Article(id=1198652608035517058, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1381, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1671292800000, receivedDateStr=2022-12-18, revisedDate=1671984000000, revisedDateStr=2022-12-26, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763710651644, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1691769600000, pubDateStr=2023-08-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763710651644, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763710651644, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763710651644, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198652605778985059, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='8', pageStart='0', pageEnd='2540', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1691769600000', pubDateStr='2023-08-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763710651106, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1763710739504, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596347, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596348, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=1981, endPage=1987, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198652608459141764, articleId=1198652608035517058, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress of intestinal microecological disorders caused by antibiotics and the treatment, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

There is a variety of gut microbiota in human body, which is closely associated with the health and disease. Normal gut microbiota can produce colonization resistance to pathogens. Antibiotics can affect the composition of gut microbiota and change the intestinal microenvironment, resulting in intestinal microecological disorders, which in turn cause intestinal pathogenic infections and other diseases. In this paper, the concept of intestinal microecology, the mechanism of intestinal colonization resistance, the effect of antibiotics on intestinal microecology, and the treatment methods were reviewed, aiming to provide the information for the rational use of antibiotics and the development of more effective treatment methods to maintain the stability of intestinal microecology.

, authors=null, authorsList=Xiang-yin CHI, Yuan LIN, Jian-dong JIANG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Yuan LIN, Jian-dong JIANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198652610745037458, articleId=1198652608035517058, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=抗生素引起肠道微生态紊乱及其治疗的研究进展, columnId=1190335349206389552, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专家论坛, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

健康人肠道内生活着各种复杂的肠道微生物, 其与宿主对疾病的易感性密切相关。正常的肠道微生物可对外来病原菌产生定植抗性, 而抗生素的使用会影响肠道微生物的组成并改变肠道微环境, 进而引起肠道微生态紊乱, 导致病原菌的肠道感染, 从而引发腹泻等疾病。本文对肠道微生态的概念和组成、肠道定植抗性的形成机制、抗生素对肠道微生态的影响及其治疗方法的研究进展进行综述, 旨在为合理使用抗生素、研发更有效的恢复肠道微生态稳定的治疗方法提供理论参考。

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*林媛, Tel: 86-10-63017906, E-mail: ;
蒋建东, E-mail:
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抗生素引起肠道微生态紊乱及其治疗的研究进展
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迟湘胤 , 林媛 * , 蒋建东 *
药学学报 | 专家论坛 2023,58(8): 1981-1987
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药学学报 |专家论坛 2023 , 58 (8) : 1981 -1987
抗生素引起肠道微生态紊乱及其治疗的研究进展
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迟湘胤, 林媛* , 蒋建东*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 天然药物活性物质与功能国家重点实验室, 北京 100050
通讯作者:
*林媛, Tel: 86-10-63017906, E-mail: ;
蒋建东, E-mail:
Research progress of intestinal microecological disorders caused by antibiotics and the treatment
Xiang-yin CHI, Yuan LIN* , Jian-dong JIANG*
Affiliations
  • State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2023-08-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1381
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健康人肠道内生活着各种复杂的肠道微生物, 其与宿主对疾病的易感性密切相关。正常的肠道微生物可对外来病原菌产生定植抗性, 而抗生素的使用会影响肠道微生物的组成并改变肠道微环境, 进而引起肠道微生态紊乱, 导致病原菌的肠道感染, 从而引发腹泻等疾病。本文对肠道微生态的概念和组成、肠道定植抗性的形成机制、抗生素对肠道微生态的影响及其治疗方法的研究进展进行综述, 旨在为合理使用抗生素、研发更有效的恢复肠道微生态稳定的治疗方法提供理论参考。

抗生素  /  肠道微生态  /  肠道菌群  /  定植抗性  /  治疗

There is a variety of gut microbiota in human body, which is closely associated with the health and disease. Normal gut microbiota can produce colonization resistance to pathogens. Antibiotics can affect the composition of gut microbiota and change the intestinal microenvironment, resulting in intestinal microecological disorders, which in turn cause intestinal pathogenic infections and other diseases. In this paper, the concept of intestinal microecology, the mechanism of intestinal colonization resistance, the effect of antibiotics on intestinal microecology, and the treatment methods were reviewed, aiming to provide the information for the rational use of antibiotics and the development of more effective treatment methods to maintain the stability of intestinal microecology.

