Article(id=1198624397218115604, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1063, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1663516800000, receivedDateStr=2022-09-19, revisedDate=1665763200000, revisedDateStr=2022-10-15, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763703925661, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1678550400000, pubDateStr=2023-03-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763703925661, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763703925661, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763703925661, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198624396437975057, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='3', pageStart='1', pageEnd='804', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763703925474, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763704091914, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198625094596657875, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198625094596657876, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=616, endPage=628, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198624397482356757, articleId=1198624397218115604, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Advances in the research of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 inhibitors, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

From the process of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) invading cells, the combination of gp120 and CD4 is the first step for HIV-1 to invade cells. Interfering with this process can prevent HIV from recognizing target cells and inhibit virus replication. Therefore, HIV-1 gp120 is an important part of the HIV-1 life cycle. Fostesavir, a phosphatate prodrug derived from the gp120 inhibitor BMS-626529 modified by the prodrug strategy, was approved for the treatment of adult patients with multidrug resistant HIV-1 infection by the US FDA and the European Medicines Agency in 2020 and 2021, respectively. In this review, we focus on the research progress of small molecule inhibitors targeting the interaction of gp120-CD4 from the perspective of medicinal chemistry, in order to provide reference for the subsequent research of gp120 inhibitors.

, correspAuthors=Peng ZHAN, Xin-yong LIU, Dong-wei KANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Ming-hui XIE, Zhao WANG, Yan-ying SUN, Xiang-yi JIANG, Peng ZHAN, Xin-yong LIU, Dong-wei KANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198624401135595663, articleId=1198624397218115604, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=HIV-1包膜糖蛋白gp120小分子抑制剂的研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

人类免疫缺陷病毒1型(human immunodeficiency virus-1, HIV-1) 包膜糖蛋白gp120与CD4的结合是病毒侵入细胞的第一步, 干扰此过程就能阻止病毒识别靶细胞而抑制其复制, 因此HIV-1 gp120作为HIV-1生命周期中的重要靶标, 针对该靶标的药物已成为当前抗艾滋病药物研发的热点。其中, gp120小分子抑制剂BMS-626529经前药策略修饰后得到的磷酸酯前药福替沙韦(fostesavir) 已分别于2020年和2021年被美国和欧洲批准上市用于治疗具有多重耐药性HIV-1感染的成年患者。该篇综述从药物化学的角度重点描述了靶向gp120-CD4相互作用环节的各种结构类型小分子抑制剂的研究进展, 以期为gp120抑制剂的研究提供启发。

, correspAuthors=展鹏, 刘新泳, 康东伟, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*展鹏, E-mail: ;
刘新泳, E-mail: ;
康东伟, E-mail:
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HIV-1包膜糖蛋白gp120小分子抑制剂的研究进展
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谢明卉 , 汪昭 , 孙彦莹 , 姜向毅 , 展鹏 * , 刘新泳 * , 康东伟 *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(3): 616-628
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药学学报 | 综述 2023, 58(3): 616-628
HIV-1包膜糖蛋白gp120小分子抑制剂的研究进展
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谢明卉, 汪昭, 孙彦莹, 姜向毅, 展鹏* , 刘新泳* , 康东伟*
作者信息
  • 山东大学药学院药物化学研究所, 化学生物学教育部重点实验室, 山东 济南 250012

通讯作者:

*展鹏, E-mail: ;
刘新泳, E-mail: ;
康东伟, E-mail:
Advances in the research of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 inhibitors
Ming-hui XIE, Zhao WANG, Yan-ying SUN, Xiang-yi JIANG, Peng ZHAN* , Xin-yong LIU* , Dong-wei KANG*
Affiliations
  • Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, School of Pharmaceutical, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
出版时间: 2023-03-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1063
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人类免疫缺陷病毒1型(human immunodeficiency virus-1, HIV-1) 包膜糖蛋白gp120与CD4的结合是病毒侵入细胞的第一步, 干扰此过程就能阻止病毒识别靶细胞而抑制其复制, 因此HIV-1 gp120作为HIV-1生命周期中的重要靶标, 针对该靶标的药物已成为当前抗艾滋病药物研发的热点。其中, gp120小分子抑制剂BMS-626529经前药策略修饰后得到的磷酸酯前药福替沙韦(fostesavir) 已分别于2020年和2021年被美国和欧洲批准上市用于治疗具有多重耐药性HIV-1感染的成年患者。该篇综述从药物化学的角度重点描述了靶向gp120-CD4相互作用环节的各种结构类型小分子抑制剂的研究进展, 以期为gp120抑制剂的研究提供启发。

