Article(id=1198624401559224736, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1134, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1666886400000, receivedDateStr=2022-10-28, revisedDate=1668700800000, revisedDateStr=2022-11-18, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763703926696, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1678550400000, pubDateStr=2023-03-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763703926696, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763703926696, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763703926696, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198624396437975057, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='3', pageStart='1', pageEnd='804', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763703925474, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763704091914, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198625094596657875, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198625094596657876, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=593, endPage=604, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198624401949295021, articleId=1198624401559224736, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Short chain fatty acid: a messenger of gut-organ axis for disease regulation, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Gut microbiota is a complex and dynamic system, and is essential for the health of the body. As the "second genome" of the body, it can establish communication with the important organs by regulating intestinal nerves, gastrointestinal hormones, intestinal barrier, immunity and metabolism, thus affecting host′s physiological functions. Short chain fatty acid (SCFA), known as one important metabolite of intestinal microbiota, is regarded as a significant messenger of the gut-organ communication, due to its extensive regulation in the body′s immunity, metabolism, endocrine and signal transduction. In this review, we summarize the interaction between gut-liver/brain/kidney/lung axis and diseases, and focus on the role and mechanism of SCFA in the gut-organ communication, hoping to provide new ideas for the treatment of the related diseases.

, correspAuthors=Jian-dong JIANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Hui-hui GUO, Hao-ran SHEN, Yan-xing HAN, Jian-dong JIANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198624403459244486, articleId=1198624401559224736, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=短链脂肪酸: 肠-器官轴调控疾病的信号使者, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

肠道菌群是一个复杂而动态的系统, 对机体的健康至关重要。它作为机体的“第二基因组”, 通过调节肠道神经、胃肠激素、肠屏障、肠道免疫和代谢与宿主重要脏器建立通讯轴, 影响宿主的多种生理功能。短链脂肪酸作为肠道菌群的重要代谢产物, 在机体的免疫、代谢、内分泌及信号传导等方面都有重要作用, 是肠-器官轴上的重要通讯物质。本文总结了肠-肝/脑/肾/肺轴与疾病的互作关系, 并重点探讨了短链脂肪酸在这种互作关系中的作用及机制, 为相关疾病的治疗提供新思路。

, correspAuthors=蒋建东, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*蒋建东, Tel: 86-10-63017906, E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《药学学报》编辑部2023, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=/3R0ZJRhQQ7rDau2ZnQAkg==, magXml=whBffCD91RX/75Bea9a9cg==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=DUSxIwZ2ziJRlmTdGGvrrw==, pdfFileSize=1945854, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=U8c2Pj/MIJuywEKWIk6XHg==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=rFXC34chIDB0lkKv1R3s4w==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

#共同第一作者.

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短链脂肪酸: 肠-器官轴调控疾病的信号使者
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郭慧慧 1, # , 申浩然 1, # , 韩燕星 1 , 蒋建东 1, 2, *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(3): 593-604
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药学学报 | 综述 2023, 58(3): 593-604
短链脂肪酸: 肠-器官轴调控疾病的信号使者
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郭慧慧1, #, 申浩然1, #, 韩燕星1, 蒋建东1, 2, *
作者信息
  • 1.中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 天然药物活性物质与功能国家重点实验室, 北京 100050
  • 2.中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 北京 100050

通讯作者:

*蒋建东, Tel: 86-10-63017906, E-mail:
Short chain fatty acid: a messenger of gut-organ axis for disease regulation
Hui-hui GUO1, Hao-ran SHEN1, Yan-xing HAN1, Jian-dong JIANG1, 2, *
Affiliations
  • 1. State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
  • 2. Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2023-03-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1134
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肠道菌群是一个复杂而动态的系统, 对机体的健康至关重要。它作为机体的“第二基因组”, 通过调节肠道神经、胃肠激素、肠屏障、肠道免疫和代谢与宿主重要脏器建立通讯轴, 影响宿主的多种生理功能。短链脂肪酸作为肠道菌群的重要代谢产物, 在机体的免疫、代谢、内分泌及信号传导等方面都有重要作用, 是肠-器官轴上的重要通讯物质。本文总结了肠-肝/脑/肾/肺轴与疾病的互作关系, 并重点探讨了短链脂肪酸在这种互作关系中的作用及机制, 为相关疾病的治疗提供新思路。

短链脂肪酸  /  肠-器官轴  /  肠道菌群  /  免疫炎症  /  内分泌  /  信号传导

Gut microbiota is a complex and dynamic system, and is essential for the health of the body. As the "second genome" of the body, it can establish communication with the important organs by regulating intestinal nerves, gastrointestinal hormones, intestinal barrier, immunity and metabolism, thus affecting host′s physiological functions. Short chain fatty acid (SCFA), known as one important metabolite of intestinal microbiota, is regarded as a significant messenger of the gut-organ communication, due to its extensive regulation in the body′s immunity, metabolism, endocrine and signal transduction. In this review, we summarize the interaction between gut-liver/brain/kidney/lung axis and diseases, and focus on the role and mechanism of SCFA in the gut-organ communication, hoping to provide new ideas for the treatment of the related diseases.