antibiotics  /  intestinal microecology  /  gut microbiota  /  colonization resistance  /  treatment
迟湘胤, 林媛, 蒋建东. 抗生素引起肠道微生态紊乱及其治疗的研究进展. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (8) : 1981 -1987 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1381
Xiang-yin CHI, Yuan LIN, Jian-dong JIANG. Research progress of intestinal microecological disorders caused by antibiotics and the treatment[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (8) : 1981 -1987 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1381
人体肠道内有大量的微生物定植, 这些微生物统称为肠道微生物, 其中包括细菌、病毒、真菌、古菌和原虫。其中细菌的数量最多, 在结肠中大约为1011 CFU·mL-1[1]。肠道微生态(intestinal microecology) 是指肠道微生物及其所生存的环境, 其中肠道正常菌群及其代谢产物是核心部分, 而肠黏膜结构的完整及正常的肠道微环境的组成对肠道微生态的稳定也有很大影响。肠道微生态稳态的维持在许多生理过程中起着至关重要的作用, 包括促进食物消化和能量利用、合成维生素和必需氨基酸[2], 保证免疫系统的正常功能[3], 维持肠道黏膜屏障的完整性并预防肠道病原菌在肠道定植[4]。近年来, 人们逐步认识到肠道微生态在人类健康和营养方面的重要作用, 开始关注肠道微生物、宿主和病原菌之间的关系[5]。不良的生活方式、饮食习惯、药物等因素都可能引起肠道微生态紊乱, 进而导致肠道感染等各种疾病的发生, 因此维持肠道微生态的稳定对预防病原菌在肠道的定植至关重要[6]
人的肠道微生态中有500~1 000多种细菌, 绝大多数肠道细菌为厌氧型生长。每个肠道细菌在属和种的水平上是不同的, 但在门的水平上相对保守[7]。在健康成年人中, 超过90%的肠道细菌属于革兰阳性厚壁菌门(Firmicutes) 和革兰阴性拟杆菌门(Bacteroidetes)。放线菌门(Actinobacteria)、变形菌门(Proteobacteria)、疣微菌门(Verrucomicrobia)、梭杆菌门(Fusobacteria) 是次优势菌门[8]。拟杆菌门主要包括拟杆菌科(Bacteroidaceae)、普雷沃氏菌科(Prevotellaceae)、理研菌科(Rikenellaceae) 和紫单胞菌科(Porphyromonadaceae)。厚壁菌门的种类更具多样化, 主要包括梭菌纲(Clostridia)、杆菌纲(Bacilli)、产芽孢菌纲(Erysipelotrichi) 和阴性菌纲(Negativicutes)。其中每一种都由几个细菌科组成, 包括毛螺旋菌科(Lachnospiraceae)、瘤胃菌科(Ruminococcaceae)、梭菌科(Clostridiaceae)、克里斯滕森菌科(Christensenellaceae)、优杆菌科(Eubacteriaceae) 和消化链球菌科(Peptostreptococcaceae)[9]。不同肠段内的肠道菌群数量也有很大差异。升结肠菌群数量最多, 远端回肠次之, 近端回肠和空肠菌群数量较少[10]。宿主为肠道菌群提供了适宜的环境和必需的营养, 而肠道菌群又参与人体各种功能的调节, 肠道菌群和宿主间相互作用, 成为一个有机共同体。与人类基因组的23 000多个基因相比, 在每个个体中, 肠道菌群共包含约330万个基因, 这表明肠道菌群对人类的健康会产生巨大而潜在的影响[11]。肠道菌群多样性越高且细菌越丰富的人, 对常见肠道病原菌感染具有更强的抵抗力。