人类免疫缺陷病毒1型  /  侵入抑制剂  /  gp120  /  BMS-626529  /  NBD-14270

From the process of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) invading cells, the combination of gp120 and CD4 is the first step for HIV-1 to invade cells. Interfering with this process can prevent HIV from recognizing target cells and inhibit virus replication. Therefore, HIV-1 gp120 is an important part of the HIV-1 life cycle. Fostesavir, a phosphatate prodrug derived from the gp120 inhibitor BMS-626529 modified by the prodrug strategy, was approved for the treatment of adult patients with multidrug resistant HIV-1 infection by the US FDA and the European Medicines Agency in 2020 and 2021, respectively. In this review, we focus on the research progress of small molecule inhibitors targeting the interaction of gp120-CD4 from the perspective of medicinal chemistry, in order to provide reference for the subsequent research of gp120 inhibitors.

human immunodeficiency virus-1  /  entry inhibitor  /  gp120  /  BMS-626529  /  NBD-14270
谢明卉, 汪昭, 孙彦莹, 姜向毅, 展鹏, 刘新泳, 康东伟. HIV-1包膜糖蛋白gp120小分子抑制剂的研究进展. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (3) : 616 -628 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1063
Ming-hui XIE, Zhao WANG, Yan-ying SUN, Xiang-yi JIANG, Peng ZHAN, Xin-yong LIU, Dong-wei KANG. Advances in the research of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 inhibitors[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (3) : 616 -628 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1063
艾滋病(acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, AIDS), 即获得性免疫缺陷综合征, 是一种主要由人类免疫缺陷病毒1型(human immunodeficiency virus-1, HIV-1) 感染引起的严重危害人类健康的慢性传染性疾病。截至2021年, 全球约有3 840万艾滋患者, 且当年新增感染病例约150万, 艾滋病防治仍是全球公共卫生的主要挑战之一[1, 2]。目前, 临床上治疗艾滋病常采用两种核苷类逆转录酶抑制剂(nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, NRTI) 与一种非核苷类逆转录酶抑制剂(non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, NNRTI) 或一种蛋白酶抑制剂(protease inhibitor, PI) 结合的联合抗逆转录病毒疗法(combinational antiretroviral therapy, cART)[3-6]。该疗法可显著改善艾滋病患者的生存现状, 降低艾滋病患者的死亡率。但由于艾滋病毒具有高基因重组率和高突变率, 使得其对现有药物迅速产生了不同程度的耐药性, 严重降低了它们的临床疗效[7]。因此, 研发具有新作用机制的抗艾滋病药物对解决当前药物的耐药性问题具有重要意义。