short chain fatty acid  /  gut-organ axis  /  gut microbiota  /  immuno-inflammation  /  endocrine  /  signal transduction
郭慧慧, 申浩然, 韩燕星, 蒋建东. 短链脂肪酸: 肠-器官轴调控疾病的信号使者. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (3) : 593 -604 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1134
Hui-hui GUO, Hao-ran SHEN, Yan-xing HAN, Jian-dong JIANG. Short chain fatty acid: a messenger of gut-organ axis for disease regulation[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (3) : 593 -604 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1134
短链脂肪酸(short chain fatty acid, SCFA) 也称挥发性脂肪酸, 是含有2~6个碳原子的有机脂肪酸的总称, 主要包括乙酸、丙酸和丁酸。SCFA主要是由未消化吸收的碳水化合物(非淀粉多糖、低聚果糖、菊粉、发芽大麦食品等) 经结肠厌氧菌酵解产生[1]。肠道内约占人体肠道菌群总量90%的厚壁菌门和拟杆菌门是参与肠道中SCFA生成的优势菌群, 其中拟杆菌属、双歧杆菌属、真杆菌属、瘤胃球菌属、消化链球菌属和梭菌属是产乙酸的主要菌群; 梭菌属是产丙酸的主要菌群; 拟杆菌属、真杆菌属和梭菌属是产丁酸的主要菌群[2]。肠道内产生的SCFA约95%经离子交换、单羧酸转运体或细胞间隙扩散等方式转运至肠上皮细胞, 其中一部分被肠细胞代谢, 维持肠道稳态; 另一部分被转运至各组织脏器, 通过抑制组蛋白脱乙酰化酶(histone deacetylase, HDAC) 或激活G蛋白偶联受体(G protein-coupled receptors, GPCRs) 发挥生物学作用[3]。其中, 乙酸作为宿主能量的重要来源, 是机体浓度最高的SCFA, 是糖和脂肪代谢途径的中心, 约提供人体日总能量的10%; 丙酸经血液吸收后主要在肝脏分解代谢, 是奇链脂肪酸代谢的中心代谢物, 并参与丙酮酸转化为葡萄糖的过程, 同时还可抑制脂肪合成; 丁酸主要被肠上皮细胞利用, 是结、盲肠上皮细胞最重要的能量来源, 可促进上皮细胞增殖和分化, 减少凋亡, 增加肠道跨上皮电阻和紧密连接, 在维持胃肠道内环境稳定方面发挥重要作用[4, 5]。SCFA还能抑制肠道及各组织脏器中促炎因子的产生, 调节机体免疫应答, 是肠道菌群与免疫系统交流的重要介质。作为肠道菌群的重要代谢产物, SCFA通过对肝脏、脑、肾及肺等多个器官的影响, 发挥广泛生理作用, 调控疾病的发生、发展和预后, 调节机体健康。
肠-肝轴是指肠道及肠道微生物与肝脏通过门静脉和胆汁的肠肝循环建立的双向关系, 由遗传、饮食和环境等因素共同作用维持其稳态。一方面, 肠道通过门脉系统将肠道衍生的各种产物(包括食物消化产物及肠道菌群代谢产物) 运送至肝脏, 影响肝脏代谢和功能; 另一方面, 肝脏将代谢产生的胆汁酸、抗体等物质分泌到肠道, 参与肠道微生物群落的塑造, 影响肠屏障功能[6]。肠道微生物作为沟通肠肝交流的重要中介, 对维持肠-肝轴的稳态起重要作用。生理情况下, 菌群之间互利共生, 组成相对稳定, 共同维持肠黏膜屏障, 限制致病微生物、有毒代谢产物及毒素通过细胞旁路吸收入血, 同时允许某些肠道菌群代谢产物如SCFA、色氨酸代谢物(如吲哚、五羟色胺) 和胆汁酸等通过不同的吸收途径进入循环并到达肝脏。SCFA作为肠道内最丰富的微生物代谢产物之一, 可通过直接或间接作用调控肝脏的代谢、免疫功能, 影响肠-肝轴交流。目前已有多项研究表明, SCFA通过调控肠-肝轴在脂肪肝、糖尿病和高脂血症等疾病的发生发展中起重要作用。
脂肪肝是指甘油三酯在肝细胞内的过度沉积, 以肝脏脂肪变性为主要特征的一种慢性肝病。根据致病因素的不同, 临床上主要分为酒精性脂肪肝病(alcoholic liver disease, ALD) 和非酒精性脂肪肝病(nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, NAFLD) 两大类。随着疾病的进展, 脂肪肝还可进一步发展为脂肪性肝炎、肝纤维化、肝硬化和肝癌, 严重危害人类健康[7]。越来越多的研究表明, 肠道菌群紊乱与脂肪肝的发生相关。Hrncir等[8]通过总结发现, NAFLD患者中常表现为变形菌门、肠杆菌科、大肠杆菌、多利亚菌和消化杆菌丰度增加, 以及理研菌科、瘤胃菌科、粪杆菌属、粪球菌属、厌氧杆菌属和真杆菌属丰度减少。在ALD患者中, 也表现为变形菌门、克雷伯菌属丰度增加及艾克曼菌、粪球菌属和梭菌目菌群丰度降低[9]。这些菌群变化直接影响其自身代谢产物水平, 而SCFA作为多数肠道菌群酵解碳水化合物的产物, 可通过影响肝脏脂肪堆积、改善肠屏障功能降低肝脏免疫炎症反应等方式影响脂肪肝的进展。
肝细胞的脂肪变性与脂类食物摄入过多、机体糖脂代谢异常有关, 而SCFA能有效减少肝细胞脂质堆积。SCFA经肠上皮细胞吸收, 由门静脉进入肝脏, 可通过激活肝AMP依赖的蛋白激酶(adenosine 5′-monophosphate-activated protein kinase, AMPK) 活性, 上调AMPK-过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ共激活1α (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α, PGC1α)-过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体α (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α, PPARα) 通路, 抑制肠细胞吸收乳糜微粒并加速脂质氧化, 降低NAFLD的风险[10]。另外, SCFA还可通过下调PPARγ激活线粒体解偶联蛋白2 (uncoupling protein 2, UCP2)-AMPK-乙酰辅酶A羧化酶(acetyl CoA carboxylase, ACC) 通路, 显著减少肝内乙酰辅酶A含量和抑制脂肪酸合成酶活性, 从而促进高脂诱导的小鼠肝脏由脂质生成向脂肪氧化转变, 降低肝脏脂质堆积[11]。但Zhao等[12]发现, 结肠微生物利用果糖产生的乙酸可在酰基辅酶A合成酶短链家族成员2作用下将乙酸转化为乙酰辅酶A, 促进小鼠肝脏新生脂肪的生成。