肠道微生态中菌群对病原菌的抵抗力构成了对病原菌的定植屏障(colonization resistance)。这种屏障作用可以抑制病原菌在肠道内定植。各种药物(如抗生素、质子泵抑制剂、抗糖尿病药物和抗精神病药物) 可引起肠道菌群组成的变化及定植屏障的潜在破坏, 从而为外源性病原菌在肠道内定植并最终引起肠道感染提供了机会。肠道菌群提供定植屏障的机制尚未完全阐明, 但主要包括分泌抗菌物质、竞争营养、支持肠道屏障的完整性和免疫激活等[12]
肠道菌群分泌的抗菌物质主要包括: 短链脂肪酸(short-chain fatty acids, SCFAs)、胆汁酸(bile acids)、细菌素(bacteriocins) 等[12]。SCFAs主要由细菌无氧酵解不可消化物质产生, 主要包括乙酸、丙酸和丁酸[13]。丁酸是肠上皮细胞的主要营养物质, 通过β-氧化代谢维持肠道内的厌氧环境[14]。在pH值较低时, SCFAs主要以非电离形式存在。这些非电离形式的酸可以通过简单扩散进入细菌胞质内, 使胞内pH降低, 从而产生抑制细菌生长的作用[15]。胆汁酸具有抗菌特性, 由肝脏产生并在消化食物时排入肠道。大部分结合型初级胆汁酸(primary bile acid) 在回肠远端被重吸收, 而其余的结合型初级胆汁酸可被肠道菌群中的胆盐水解酶(bile salt hydrolases, BSH) 水解生成游离型初级胆汁酸[16]。游离型初级胆汁酸通过复杂的生化途径, 由少数细菌(主要是梭状芽孢杆菌) 通过7-去羟基化转化为两种主要的次级胆汁酸(secondary bile acid): 脱氧胆酸和石胆酸。脱氧胆酸通过破坏细菌细胞膜而使细菌内容物泄漏从而对许多细菌都具有杀菌作用, 包括金葡菌、艰难梭菌、双歧杆菌和乳酸菌[17]。细菌素是一种对特定细菌具有杀伤作用的短肽, 可以抑制病原菌在肠道的定植和生长。细菌素的杀菌机制广泛, 包括干扰核酸的代谢和通过在细胞膜形成孔隙来杀死细菌。革兰阳性菌产生的细菌素主要由乳酸菌(如乳球菌和乳杆菌) 和一些链球菌产生, 革兰阴性菌产生的细菌素主要由肠杆菌产生, 可大致分为高分子量蛋白质colicin和低分子量肽microcins[18]
同一物种的细菌通常需要相似的营养物质, 故病原菌要在肠道定植就必须竞争肠道中的营养物质。研究表明, 人体大肠埃希菌菌株对脯氨酸的高利用率可抑制致病性大肠埃希菌O157:H7的生长, 这种抑制作用可以通过在培养基中添加脯氨酸来逆转, 从而确认菌株之间的营养竞争关系[19]。除氨基酸外, 不同的大肠埃希菌菌株还利用肠道黏液中的不同糖[20]。营养竞争还可延伸到微量元素, 如铁[21]、锌[22]等。
附着在肠上皮表面的黏液及黏蛋白(mucin) 为病原菌定植形成一个物理屏障, 可防止细菌与肠上皮直接接触而产生炎症反应[23]。如果黏液层变薄及黏蛋白结构被破坏, 会导致病原菌定植增加。当肠道正常菌群缺乏营养物质时, 嗜黏蛋白阿克曼氏菌(Akkermansia muciniphila) 则会以黏液外层为营养物质, 使肠上皮表面黏液层变薄, 导致病原菌更接近肠上皮层, 进而促进病原菌的定植。长双歧杆菌可刺激黏液生成来减少黏液层的损伤。因此, 肠道菌群有助于肠道表面黏液屏障完整性的形成[24]
肠道微生态中菌群介导的定植屏障也与免疫系统有关。在某些环境因素和宿主遗传易感性的影响下, 肠道菌群与宿主免疫系统之间的相互作用导致了各种免疫介导疾病的发生[25]。以炎症性肠病为例, 在存在遗传易感性的情况下(如NOD2或ATG16L1突变), 抗生素的使用或饮食的改变可能会导致肠道菌群组成的改变, 包括瘤胃菌科细菌和乳酸菌减少、变形杆菌增多。这些肠道菌群组成及其代谢产物的改变会导致Th17、Th1和Th2型细胞数量上调, 调节性T细胞(Treg) 细胞数量下调, 以及异常的体液免疫, 最终导致慢性的肠道炎症和组织损伤[26]