HIV-1在宿主细胞内的复制周期主要包括吸附与融合、逆转录、整合、转录与翻译、组装、出芽及成熟等过程。理论上, 阻断病毒复制周期的任何一个环节, 都可以中断病毒在体内的复制。其中, HIV-1侵入到宿主细胞是其在体内复制的第一步, 而gp120与CD4的结合是HIV-1完成侵入过程的先决条件, 干扰此过程理论上能阻止所有类型的HIV-1识别宿主细胞而阻断病毒复制。因此, 作用在侵入环节的抑制剂在提高药物的抗耐药性和临床用药可选择性方面有显著的优势, 已成为当前抗艾滋病药物研究的热点领域。
HIV-1通过包膜糖蛋白(envelop glycoprotein, Env) 介导的病毒-细胞膜融合实现对宿主细胞的感染。病毒env基因编码的蛋白在细胞内转运过程中经蛋白酶水解为表面糖蛋白gp120和gp41。在HIV-1侵入阶段(图 1A), gp120首先特异性识别并结合宿主T细胞表面的CD4受体, 经蛋白质变构之后构象改变, 协同受体结合位点暴露, 进而与宿主细胞膜上的协同受体CCR5或CXCR4相互作用, 诱导gp41的构象变化, 介导病毒与宿主细胞的膜融合, 使得病毒核心物质释放进入宿主细胞[8-11]。随着结构生物学的发展及病毒侵入机制研究的深入, 针对此环节的抑制剂的研发已取得长足进展。迄今为止, 多种小分子[12-14]和肽类[15, 16]侵入抑制剂被发现, 主要分为干扰gp120-CD4相互作用的吸附抑制剂、辅助受体拮抗剂、靶向gp41的膜融合抑制剂三大类。在此, 主要针对靶向gp120-CD4相互作用环节抑制剂的研究进展进行了综述。
gp120单体包含5个保守结构域(C1~C5) 和5个可变结构域(V1~V5), 它们形成3个关键的结构区域(图 1B), 即内部结构域(inner domain)、外部结构域(outer domain) 和桥接片段(bridging sheet)[17, 18]。其中, 内部区域含有大量保守片段, 对于病毒侵入宿主细胞有着至关重要的作用; 外部结构域上的部分氨基酸残基组成CD4受体结合空腔, 与CD4上Phe43结合的位点位于该空腔的中央, 即“Phe43结合口袋” (图 1C); 桥接片段含有4个反向平行的β折叠, 有助于gp120与CD4以及辅助受体的结合。目前, 基于对gp120和CD4结构功能及相互作用机制的研究, 通过阻断或变构干扰gp120上CD4的结合位点发现了多类可有效抑制gp120-CD4相互作用的小分子化合物。
美国百时美施贵宝公司(BMS) 通过细胞水平的高通量筛选实验得到氮杂吲哚酰基哌嗪类的苗头化合物1[19] (图 2), 其对HIV-1表现出强有效的抑制活性, 其EC50为4 nmol·L-1。结构生物学研究表明, 氮杂吲哚酰基哌嗪类化合物结合于gp120内外域的界面, 位于外部域β20-β21环状结构下的诱导型口袋, 靠近与内部域α-1螺旋的C末端。该类抑制剂可以稳定闭合的Env三聚体状态, 使其构象重排受阻, 阻断与CD4的结合进而阻断病毒入侵过程[20]。以化合物1为先导, 研究人员对其进行了全面的结构修饰, 发现了多个具有高效抑制活性的小分子化合物。
根据化合物1与HIV-1 gp120的共晶结构(图 3A): 其结构中乙酰胺羰基和氮杂吲哚环N原子分别与Trp427和Asp113形成了关键的氢键相互作用, 对保持化合物的活性至关重要。因此, 为进一步提高小分子化合物的活性, Meanwell等[21]在保持关键氢键作用的前提下, 对吲哚环中苯环结构进行了大量的结构修饰, 分别将卤素、烷基和烷氧基取代基引入芳环的各个位置, 探讨吲哚环不同位置的构效关系。其中单取代衍生物的构效关系研究结果表明, 在化合物1的C-4或C-7位引入这些小体积取代基时可提高抗病毒活性, 如化合物2 (EC50 = 2.59 nmol·L-1) 和化合物3 (EC50 = 6.6 nmol·L-1); 而在C-5或C-6位取代时活性明显降低, 如化合物4 (EC50 = 838.3 nmol·L-1) 和化合物5 (EC50 = 21.1 nmol·L-1)。多取代衍生物的构效关系研究表明, C-4和C-7位双取代会显著提高化合物抗病毒活性(6, EC50 = 0.23 nmol·L-1)。药代动力学研究表明, 化合物1具有较高的体内清除速率(CL = 57 mL·min-1·kg-1) 和较低的口服生物利用度(F = 29%), 而优化之后的化合物6在大鼠中表现出优异的药代动力学特性, 清除率显著降低, 生物利用度大幅度提高(CL = 5.2 mL·min-1·kg-1, F = 107%)。通过人肝微粒体(human liver microsomes, HLM) 代谢研究表明, 化合物6的甲氧基可在体内氧化代谢为对苯醌结构, 而醌类作为化学反应性亲电试剂, 可与蛋白质和核苷酸形成与多种毒副作用相关的共价复合物[21], 因此终止了对化合物6的进一步开发。