肠道屏障受损导致肠道病原菌及有害内毒素从肠道经门静脉循环到肝脏, 引发肝脏炎症反应, 从而诱发或加重肝脏脂肪堆积。肠道革兰阴性菌的主要外膜成分脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS) 作为肠道内毒素的代表物质, 可通过Toll样受体4 (Toll-like receptor 4, TLR4)/髓样分化因子88 (myeloid differentiation factor 88, MyD88) 信号转导通路激活核因子κB (nuclear factor kappa-B, NF-κB) p65/p50, 上调肌球蛋白轻链激酶活性, 导致肠上皮紧密连接通透性增加[13], 致使LPS经由门静脉进入肝脏, 进一步识别肝实质细胞、库普弗细胞和肝星状细胞上的TLR4, 触发肝脏内的TLR4/NF-κB炎症信号通路, 导致NOD样受体热蛋白结构域相关蛋白3 (NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3, NLRP3) 炎症小体和促炎因子如肿瘤坏死因子α (tumor necrosis factor α, TNF-α)、白细胞介素-1β (interleukin-1β, IL-1β) 和IL-18的产生, 引发肝脏慢性低度炎症, 诱发或加重NAFLD进展[13]。Wang等[6]通过体外实验发现, 1.0 mmol·L-1 SCFA (丙酸、丁酸、异戊酸) 可明显降低RAW264.7细胞中F4/80+ iNOS+细胞的比例和促炎因子TNF-α的产生, 并增加F4/80+ CD206+的细胞比例和IL-10的表达水平, 表明SCFA可以直接影响巨噬细胞由M1向M2极化, 抑制肝脏炎症反应。SCFA还可通过与肝细胞上的GPCRs结合, 抑制NLRP3炎症小体并增强调节性T细胞(Treg) 的数量和功能来抑制肝脏炎症反应[14]。SCFA还能通过抑制肝脏HDAC活性减少NLRP3炎症小体释放, 抑制TNF-α、IL-6、IL-1β等炎性介质的产生, 减轻肝脏炎症产生[15]。SCFA除直接作用于肝细胞外, 还可通过维持肠道屏障的完整性来减轻肝脏炎症反应, 如SCFA通过上调结肠组织紧密连接蛋白的表达、增加肠道跨上皮电阻、降低肠黏膜通透性, 来抑制LPS对肠道屏障的有害作用, 并且通过促进钙离子内流激活AMPK, 加速紧密连接的构建过程, 从而阻止微生物及内毒素从细胞间隙穿越进入血液循环和肝脏, 减轻LPS对肝脏激发的炎症反应[16]
中药复方/单味药/单体如四君子汤、消脂汤、五味子、小檗碱、白藜芦醇、黄芪多糖等可通过调控肠道菌群及SCFA的产生在治疗NAFLD中发挥重要作用[17]。除此之外, 本课题组近期研究也表明, 中药灯盏生脉可显著促进肠道菌群产生SCFA并转运至肝脏, 治疗高脂饮食引起的金黄地鼠血脂紊乱和肝脏脂质沉积, 而且还可通过改善肠屏障功能减少肝脏炎症反应, 有效抑制NAFLD进程[18]
无论是1型还是2型糖尿病, 都与肠道微生物失调存在关联, 而且菌群失衡引发的SCFA水平缺乏已被证实是触发和加重糖尿病的重要因素。对于1型糖尿病, 研究发现, 给非肥胖糖尿病小鼠喂食特制饲料使其在结肠细菌发酵后释放大量乙酸或丁酸盐, 可延缓1型糖尿病小鼠的疾病进展, 但乙酸和丁酸可通过不同的机制发挥作用, 乙酸通过降低B细胞增殖, 抑制其抗原呈递能力, 降低淋巴组织中自反应T细胞水平保护胰岛β细胞免受破坏; 丁酸主要通过增加Treg细胞数量和功能, 降低血清中与糖尿病形成相关的细胞因子IL-21水平, 增加抗炎因子IL-10水平, 增强胰岛β细胞功能并减轻肝脏炎症反应, 发挥抗1型糖尿病作用[19]。而2型糖尿病的主要特点是胰岛素抵抗, 主要是由饮食、环境等各种原因导致肝脏和其他组织对葡萄糖摄取和利用率下降, 致使机体代偿性的分泌过多胰岛素, 也是导致代谢综合征和肥胖的重要原因。SCFA已被证实可以维持葡萄糖稳态并减轻宿主的胰岛素抵抗[20, 21]。研究发现, GPR41和GRP43在胰岛β细胞中高度表达, 经由肠道吸收的SCFA在胰腺细胞中通过与GPR41/43结合, 不仅可以抑制HDAC活性来促进胰岛β细胞增殖, 改善葡萄糖稳态, 还可通过活化cAMP依赖的蛋白激酶A使下游靶蛋白磷酸化, 刺激胰岛β细胞分泌胰岛素, 增强胰岛素对肝脏代谢葡萄糖的作用[22]。Yadav等[23]发现SCFA通过与肝细胞膜上GPR41/43结合, 激活AMPK通路, 促进葡萄糖转运蛋白葡萄糖转运体4 (glucose transporter 4, GLUT4) 活性, 从而增加胰岛素敏感性, 促进糖和脂质氧化并抑制糖异生和脂质储存。高膳食纤维素能通过促进乙酸和丁酸产生, 改善肝组织对葡萄糖耐受性, 降低糖化血红蛋白水平, 有利于缓解2型糖尿病[24]。二甲双胍是治疗2型糖尿病的一线用药, 现代研究表明, 其对葡萄糖代谢的有益作用也与调节肠道菌群密切相关, 二甲双胍治疗增加了大鼠拟杆菌属、布劳特氏菌属、乳酸杆菌属、阿克曼氏菌属等产SCFA菌的相对丰度, 促进SCFA的产生, 保护肠道屏障并调节肠道肽的分泌[25]。而且, α-葡萄糖苷酶抑制剂阿卡波糖同样可增加乳酸杆菌和双歧杆菌及其他产生SCFA菌如粪杆菌、普雷沃氏菌的丰度[26]
