甲氧苄啶(trimethoprim) 是叶酸合成酶抑制剂。人体的叶酸是作为维生素从膳食中获得, 而细菌的叶酸需从蝶啶环对氨基苯甲酸(PABA) 和谷氨酸合成, 磺胺的抑菌作用是PABA的抗代谢物; 甲氧苄啶抑制叶酸的合成, 所以同时服用磺胺和甲氧苄啶是从两个环节抗菌的。甲氧苄啶虽称作增效剂, 也可作为抗菌药单独应用。
久用β-内酰胺类抗生素引起的耐药菌的因素之一是细菌产生β-内酰胺酶, 催化水解β-内酰胺环使药物失效。同时服用β-内酰胺酶抑制剂可维持抗生素的抗菌作用。克拉维酸(86, clavulanic acid) 与阿莫西林或替卡西林的复方、舒巴坦(87, sulbactam) 与头孢哌酮的合用、他唑巴坦(88, tazobactam) 与哌拉西林的配伍都是常用的抗菌复方。
COVID-19引发的全球3年疫情催生了辉瑞公司抗新冠病毒药物帕克洛维(Paxlovid) 的研制, 美国FDA于2021年12月批准上市。帕克洛维是一款固定剂量组合的复方制剂, 它含有两种活性物质奈玛特韦(89, nirmatrelvir) 和利托那韦(90, ritonavir), 两药各司其职, 主药奈玛特韦抑制新冠病毒增殖(药效), 辅药利托那韦延长主药的作用时间(药代)。
冠状病毒普遍存在3C样半胱氨酸蛋白酶(3CLpro), 功能是整合和处理众多的原蛋白, 是病毒增殖的重要酶系。辉瑞公司筛选出苗头化合物并改构得到含酮基的二肽, 酮基作为亲电基团可与3CLpro的Cys145发生共价结合而抑制3CLpro。经多轮优化最终研制出89, 是含有脂肪氰基的拟二肽, 氰基可与Cys145共价结合成硫代亚胺酸酯, 强效抑制酶活性和病毒复制。然而奈玛特韦在体内迅速被细胞色素CYP 3A4代谢失活, 研制者选用已上市的CYP 3A4强效抑制剂利托那韦辅助用药, 可将奈玛特韦的体内半衰期延长到6 h, 因而规定帕克洛维每隔12 h服用一剂, 两药分别履行药效与药代, 共同维持治疗效果[34]
2015年7月美国FDA批准诺华公司的复方制剂心衰药物Entresto上市(中文商品名诺欣妥), 治疗慢性心力衰竭, 这个复方制剂是以多种方式作用于心脏的神经内分泌系统, 治疗效果与标准疗法比较, 显著地降低心衰患者的死亡率, 被认为是20多年来心衰治疗药的重大突破。Entresto是由沙库巴曲(91, sacubitril, 49 mg) 和缬沙坦(92, valsartan, 51 mg) 组成。
沙库巴曲的作用靶标是抑制一种中性内切酶(neprilysin), 后者是降解血浆中心房利钠肽(artrial natriuretic factor, ANF) 的水解酶, 因而沙库巴曲使内源性ANF肽维持在一定的水平, 保护心脏的神经内分泌系统, 有利于心衰患者; 缬沙坦是血管紧张素Ⅰ受体阻断剂, 抑制AngⅡ的升压作用, 阻断患者的过于活跃的肾素-血管紧张素-醛固酮系统(RAAS)。复方制剂Entresto中的沙库巴曲是以新分子实体(NME) 首次上市的, 就与1996年就已上市的缬沙坦配伍, 两个都是主成分, 不同药理作用的各司其职的互补性, 使得Entresto在治疗心衰患者成为划时代的突破[35]
Entresto在剂量设计和分子结构上也很有特色: 两个成分的治疗剂量恰好是等分子比量; 与钠离子形成配位键结合以及分子内和水分子间的氢键网络, 构成了稳定的超分子结合的共晶结构。图 10是共晶复合物结构。每个共晶体由6个沙库巴曲负离子, 6个缬沙坦负离子, 18个钠离子和15个水分子构成, 分子式为C288H330N36Na18O48·15H2O, 分子量为5 748.03, 为白色六边形片状结晶形粉末, 熔点138 ℃。复合物在固态和pH 5~7的水溶液是稳定的[36]
2022年8月FDA批准了Axsome Therapeutics公司研制的复方缓释片剂Auvelity, 用于治疗成人重度抑郁症, 这是60多年来首款具有新作用机制的抑郁症口服药, 提供了起效迅速的新疗法。在用药1周之后, 抑郁症状就得到显著改善; 2周以后, 每个阶段的缓解率都显著更高, 实现了快速、持久且显著改善抑郁症状。
这个划时代成功制剂却是由两个已知药物组成的: 右美沙芬(93, dextromethorphan HBr, 45 mg) 和安非他酮(94, bupropion HCl, 105 mg), 竟成为唯一被批准用于重度抑郁症的口服速效N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸(NMDA) 受体拮抗剂, 全新的作用机制。