抗生素是治疗细菌感染最常用也是最有效的药物。然而在治疗过程中, 口服抗生素未吸收的部分可能到达盲肠和结肠, 导致肠道菌群的多样性和丰度降低, 使抗生素耐药病原菌株数量增加, 抗生素耐药基因(antibiotic resistance genes, ARGs) 上调, 并引起肠道微生态紊乱, 最终导致肠道菌群的屏障功能减弱(图 1)。即使停用抗生素几个月后, 这些变化也不能完全逆转[27], 这种对肠道微生态的影响可能持续6个月至2年。
正常肠道微环境中的肠道菌群可起到对外来病原菌的定植屏障作用, 但抗生素会破坏这种作用, 导致抗生素相关性腹泻(antibiotic-associated diarrhea, AAD) 等疾病的发生[28]。而AAD最常见的原因是由艰难梭菌感染(Clostridium difficile infection, CDI) 所致[29]。艰难梭菌可形成孢子, 在孢子萌发时定植于大肠, 并通过两种毒素TcdA和TcdB的作用引起结肠炎。抗生素的使用还会引起促进艰难梭菌增殖的琥珀酸盐(succinate) 的产生。通常琥珀酸盐以低浓度存在于小鼠肠道常规菌群中, 使用抗生素后其含量增加, 进而导致艰难梭菌大量繁殖[30]。抗生素对肠道菌群定植屏障的破坏也引发鼠伤寒沙门氏菌(Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium) 在肠道的定植[31]。艰难梭菌和鼠伤寒沙门氏菌在肠腔内分解唾液酸(sialic acid) 以作为碳源, 促进其增殖。肠腔内的唾液酸主要来自肠道菌群中糖分解成员, 如多形拟杆菌(Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron)。宿主使用抗生素后会增加肠腔中多形拟杆菌的数量, 导致肠道内游离唾液酸的浓度增加, 从而促进两种病原菌的增殖[32]
然而, 不同抗生素对肠道菌群会产生不同的影响。在妊娠初期使用低剂量青霉素会导致胎儿成年后体内脂肪含量和体重明显增加, 而编码胰岛再生源蛋白Ⅲγ (regenerating islet-derived protein Ⅲγ, RegⅢγ)、β-防御素(β-defensins) 和白介素17 (interleukin-17) 等肠道黏膜固有免疫中重要蛋白质成分的表达减少[33]。即使在很短的时间内使用抗生素, 特别是在婴儿期, 都会对肠道菌群产生长期影响, 使宿主易患各种疾病。对出生后立即使用抗生素的婴儿的研究表明, 无论使用哪种抗生素, 婴儿肠道菌群的丰度和多样性都会发生变化。一项针对数千名儿童的研究表明, 1岁期间使用大环内酯类抗生素与6、7岁时患哮喘之间存在一定关联[34]。这些使用过大环内酯类抗生素的儿童会产生一种独特的肠道菌群谱, 其特征是放线菌科细菌减少、拟杆菌门和变形杆菌门细菌增多、ARGs的上调以及胆盐水解酶的减少。这些特征与哮喘后期进展的严重程度或体质指数的增加呈正相关[35]。对使用氟喹诺酮类抗菌药的患者用药1周前后肠道菌群变化进行分析发现, 16S rRNA拷贝数未发生变化, 但肠道菌群多样性减少, 表现为拟杆菌门和厚壁菌门细菌的比例增加。即使是对厌氧菌抑制活性相对较低的环丙沙星也会对肠道菌群的组成产生影响。Panda等[36]研究表明, 未使用过环丙沙星的患者连续5天使用环丙沙星, 分析给药前后60天至停药后6个月肠道菌群的变化, 结果发现, 在使用环丙沙星的早期阶段, 肠道菌群的多样性就已减少约1/3, 其中瘤胃菌科细菌数量下降最明显。6个月后再次使用相同剂量环丙沙星时, 肠道菌群组成的变化与之前类似, 但菌群恢复正常的速度明显变慢, 说明在用药6个月后环丙沙星对肠道菌群的影响依然存在。