高脂血症作为一种常见的代谢综合征, 是引发NAFLD、肥胖及心血管疾病的主要危险因素之一, 临床表现为总胆固醇、甘油三酯和低密度脂蛋白胆固醇水平升高。高血脂患者和动物粪便及血中的SCFA一般呈现相对低水平, 通过饮食或其他干预措施调控SCFA水平或可治疗高脂血症。丙酸在肝脏中可通过抑制羟甲基戊二酰辅酶A (hydroxy-methyl-glutaryl CoA, HMG-CoA) 还原酶活性抑制胆固醇合成, 降低循环系统中胆固醇含量; 还可以通过激活受体GPR41/43, 促进肠内的分泌细胞对胰高血糖素样肽-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1, GLP-1)、酪酪肽(peptide tyrosine-tyrosine, PYY) 等激素的分泌, 刺激脂肪细胞合成和分泌瘦素, 这些激素通过调控大脑神经元, 作用于肝脏减少肝脏胆固醇生成, 改善血脂[27]。丁酸还可通过激活受体GPR109A降低肝脏脂肪酶活性来抑制甘油三酯合成, 而且还可通过参与酮体生成和糖脂代谢途径调控血脂[28]。另有研究发现, 在饮食中添加SCFA可增加肝脏和脂肪组织中甘油三酯水解、脂肪氧化、线粒体生物合成和机体消耗, 还能阻止肝脏胆固醇合成, 促进血浆胆固醇转移到肝脏进行氧化代谢, 降低血脂水平[29]
肠-脑轴是指肠道和中枢神经系统(central nervous system, CNS) 之间的双向信号传导机制。通过复杂的神经体液通路, 来自大脑的信号可以改变肠道的感觉、运动和分泌功能, 反之, 源自胃肠道的内脏传入信号也可以调节大脑功能。肠道微生物作为肠道和大脑双向信息交流的重要参与者, 不仅可以通过分泌神经递质和神经传导对机体神经功能产生影响, 也通过免疫和各种代谢产物调控神经炎症和认知功能, 直接或间接影响肠-脑交流和大脑功能。已有大量研究发现, SCFA作为肠道菌群的重要代谢物之一, 可通过免疫、内分泌、迷走神经及其他通路调节食欲、学习、记忆和情绪等, 从而改变代谢性疾病、神经退行性疾病、自闭症、情绪和焦虑障碍等精神疾病的进程。
自闭症谱系障碍(autism spectrum disorder, ASD) 作为一种神经发育障碍性疾病, 主要表现为沟通障碍、刻板重复行为、智能障碍和对环境变化高度敏感。现代研究显示, 除神经系统异常外, ASD患者还常伴随腹痛、腹泻、便秘和胀气等胃肠道症状, 而且肠道菌群失衡与ASD的严重程度有很强的相关性[30]。SCFA作为联系肠-脑轴的重要介质, 在调节神经免疫炎症、线粒体功能和神经递质释放等方面影响着ASD的发生、发展。
据报道, 多数ASD患者存在免疫异常, 而线粒体作为建立和维持有效免疫系统的重要能量供应部分, 其功能障碍会影响淋巴细胞的功能, 进一步恶化ASD进程[31]。Rose等[32]发现丁酸可增加ASD患儿中线粒体功能障碍的淋巴母细胞的最大呼吸能力、储备能力等相关呼吸参数, 上调PTEN诱导激酶1 (PTEN-induced kinase 1, PINK1)、线粒体动力相关蛋白1 (dynamin-related protein 1, DRP1)、线粒体分裂蛋白1 (mitochondrial fission protein 1, FIS1) 等参与线粒体分裂以及线粒体UCP2、哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin, mTOR)、缺氧诱导因子1α (hypoxia inducible factor 1α, HIF1α)、PGC1α等参与生理应激相关基因的表达, 增强淋巴母细胞的线粒体活性, 从而缓解ASD患儿的免疫炎症反应。除淋巴细胞功能异常外, ASD患儿脑组织中的小胶质细胞等固有免疫细胞也常处于明显激活状态, 可释放TNF-α、IL-6、IL-8、IL-18和IL-37等炎症介质[33]。研究发现, SCFA穿过血脑屏障(blood-brain barrier, BBB) 与小胶质细胞相互作用, 通过改变小胶质细胞的形态和功能来影响神经炎症, 进而影响ASD的病理生理过程。Wenzel等[34]用THP-1细胞模拟小胶质细胞, 发现SCFA的混合物以近似生理浓度比添加到THP-1细胞中, 可明显下调IL-1β、单核细胞趋化因子1 (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, MCP-1) 和TNF-α等炎症基因的表达, 抑制小胶质样细胞分泌炎症因子和细胞毒素。进一步深入的机制研究发现, SCFA主要通过GPR41/43激活丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase, MAPK) 和胞外信号调控激酶(extracellular signal-regulated kinase, ERK) 等下游信号分子, 参与免疫应答, 发挥抗炎作用; 同时也通过抑制HDAC受体, 介导单核细胞、巨噬细胞和DC细胞的成熟, 改变它们捕获抗原的能力来降低促炎因子的产生[35]。然而, Frye等[36]却发现高剂量的丙酸(1 mmol·L-1) 可显著诱导小胶质细胞活化, 增加炎症细胞因子TNF-α和IL-6的释放, 加重ASD患儿的神经炎症反应和异常神经行为。
5-羟色胺(5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) 作为大脑发育过程中重要的神经递质, 其合成和代谢障碍与自闭症在内的许多神经发育紊乱性疾病密切相关。而机体超过90%的5-HT都是由胃肠道的肠嗜铬细胞合成, 其中色氨酸羟化酶(tryptophan hydroxylase, TPH) 作为5-HT合成过程的限速酶, 其活性和基因表达变化可直接影响机体5-HT水平, 进而影响早期脑发育、线粒体平衡和免疫调节, 诱发神经元发育异常, 产生抑郁、易激惹等类自闭样行为。研究发现, 肠道菌群产生的乙酸和丁酸等SCFA可促进TPH-1的转录, 增加肠嗜铬细胞中色氨酸转化为5-HT的能力, 这表明SCFA可能在肠道5-HT生成和体内平衡中有重要作用[37]。但是肠道产生的5-HT无法穿越BBB, 难以转运至脑细胞内发挥神经保护作用, 而肠道产生的SCFA可通过肠吸收进入机体, 并可透过BBB, 因此推测, 进入脑内的SCFA同样可以通过影响脑内TPH-1的表达对色氨酸代谢途径产生作用, 进而影响中枢神经5-HT的生成, 从而对ASD产生影响。