Auvelity治疗作用的确切机制有待深入解析。这个组合中, 右美沙芬是非竞争性NMDA受体拮抗剂, 同时也是阿片σ受体激动剂, 可调节谷氨酸能神经传递。安非他酮是去甲肾上腺素和多巴胺再摄取抑制剂, 还竞争性抑制细胞色素CYP2D6, 后者阻断了右美沙芬的体内代谢降解, 因而提高了生物利用度。研究表明Auvelity的血液水平是由两个药物之间独特的药代动力学相互作用决定的, 在稳态时发现这种相互作用是非线性的[37]
现有抗精神病药最常见的不良反应为引发锥体外症状、代谢紊乱和增重等, 患者的依从性较差。Karuna Therapeutics公司研制了口服新型组合药物KarXT, 是由呫诺美林(95, xanomeline) 和曲司氯铵(96, trospium chloride) 组成, 呫诺美林是毒蕈碱受体激动剂, 曲司氯铵是毒蕈碱受体拮抗剂。这种配伍旨在激活大脑中的毒蕈碱型乙酰胆碱受体的同时, 减少对外周毒蕈碱型乙酰胆碱受体的作用。
呫诺美林是毒蕈碱M1/M4受体选择性激动剂, 对M2、M3、M5受体作用较弱, 由于容易透过血脑屏障, 皮质和纹状体的摄取率较高, 是目前选择性很高的M1/M4受体激动剂。但因有外周作用引起胃肠和心血管系统不良反应[38]
曲司氯铵为毒蕈碱全M受体拮抗剂, 属于抗胆碱能类化合物, 可松弛膀胱平滑肌, 单独应用治疗膀胱过度活动症和急迫性尿失禁。由于结构中存在季铵离子难以穿越血脑屏障和进入中枢神经系统, 所以只是外周毒蕈碱受体拮抗剂, 因而服用KarXT不影响呫诺美林的药效, 反而降低了对外周的不良反应。Ⅲ期临床表明, 口服KarXT可治疗精神和神经系统疾病, 包括精神分裂症和阿尔茨海默症中的精神症状, 由于减轻了不良反应, 患者对KarXT的依从性也较好, 有望成为50年来首个具有新颖且独特的双重机制的药物组合, 通过不依赖多巴胺能或血清素能途径来治疗严重精神疾病的症状的药物[39]
提高创制药物的活性和选择性, 无论是首创性或跟随性创新, 都是以满足患者需求为前提、以靶标为核心的科技实践, 它是由众多环节构成的价值链组成, 这其中隐含着3个要素, 即确证致病的分子机制、把握疾病的微观特征、阐明药物作用的分子机制, 体现了生物学驱动研制的内涵。这3个要素的共同特征是把宏观的表象转化为微观的分子特征及其变化。始于设定并确定靶标分子是致病的根源, 终于药物呈现的疗效是干预致病靶标的结果。
靶标是致病分子机制的核心。然而将一种疾病“提炼”或归结成一个靶标蛋白或网络通路的关键节点, 这个由繁至简的过程需要反复的验证, 证明疾病与靶标不只有相关性, 更需要有因果关系的证据。
疾病的宏观表象和微观特征的关联, 在发病和实验治疗中从微观分子水平进行分析, 例如检测基因缺失与变异, 应用蛋白质组学、转录组学、表观遗传等技术, 分析患者的临床表现, 经数据挖掘, 归纳出基因-蛋白(酶、受体、通道、信号分子等) 与疾病的关系, 从而为创制新药和治疗方法提供新的科学依据。人工智能(AI) 晚近有巨足的进展[40]
阐明药物的作用机制是对致病分子机制的验证, 也是创制过程的终点与归宿, 这样, 在微观的分子层面上完整地阐明了药物剂量-疗效-不良反应的内在关系。阐明药物的作用机制得以深化对疾病和治疗的认识, 也有助于扩展和指导新一代药物的研制。本文是从实用角度例解提高药物活性和选择性的策略方法, 读者也可从生物学层面分析这3个要素的内涵。
作者贡献: 郭颖、郭宗儒负责论文的选题、文献调研与撰写。
利益冲突: 作者声明没有利益冲突。

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2023年第58卷第8期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0096
  • 接收时间:2023-02-02
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-08-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-02-02
  • 修回日期:2023-03-05
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    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 北京 100050

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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