抗生素也可以对肠道菌群起积极作用, 即提供益生菌效应。一些抗生素被证明可以刺激有益细菌的生长。呋喃妥因是一种广谱抗生素, 对革兰阴性和革兰阳性细菌都有抑制活性。当给61例无并发症尿路感染的患者服用时, 发现患者肠道中包括双歧杆菌在内的放线菌数量暂时增加[37]。在另一个针对泌尿道感染门诊患者的小样本研究中, 发现给予呋喃妥因治疗的患者肠道中粪杆菌属的细菌数量有所增加[38]。利福昔明是一种可吸收性较差的广谱抗生素, 近年来有越来越多的证据支持利福昔明的益生特性。在15例肠易激综合征患者的小型试验中, 利福昔明可使厚壁菌门与拟杆菌门的比例和粪杆菌属细菌的丰度增加[39]。在另一份研究中, 19例患有不同胃肠道和肝脏疾病的患者服用利福昔明后, 肠道中乳酸菌的丰度增加, 但细菌多样性无明显变化[40]
肠道微环境由肠上皮细胞、肠道微生物及其代谢产物和黏液层组成。抗生素可以通过调节肠道微生物群的代谢产物和肠道微环境来影响宿主对病原菌的定植抗性。Theriot等[41]的代谢组学分析表明, 抗生素可显著改变小鼠肠道微生物组和代谢组, 其中次级胆汁酸、葡萄糖(glucose)、游离脂肪酸(free fatty acids, FFAs) 水平降低, 而初级胆汁酸水平升高。艰难梭菌可以利用抗生素使用后在小鼠肠道中产生的丰富特定代谢产物, 包括促进艰难梭菌萌发的初级胆汁酸和牛磺胆酸, 以及促进生长的碳源, 如甘露醇、果糖、山梨醇和水苏糖。抗生素介导的肠道微环境的改变使肠道代谢谱转变为有利于艰难梭菌萌发和生长的代谢谱, 从而大大增加艰难梭菌的易感性。Faber等[42]的研究表明, 链霉素的使用会提高盲肠黏膜中编码诱导型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS) 的基因表达, 从而增加小鼠盲肠中氧化代谢产物半乳糖酸和葡萄糖酸的可用性, 而宿主介导的半乳糖和葡萄糖氧化可为鼠伤寒沙门氏菌提供了肠道定植优势。肠道中的大肠杆菌可将膳食纤维代谢为SCFAs, 而SCFAs可维持肠道上皮完整性, 促进Treg细胞的分化和积累, 从而增强肠道菌群对病原菌的定植抗性。Smith等[43]发现, 经过甲硝唑或万古霉素治疗的小鼠盲肠中的SCFAs浓度会降低, 从而增加外来病原菌在肠道定植的概率。
目前认为抗生素引起肠道微生态紊乱的主要后果是AAD的发生, 而CDI是引起AAD的主要原因。相比于其他原因引起的腹泻, CDI引起的腹泻临床表现较为严重, 表现为严重的假膜性结肠炎、黏液脓血便, 严重时可致死, 预后较差, 故CDI引起的AAD更需引起临床的重视, 故本文主要阐述CDI治疗的研究进展。
临床中治疗AAD首先需停用抗生素, 对症治疗。针对CDI的治疗方法多种多样, 但抗菌治疗仍然是CDI的首选, 甲硝唑和万古霉素是临床上用于治疗CDI所致腹泻的常用药。但由于万古霉素治疗费用较高且易增加万古霉素耐药菌株的流行; 甲硝唑生物利用度较低, 不良反应较多且治疗失败率和复发率较高, 尤其对于重症CDI患者, 故这两种抗生素不再作为治疗CDI的首选药物[44], 但当一线治疗有禁忌时仍可使用甲硝唑和万古霉素[45]。美国卫生保健流行病学学会(Society of Healthcare Epidemiology of America) 推荐非达霉素作为CDI的一线治疗药物。美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA) 在2011年5月批准非达霉素用于治疗CDI。非达霉素的抗菌谱很窄, 其抗菌活性主要针对梭状芽孢杆菌, 且其对肠道正常菌群的影响较小, 故其成为CDI治疗的最佳选择。一项纳入1 105例患者双盲随机对照试验(RCT) 直接比较了万古霉素和非达霉素的疗效, 结果表明非达霉素的临床治愈率不低于万古霉素(分别为88%和86%)[46]。同时, 观察到非达霉素组患者的复发率较低。非达霉素组71%的患者达到持续临床缓解(治疗后腹泻缓解至少25日), 而万古霉素组只有57%的患者达到持续临床缓解[47]