脑卒中是导致残疾和死亡的首位病因, 其中80%的脑卒中是由脑缺血/梗塞引起的。脑缺血会导致脑血管供血区脑组织损伤, 随后出现神经炎症和免疫反应, 导致局灶性或弥散性的神经功能缺损、痴呆甚至死亡[38]。目前, 基于肠-脑轴研究的深入, 越来越多的数据表明, 肠道菌群及SCFA在缺血性脑卒的发生发展、预后和治疗中发挥重要作用[39]
有研究显示, SCFA能够减轻神经元凋亡和神经炎症, 改善脑损伤。Xiao等[40]发现脑缺血大鼠肠道中产SCFA的肠道菌群和海马体中SCFA含量减少; 而移植健康大鼠的粪菌后, 可明显改善脑缺血大鼠的异常行为和海马神经元凋亡, 其机制为SCFA介导GPR41抑制NF-κB信号通路, 激活ERK1/2级联反应来缓解海马神经炎症和神经元凋亡, 从而改善大鼠认知能力和抑郁样行为。另外, 磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, PI3K)/蛋白激酶B (protein kinase B, AKT) 信号通路是调节神经元生长、存活和新陈代谢的中心介质, 其下游蛋白半胱氨酸天冬氨酸蛋白酶3 (cysteine-aspartic acid protease 3, caspase3) 是细胞凋亡的关键因素, 可以激活内切酶以切割核酸, 导致细胞死亡, 而丁酸可以激活PI3K/AKT通路, 减弱脑缺血诱导的caspase3激活, 改善脑缺血后神经细胞的凋亡[41]
BBB的破坏是缺血性脑卒中的主要病理特征之一。脑血管内皮糖萼是BBB的第一道防线, 血管细胞黏附分子-1 (vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, VCAM-1) 和细胞间黏附分子-1 (intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1, ICAM-1) 等黏附分子藏在糖萼中, 通常没有机会接触循环的血液成分; 脑缺血后, 糖萼在外周炎症浸润下降解, 活化的VCAM-1和ICAM-1暴露并与白细胞相互作用, 介导白细胞黏附到内皮细胞并迁移到大脑中, 产生更多的炎症因子并激活小胶质细胞产生基质金属蛋白酶9 (matrix metalloproteinases-9, MMP9), 进一步破坏BBB和糖萼, 形成恶性循环加重脑缺血[42]。研究显示, SCFA可经过血液循环进入BBB并改善其结构完整性, 增加紧密连接蛋白的表达, 降低BBB通透性, 缓解脑缺血症状[43]。另外, LPS通过激活TLR4/NF-κB通路启动炎症反应, 破坏脑微血管内皮细胞屏障, 加重缺血性脑卒中。而SCFA一方面可以抑制TLR4的表达, 抑制炎症发生, 减轻炎症对BBB的损伤; 另一方面可以通过增加结肠组织中的黏蛋白含量和产黏液蛋白的杯状细胞数目, 上调结肠紧密连接蛋白的表达, 改善肠屏障功能, 减少LPS进入循环, 保护BBB完整性, 从而改善脑缺血[44]。Chen等[45]研究发现, 川芎和葛根提取物通过改善失衡的肠道菌群、代谢产物及肠道通透性治疗脑缺血、神经炎症及受损的血脑屏障。
中枢神经系统退行性疾病是一类慢性、进行性中枢神经系统不同区域神经元退行性变性甚至缺失而产生疾病的总称, 主要包括帕金森病(Parkinson′s disease, PD)、阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer′s disease, AD) 等。胃肠功能障碍是神经退行性疾病重要的非运动性症状, 研究发现大多数患者胃肠道症状的发作通常先于运动症状和疾病诊断, 这表明微生物组-肠-脑轴在神经退行性疾病的潜在病理机制中发挥作用[46]
黑质多巴胺能神经元内α-突触核蛋白(α-synuclein, α-Syn) 异常折叠和聚集是引发PD的重要因素, 而α-Syn也可在肠道产生, 其在肠道的聚集不仅会导致路易小体病变和肠神经受损, 而且还可通过肠-脑轴逆行传播引起CNS各级神经内路易小体的形成, 加剧PD进程。SCFA可通过激活GPR43抑制肠α-Syn水平和肠-脑轴逆向传播, 进而对BBB及CNS起到保护作用[47]; SCFA还可通过改善肠屏障损伤, 抑制α-Syn在肠道中聚集沉淀, 保护肠神经, 减轻PD的神经炎症[48]。但另有研究表明, 丁酸钠在1-甲基-4-苯基-1, 2, 3, 6-四氢吡啶(1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine, MPTP) 诱导的小鼠PD模型中, 可通过诱导自噬相关蛋白5 (autophagy-related gene 5, Atg5) 介导的自噬和PI3K/AKT/mTOR信号传导提高α-Syn mRNA表达, 加剧神经炎症和结肠炎症而加重PD症状[49]。SCFA还能够上调神经营养因子表达, 减少黑质纹状体通路中多巴胺能神经元的凋亡, 起到神经保护作用[50]; 而且, SCFA中的丙酸可上调酪氨酸羟化酶(tyrosine hydroxylase, TH) 表达, 促进多巴胺前体的生成, 抑制多巴胺能神经元变性, 改善PD[51]。另外, 丁酸可通过GPR109A激活AMPK信号通路, 促进核因子E2相关因子2 (nuclear factor E2-related factor 2, Nrf2) 蛋白积累及组蛋白H3的第9位赖氨酸(lysine 9 of histone H3, H3K9) 和第14位赖氨酸(lysine 14 of histone H3, H3K14) 位点乙酰化, 发挥抗氧化作用, 减轻PD的氧化应激和线粒体功能障碍[52]。微生物靶向疗法包括益生元、益生菌、粪菌移植、小分子药物和生物制剂, 在PD症状管理或疾病改变方面有很大潜力[53]。FLZ是一种新型鳞甲酰胺衍生物, 可以通过介导微生物群-肠-脑轴抑制TLR4/NF-κB信号通路, 减轻鱼藤酮诱导PD小鼠模型的胃肠道功能障碍和运动缺陷[54]
β-淀粉样蛋白(amyloid β protein, Aβ) 和tau蛋白的聚集和沉积是AD的主要特征。而SCFA能够调节AD的关键病理过程, 如丁酸盐可通过抑制HDAC活性, 恢复AD模型小鼠的记忆功能并增加与联想学习有关的基因表达; SCFA还能够干扰Aβ之间的蛋白质-蛋白质相互作用, 破坏它们形成神经毒性的低聚物, 降低Aβ的聚集, 改善AD[55, 56]
肥胖是由能量摄入和能量消耗长期不平衡引起的体内脂肪过度积累, 它是由遗传因素和高脂饮食、运动缺乏等各种环境因素共同作用引发的全球公共卫生问题。肥胖往往与高血糖、高血脂、脂肪肝等糖脂代谢紊乱密切相关, 说明肠道菌群产生的SCFA可以通过调控肠-肝轴治疗肥胖及相关疾病。除此之外, SCFA还可与肠道内分泌L细胞上的GPCRs结合, 产生GLP-1、PYY和瘦素等内分泌激素, 这些肠道激素从肠道发出信号, 经迷走神经传递到孤束核(nucleus of the solitary tract, NTS), 不仅可以抑制促进食欲的神经肽Y (neuropeptide Y, NPY) 和刺鼠相关蛋白(agouti-related protein, AgRP) 神经元活性, 还能激活抑制食欲的阿黑皮素原(proopiomelanocortin, POMC)/可卡因-安非他明调节转录肽(cocaine-amphetamine-regulated transcript, CART) 神经元活性, 从而抑制食欲, 改善肥胖[57]。另有研究发现, SCFA刺激产生的这些肠道激素除通过神经传导通路外, 还可透过BBB直接作用于下丘脑食欲中枢, 增加饱腹感, 从而抑制食欲及食物摄入, 调节能量代谢[58]; 而且GLP-1激素作用于脂肪组织时, 还可以增加胰岛素敏感性, 抑制脂肪组织中的脂肪蓄积。SCFA也可不通过肠道激素, 直接通过激活迷走传入神经, 抑制下丘脑NPY活性, 而且不同种类的SCFA作用强度不同, 丁酸抑制食欲的作用最强, 丙酸次之, 乙酸作用最弱[59]。Frost等[60]还发现, 乙酸穿过BBB到达下丘脑后, 还可诱导谷氨酸-谷氨酰胺跨细胞循环增加乳酸和γ-氨基丁酸(γ-aminobutyric acid, GABA) 的产生, 从而抑制食欲和能量摄入。然而, 也有一些研究发现SCFA可导致肥胖。如SCFA刺激肠L细胞产生的PYY在肠道可以减慢肠道蠕动, 增加食物在肠道的滞留时间, 致使营养物质吸收增加, 导致肥胖[61]。此外, 在不同生理状态下, 不同来源的瘦素对食欲的调节作用也不同, 如在禁食状态下, SCFA刺激肠组织产生的瘦素会减弱传入神经的敏感性, 促进食欲, 而非禁食状态下则会抑制食欲; 但在脂肪组织产生的瘦素则直接到达下丘脑神经元抑制饮食摄入和改善肥胖[62]。以上研究结果说明, SCFA既能通过胃肠激素增加饱腹感, 抑制食欲, 也可促进能量消耗, 减少脂肪蓄积; 但同时又可增加能量吸收, 具有促进脂质生成和诱发肥胖的作用, 这可能与机体的生理状况及SCFA的使用浓度及给药方式存在一定关联。因此, SCFA通过肠-脑轴调控肥胖的作用还需要进行更大规模的实验进行验证。小檗碱是中药黄连的主要药理成分, 一直以来它主要用于肠道细菌相关性腹泻, 最近发现小檗碱在治疗糖尿病和肥胖方面具有较好的临床效果。小檗碱可以通过调节肠道微生物群, 使拟杆菌门/厚壁菌门比升高, 有效恢复肥胖患者肠道SCFA含量, 增加血浆GLP-1和PYY水平及下丘脑GLP-1受体基因的表达, 改善胰岛素抵抗, 调控肥胖[63]
除肠-肝轴和肠-脑轴的调控外, SCFA在炎症反应及免疫调节方面的作用也可以改善肥胖。肥胖不仅改变肠道菌群的组成和结构, 还常常伴随着肠道通透性的增加, 促进肠道LPS移位至血液循环, 导致慢性低度炎症反应的发生。而SCFA通过上调紧密连接蛋白表达和增加跨膜电阻来增强屏障完整性, 减少进入循环的LPS, 抑制IL-6和IL-12 p40等炎症因子的表达; SCFA还可通过抑制HDAC活性参与调控T细胞分化和巨噬细胞极化, 增加M2细胞数量, 减少M1细胞数量, 抑制T细胞向Th1、Th17细胞分化, 促进T细胞向Th2和Treg细胞分化, 增加肠道的免疫耐受, 抑制IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α等炎症因子产生, 减少炎症反应和氧化应激, 进而改善肥胖[64]。同时, 这些免疫细胞因子还可透过BBB进入脑内, 影响中枢神经系统功能, 改变调控多个中枢包括食欲中枢的作用, 进而影响能量摄入和消耗, 但是目前研究有限, 有待深入研究。
肠道和肾脏也具有双向协同关系, 这种双向交流即“肠-肾轴”。肠道菌群失调, 肠屏障的损伤, 促进肠内代谢废物和致病菌进入血液循环, 增加胰岛素抵抗、肥胖症、代谢综合征等, 可损伤肾功能; 而肾功能的损伤又导致循环代谢废物过度蓄积, 通过受损肠壁进入肠腔, 进一步加重肠内菌群紊乱, 形成恶性循环[65]。近年来很多研究表明, 肠道菌群产生的SCFA能通过调节炎症和免疫反应、氧化应激、自噬等作用改善肾损伤。
糖尿病肾病(diabetic nephropathy, DN) 是糖尿病的主要并发症之一, 也是导致终末期肾病的主要原因。氧化应激、糖代谢紊乱、持续性高血糖状态引起的各种炎症细胞因子的过表达及血流动力学变化在DN的发病机制中起重要作用。这些因素导致肾小球硬化、肾小管萎缩和纤维化, 最终导致不可逆的肾损伤。