世界卫生组织(World Health Organization, WHO) 将益生菌定义为“当给予足够量时能给宿主带来健康益处的活微生物”。益生菌主要被用于改善肠道内菌群的稳态, 也可通过产生有益的代谢物(如SCFAs) 来提高宿主免疫力, 并通过定植抗性机制(如争夺营养物质、抑制胆汁酸转化和产生抗菌肽等) 预防肠道感染[48]。益生菌对预防AAD是安全且有效的。在各种益生菌中, 布拉氏酵母菌(Saccharomyces boulardii) 和鼠李糖乳杆菌(Lactobacillus rhamnosus) 对AAD的预防保护作用最强[49]。布拉氏酵母菌在CDI治疗中的疗效首次由McFarland等[50]报道, 在抗生素治疗期间和治疗后, 每天两次连续4周服用布拉氏酵母菌后, CDI复发率会显著降低。此外, Gorbach等[51]首次在临床研究中证实了鼠李糖乳杆菌的作用, 除了在治疗难治性CDI方面的有益作用外, 鼠李糖乳杆菌在健康个体中也显示出潜在的保护作用[52]。除了单一的益生菌菌株外, 益生菌混合物也已研发了相当长的一段时间。含有嗜酸乳杆菌的益生菌混合物能成功地将CDI患病率从0.18%降低到0.023%。嗜酸乳杆菌、鼠李糖乳杆菌和干酪乳杆菌合用后在抗生素治疗期间和治疗后1周内发现其中益生菌组中没有患者出现CDI, 而安慰剂组53人中有9人出现CDI[53]。在一项对接受CDI治疗的患者进行的为期4周的试验中, 4株乳杆菌和双歧杆菌胶囊联合抗生素使用会使CDI持续时间显著缩短[54]。粪便内容物检查显示, 服用益生菌胶囊的受试者粪便中疣微菌科的细菌比例低于服用安慰剂的受试者, 表明疣微菌科细菌数量的降低与艰难梭菌的易感性降低有关[55]
粪便菌群移植(fecal microbiota transplantation, FMT) 是将健康人粪便中的菌群转移到患者体内, 目的是恢复正常的肠道菌群多样性。经过FMT后, 患者肠道菌群的多样性最早可在24 h后恢复到与健康人相似的水平[56]。FMT治疗CDI的机制主要是供者肠道菌群与艰难梭菌的相互作用和供者肠道菌群对宿主免疫功能的影响。供者菌群可以通过其产生的次级胆汁酸来抑制艰难梭菌的生长。通过FMT能迅速恢复抑制艰难梭菌孢子萌发和生长的次级胆汁酸成分, 从而起到抑制艰难梭菌生长、恢复肠道正常菌群的作用[57]。此外, 移植的菌群会竞争营养物质和定植资源, 从而影响艰难梭菌的毒力和生存。FMT已成为CDI多次复发患者的首选治疗方案。虽然FMT不能替代抗生素治疗CDI, 但有可靠数据支持可将其用于治疗抗生素治疗无效的复发性感染患者。用抗生素治疗CDI时会降低宿主肠道菌群多样性, 在易感患者中可导致艰难梭菌孢子萌发扩张和肠毒素的产生, 从而导致艰难梭菌复发性感染。在复发性CDI患者中肠道菌群多样性的降低是进行性的, 并且与CDI患者接受抗生素治疗的疗程数呈正相关[58]。研究表明, 健康人粪便中的菌群主要是拟杆菌门和厚壁菌门。CDI患者肠道中拟杆菌门和厚壁菌门的菌群数量明显减少, 变形菌门的菌群数量增加。通过FMT可恢复CDI患者肠道中正常拟杆菌门和厚壁菌门的菌群数量, 从而对复发性CDI起到治疗作用[59]
目前大多数用于CDI治疗的疫苗研究都是基于类毒素、重组蛋白和表面相关抗原等3种剂型。由于TcdA和TcdB是艰难梭菌的关键毒力决定因子, 且与结肠损伤的严重程度相关, 因此成为疫苗研发的重要靶点。类毒素是指通过化学处理改变毒素结构, 从而在保持其免疫原性的同时使其失活。以类毒素为基础的疫苗在动物模型中的应用表明, 针对毒素的血清抗体引起的免疫应答水平令人满意, 并且对CDI致死结局具有预防作用[60]。基于重组蛋白的设计是疫苗研发的另一种方法, 该方法可避免残留毒素, 并仅使用负责免疫原性的毒素域来最大限度地发挥保护作用。与生产类毒素相比, 重组蛋白的生产工艺要比类毒素简单。研究发现, 针对毒素A的血清阳转率要高于针对毒素B的血清阳转率, 但一种最佳疫苗需要同时包含毒素A和毒素B片段, 以获得最大的保护效力。因此, 后来的疫苗研发主要集中在使融合肽同时含有毒素A和毒素B的片段, 使其产生对这两种毒素的免疫反应。为了克服以往预防CDI相关的候选疫苗的局限性, 表面蛋白抗原已成为疫苗开发的替代靶点。多项研究证实, 在感染过程中, 针对表面层蛋白(surface layer protein, SLP) 的免疫应答被诱导, 包括鞭毛成分、黏附素、纤连蛋白结合蛋白和半胱氨酸蛋白酶[61]。此外, 包裹在细菌表面的多糖聚糖作为另一个靶点也可用来诱导特异性抗体。有研究表明, PSI、PSII和PSⅢ这3种糖结构与其他免疫诱导剂结合后, 在动物模型中都能刺激产生特异性抗体, 包括IgA和IgG[62]