基于SCFA对糖脂代谢紊乱、肥胖及糖尿病的改善作用, 表明SCFA对缓解DN潜在的有益作用[66]。而且, DN患者机体还常处于氧化应激状态, 活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 产生过多, 超过机体的清除能力, 损伤肾小球上皮细胞, 引起蛋白尿和肾小球血流动力学改变, 加剧DN进展[67]。研究表明, SCFA尤其是丁酸通过抑制HDAC活性, 提高Nrf2及其下游调节氧化还原酶基因的转录, 增加谷胱甘肽还原酶、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶等抗氧化酶活性[68]; 也可以剂量和时间依赖性方式抑制中性粒细胞中的ROS和活性氮(reactive nitrogen species, RNS) 的产生, 改善氧化应激, 有效缓解DN症状[69]。持续的炎症状态也是DN的主要特征, SCFA能与GPR43结合, 抑制高糖诱导肾小球系膜细胞中NF-κB信号通路, 抑制炎症因子释放, 有效改善肾功能[70]。另外, 组蛋白丁酰化也能通过改变染色质的松散或缩合状态来调节IL-6、转化生长因子-β (transforming growth factor beta, TGF-β) 等炎症和纤维化相关基因的转录活性, 参与DN的发病机制。研究表明, 丁酸盐可以通过作用于组蛋白修饰酶p300调控组蛋白赖氨酸丁酰化, 抑制炎症和纤维化基因表达改善DN[71]。另有研究表明, 丁酸钠还可通过调控AMPK/mTOR信号通路激活自噬而延缓DN进程[72]。牡丹皮多糖(Moutan Cortex polysaccharide, MC-Pa) 是中药牡丹皮的主要活性成分, 具有抗氧化、抗炎、抗肿瘤等作用。Zhang等[73]发表的最新研究, 发现MC-Pa可调节肠道菌群组成, 增加SCFA并减少支链脂肪酸水平, 改善DN大鼠的肠道屏障功能, 缓解肠道及全身炎症, 从而以剂量依赖性方式改善DN。
肾结石是一种常见的泌尿系统疾病, 发病率和复发率都很高。草酸钙是肾结石中最常见的成分, 草酸钙结石是最常见的肾结石类型[74]。肠道草酸钙转运蛋白溶质载体26A3 (solute carrier family 26 member 3, SLC26A3) 和SLC26A6是调节机体草酸钙吸收和排泄的重要蛋白, 研究发现, 乙二醇诱导的草酸钙结石大鼠口服给予SCFA后可明显增加盲肠SCFA水平, 并选择性作用于SCL26A6降低尿草酸盐水平和肾脏草酸钙结晶[75]。SCFA还可以通过调节免疫和炎症降低肾结石。Jin等[76]采用乙醛酸诱导小鼠肾草酸钙结石, 发现SCFA可通过作用于肾脏免疫细胞上的GPR43, 显著性增加肾脏中CX3CR1+CD24+巨噬细胞数量, 降低中性粒细胞中趋化因子受体2 (chemokine receptor 2, CXCR2) 的表达, 从而促进抗炎的M2巨噬细胞极化, 降低GR1+中性粒细胞浸润, 降低炎症因子IL-6、TNF-α和IL-1β水平, 调节肾脏组织炎症反应, 减轻肾脏结石。
SCFA除了可以缓解糖尿病肾病和肾结石引起的肾脏损伤外, 还可以改善其他原因引起的急慢性肾损伤。如丁酸盐通过抑制肾素受体、血管紧张素原和血管紧张素转化酶1基因的表达, 作用于肾素-血管紧张素系统缓解高血压引起的肾损伤[77]; SCFA还可通过阻止TGF-β1信号通路、减少ERK的磷酸化来实现抗肾纤维化[78]; 而且, SCFA尤其是丁酸盐通过抑制肾小管细胞凋亡和炎症反应, 显著增强肾脏结构和功能, 降低血清肌酐水平, 改善肾缺血再灌注损伤[79]
尽管呼吸道和胃肠道有着不同的环境和功能, 但哮喘等慢性肺病在患有肠易激综合征或炎症性肠病等肠道疾病的患者中更为常见, 提示肠道和肺之间存在互作关系。健康的肠道菌群会产生能够抑制肠道乃至全身炎症反应的化学信号, 影响免疫细胞的招募和活力, 降低肺部疾病引发的炎症反应, 而菌群紊乱则可能导致其衍生的信号改变, 如肠屏障损伤引起的LPS移位至肺, 促进肺部炎症。SCFA作为肠道菌群产生的重要信使分子, 对肺部疾病的改善起到一定作用。
支气管哮喘是一种儿童和成人常见的气道慢性炎症性疾病, 其特点是气道炎症和气道高反应性, 是免疫、遗传、环境、感染相互作用的结果[80]。多种免疫细胞的驱动在哮喘的发病中起着重要的作用, 如淋巴细胞Th2活化和Treg细胞减少, 释放炎症因子, 作用于肥大细胞、嗜酸性粒细胞、嗜碱性粒细胞等过敏性免疫应答的效应细胞, 导致炎症启动和支气管高反应性。近期研究发现, 哮喘的气道炎症与肠道菌群密切相关。与健康个体相比, 支气管哮喘患者的肠道菌群多样性和代谢产物SCFA含量显著降低, 而经SCFA治疗后可明显改善损伤的气道上皮屏障和支气管炎症[81]。一方面, SCFA通过激活GPR43/41/109A显著调节肺部巨噬细胞、树突细胞和T淋巴细胞功能, 抑制炎症因子IL-2释放, 上调抗炎因子IL-4/IL-10水平, 从而改善支气管屏障, 调节炎症; 另一方面, SCFA通过抑制HDAC在各种过敏性效应细胞中发挥抗炎作用。比如丁酸通过抑制HDAC9活性, 提高叉状头转录因子-3 (fork head box protein 3, Foxp3) 基因的转录水平, 促进Treg细胞增殖和免疫抑制功能, 维持机体免疫平衡[82]; 丙酸和丁酸通过HDAC抑制嗜酸性粒细胞中凋亡关键调节蛋白Bcl-2家族(BCL-XL和MCL-1) 的表达, 调控其存活和迁移, 而且还可抑制嗜碱性粒细胞存活和IL-4的产生[83], 但同时又增强嗜碱性粒细胞脱颗粒和IL-13表达, 提示SCFA介导嗜碱性粒细胞活性的复杂性[84]。另外, MAPK/ERK信号通路也是介导多种生长因子和炎症介质、参与调控支气管平滑肌细胞增殖等哮喘发病过程中气道重塑和气道炎症的重要通路, 而Kim等[85]发现SCFA可激活MAPK和ERK1/2介导的信号通路, 缓解气道炎症。有研究发现, 可溶性膳食纤维菊粉能有效缓解哮喘小鼠的肺部过敏性炎症反应, 并改善气道高反应性, 其机制与菊粉调节肠道菌群及其代谢产物SCFA相关; 另外, 临床研究也显示, 哮喘患者通过服用菊粉明显改善呼吸道炎症, 而且连续服用1周后, 能明显调节肠道菌群和肠屏障, 抑制痰液中的嗜酸性粒细胞和HDAC9基因表达, 从而改善哮喘[86]
肺炎一般是指由细菌、病毒、理化因素或免疫损伤等导致终末气道、肺泡和肺间质等肺部组织引起的炎症。目前, 临床上最常见的主要是细菌性肺炎和病毒性肺炎。其中细菌性肺炎仍然是全世界死亡和住院的主要原因, 尤其是在儿童和老年人中。肺炎克雷伯菌是一种严重的耐多药病原体, 具有高发病率和高死亡率, 早期和积极的抗生素治疗确实对其感染发挥了很大的控制作用, 但广谱抗生素破坏肠道菌群, 有时会恶化肺炎克雷伯菌诱导的肺损伤, 降低存活率, 而粪菌移植或益生菌可有效缓解肺损伤, 提高存活率, 其中肠道菌产生的SCFA在其中起了一定作用。Wu等[87]研究发现, SCFA通过上调晚期内体/溶酶体适配蛋白2 (late endosomal/lysosomal adaptor 2, LAMTOR2) 激活MAPK中ERK信号, 促进机体一氧化氮合酶通路合成大量的一氧化氮(nitrogen monoxide, NO) 和过氧化氢(hydrogen peroxide, H2O2), 杀伤入侵的细菌, 并且增加巨噬细胞对肺炎克雷伯菌的内化及清除能力。SCFA除对肺炎克雷伯菌引起的肺炎有效外, 还可通过抑制NF-κB/NLRP3通路, 可以促进小鼠从肺炎链球菌肺炎中恢复[88]
新型冠状病毒引发的肺炎是当今世界最为关注的一类病毒性肺炎, 该病不仅影响肺, 还常伴有食欲不振、恶心和呕吐等胃肠道症状, 而且实验数据表明, 血管紧张素转化酶2 (angiotensin converting enzyme 2, ACE2) 作为新冠病毒刺突蛋白的结合位点, 在人类肠道上皮细胞中也有表达, 病毒与其结合可导致肠道重要膳食成分的运输减少, 肠道微生态紊乱, 肠屏障通透性增加, 促使炎症发生[89]。通过粪便代谢物检测发现, 肠道SCFA的消耗与新冠感染严重程度相关, 突出了SCFA在新冠肺炎发病和发展中的重要性, 为新冠肺炎的治疗提供了新思路[90]。经进一步深入研究发现, SCFA尤其是丁酸还可通过下调新冠病毒感染所必需的基因ACE2和上调肠道上皮细胞Toll样受体抗病毒途径来保护宿主免受病毒感染[91]; 另外, SCFA良好的抗炎免疫作用也是其缓解新冠肺炎的重要原因之一。目前, 鉴于饮食干预、益生元、益生菌、粪菌移植等对肠道菌群产短链脂肪酸的有益调节作用, 均可作为新冠肺炎的潜在临床治疗手段[92]
综上所述, SCFA能通过调节代谢、内分泌、免疫炎症等作用对肠-肝轴、肠-脑轴、肠-肾轴和肠-肺轴紊乱引起的各种疾病产生影响(图 1)。由于肠道及肠道微生物与不同脏器之间的相互作用各有特点, 所以SCFA对不同的肠-器官轴的影响也存在较大差异, 但是免疫炎症反应作为各种疾病发生发展中的关键或并发因素, SCFA可通过直接作用于组织细胞或通过改善肠道免疫及肠屏障功能降低LPS水平间接作用于组织细胞调控免疫炎症反应, 对相关疾病的治疗和预后起了重要作用。虽然过去十几年的研究已经逐步证实了SCFA对宿主生理、病理的重要调控作用, 但是它对于调控疾病的机制研究仍然处于初级阶段, 目前的研究大多支持SCFA是通过调节各组织细胞上的GPCRs或HDAC启动下游众多信号级联反应, 从而发挥广泛的生理学作用。但在分子水平上, 现在还不是特别明确SCFA是如何调节这些蛋白的表达及酶的活性, 或许是通过改变蛋白的空间结构, 暴露或隐藏其活性部位, 也或者是通过调节这些基因的转录启动作用, 亦或改变受体或酶的泛素化降解过程, 这些猜想还有待更多的科研工作者进行更深入的研究和探讨; 而且通过文献研究发现, 对于同一条信号通路, 在不同的疾病状态下或在不同组织细胞中, SCFA对其调节作用可能相反, 那么为什么会出现这样的情况, 通过结合文献及本课题组对SCFA相关研究的认知, 初步认为SCFA在各组织部位的浓度差异可能是造成不同调节作用的原因之一, 并且不同细胞对SCFA反应性的差异也可能是其影响因素。总之, 研究者未来还需要综合体外细胞、分子学实验、动物实验及临床试验对其细胞受体和宿主上潜在的信号通路进行全面描述, 进一步验证SCFA治疗机体疾病作用和分子机制。
作者贡献: 郭慧慧和申浩然负责相关文献的收集、综述的撰写和文章作图; 韩燕星对综述内容给予了指导和修改; 蒋建东是综述框架的负责人, 指导论文写作并对综述进行最终审核。全体作者都阅读并同意最终的文本。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。
  • 国家重点研发计划项目(2019YFC1708900)
  • 中央高校基本科研业务经费项目(3332021042)
  • 北京市科技新星计划项目(Z201100006820052)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82104254)
  • 中国医学科学院创新工程重大项目(2021-I2M-1-007)
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2023年第58卷第3期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1134
  • 接收时间:2022-10-28
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-03-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-10-28
  • 修回日期:2022-11-18
基金
国家重点研发计划项目(2019YFC1708900)
中央高校基本科研业务经费项目(3332021042)
北京市科技新星计划项目(Z201100006820052)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(82104254)
中国医学科学院创新工程重大项目(2021-I2M-1-007)
作者信息
    1.中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 天然药物活性物质与功能国家重点实验室, 北京 100050
    2.中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 北京 100050

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*蒋建东, Tel: 86-10-63017906, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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