抗生素的发现是医学发展史上具有重要里程碑意义的事件, 但抗生素的不合理使用不但导致大量耐药菌的出现, 也对人体肠道微生态的稳定产生了一定的影响, 进而影响机体对疾病的易感性。由于抗生素在临床中的应用日益广泛且存在一定程度的滥用, 加之人口老龄化加剧, AAD的发病率将逐年升高。AAD具有潜伏期, 若不及时干预可能会导致致死性的结肠炎及腹泻, 故需引起临床的重视。深入了解肠道微生态的组成、肠道定植屏障的产生机制、抗生素对肠道菌群和肠道微环境的影响, 有助于推进抗生素的合理使用, 并降低AAD的发病率。而使用特定抗生素、益生菌、粪便菌群移植和疫苗是治疗抗生素引起的肠道微生态紊乱的常用有效方法。随着对肠道微生态及其与机体疾病易感性关系的了解, 今后, 研究者将进一步深入研究不同抗生素对肠道微生态的影响, 研发更有效的抗生素剂型, 以及恢复肠道微生态稳定的更安全有效的治疗方法, 为合理、正确的抗生素的使用提供理论指导。
作者贡献: 迟湘胤负责相关文献的收集、综述的撰写和文章作图; 林媛对综述内容给予了指导和修改; 蒋建东是综述框架的负责人, 指导论文写作并对综述进行最终审核。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。
  • 中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程项目(2021-I2M-1-026)
  • 中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程项目(2021-I2M-JB-011)
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2023年第58卷第8期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1381
  • 接收时间:2022-12-18
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-08-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-12-18
  • 修回日期:2022-12-26
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中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程项目(2021-I2M-1-026)
中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程项目(2021-I2M-JB-011)
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    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 天然药物活性物质与功能国家重点实验室, 北京 100050

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蒋建东, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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