为进一步改善该类化合物的成药性质, Wang等[22]利用生物电子等排策略用吡啶环等排替换吲哚的苯环结构, 设计得到四类氮杂吲哚衍生物。其中, 4-氮杂吲哚衍生物7及7-氮杂吲哚衍生物10的抗HIV-1活性显著提高, EC50值分别为1.6和1.7 nmol·L-1。然而, 当氮原子位于伸向蛋白-溶剂区的C-5和C-6位置时, 化合物的抗病毒效力显著降低, 如6-氮杂衍生物9 (EC50 = 21.6 nmol·L-1) 与5-氮杂衍生物8 (EC50 = 575.9 nmol·L-1)。这四种衍生物在人肝微粒体中的半衰期为38.5~100 min之间, 与吲哚类化合物1 (T1/2 = 30 min) 相比, 代谢稳定性均有所提高。以7-氮杂吲哚衍生物10为先导, 在吡啶环上引入优势的甲氧基结构得到首个进入临床研究的HIV-1 gp120抑制剂11 (BMS-378806, EC50 = 1.47 nmol·L-1)。遗憾的是, 在动物体内11未能达到理想的血浆药物暴露浓度, 因此终止了对该化合物的进一步研究。基于前期的构效关系研究对6-氮杂吲哚化合物的C-4和C-7位同时修饰得到抗病毒活性显著提高的化合物12 (BMS-488047, EC50 = 0.88 nmol·L-1), 且其具有较好的代谢稳定性(T1/2 > 100 min), 然而在小鼠体内实验中, 化合物12的口服生物利用度不佳(F = 55%), 药代动力学性质未达到预期标准, 因而没有进一步开发该化合物。
由化合物1与HIV-1 gp120的共晶结构可知, 化合物结构中吲哚环的C-7位伸向gp120蛋白-溶剂界面(图 3B), 并且在蛋白-溶剂界面处只有氮杂吲哚环N原子和Asp113形成了氢键相互作用。因此, 研究人员对吲哚环C-7位进行了多样性的结构修饰, 寻求与蛋白-溶剂界面处的氨基酸残基形成新的相互作用, 以提高化合物的活性[23, 24]
Meanwell等[20, 25]以化合物2为先导对4-氟或4-甲氧基取代的吲哚环C-7位进行修饰, 引入羧酰胺类取代基得到化合物13~15 (图 4), 其中单甲氨基化合物14 (EC50 = 0.52 nmol·L-1) 具有最优的抗病毒活性。此外, 在吲哚环的C-7位还引入了吡啶、四唑、噻二唑、异噁唑、噻唑、苯并噻唑和苯并咪唑等杂环, 其中化合物19的活性尤为突出, EC50达到0.05 nmol·L-1。该课题组进而以19为先导, 在其噁二唑基团上连接了多种类型的小体积取代基, 其中氨基取代的化合物20的抗病毒活性较19提高了6倍, EC50值为0.008 2 nmol·L-1, 但该化合物细胞毒性大(CC50 = 43 μmol·L-1), 在人肝微粒体中的半衰期短(T1/2 = 17 min), 因此终止对其进一步研究。基于生物电子等排体策略对化合物20的噁二唑环分别进行1, 2, 4-三唑结构和1, 2, 3-三唑结构的替换得到同样具有高效体外抗病毒活性的化合物21 (EC50 = 0.07 nmol·L-1) 及22 (BMS-585248, EC50 = 0.05 nmol·L-1), 特别是22在人类和大鼠肝微粒体稳定性实验中表现出较好的稳定性, 但是在临床研究中因其暴露量不足而终止临床研究[20, 24]。随后对甲氧基-6-氮杂吲哚化合物进行优化得到了几类含三氮唑化合物, 其中1, 2, 3-三氮唑衍生物23和1, 2, 4-三氮唑衍生物24的活性较为突出。通过对1, 2, 4-三氮唑环进行修饰得到的3-甲基-1, 2, 4-三氮唑衍生物25 (BMS-626529, temsavir), 该化合物对所有测试的毒株都具有强效的抑制作用[26]。然而化合物25存在水溶性差的缺点(pH = 2~9, Sol. ≈ 20 μg·mL-1), 采用前药策略得到其磷酸酯前药fostemsavir后水溶性显著提高(pH = 1.5~8.2, Sol. > 11 mg·mL-1)。在大鼠、犬和猴子体内均表现出良好的药代动力学性质, 口服生物利用度高达80%~122%[20], 并在2020年被FDA批准上市。
2019年, Lai等[27]对temsavir衍生物化合物库筛选发现了化合物27 (BMS-818251, EC50 = 0.02 nmol·L-1), 其在208种临床HIV-1病毒株组成的假型病毒组测试研究中表现出了比temsavir高10倍以上的体外抗病毒能力。共晶结果表明(图 3C) 化合物27结构中延长的C-7侧链能够与口袋中的Arg429、Gln432和Asp113产生多重网状氢键相互作用, 这也是其具备更高效抗耐药性的结构基础。Wang等[28]尝试使用萘环和喹啉环对BMS类化合物的吲哚环结构进行等排替换, 得到了一系列高效低毒的化合物。其中, C-7位被2-噻唑取代的化合物28具有最优的抗病毒活性, EC50达到了0.03 nmol·L-1, 具有进一步开发的潜力。
为探讨该类化合物结构中哌嗪环对活性的影响, Wang等[29]在哌嗪环上引入多样性的烷基基团(图 5)。活性结果表明哌嗪环是保持抗病毒活性的关键药效团结构。在哌嗪环的C-1位引入甲基之后(30, EC50 = 0.56 nmol·L-1) 活性略有提高; 与引入消旋的甲基相比, 在C-1位引入(R)-甲基异构体能够更有效地提高抗病毒活性(31, EC50 < 0.16 nmol·L-1); 而当甲基被替换为其他取代基时(32, EC50 = 7.10 nmol·L-1), 其抗病毒活性显著下降。
Meanwell等[30]对苯甲酰胺部分进行结构修饰探讨对化合物活性的影响。当苯甲酰胺的苯环被替换为五元或六元(芳) 杂环时, 如吡啶、呋喃、噻吩、异噁唑、吡唑、咪唑和噻唑等, 大多数化合物表现出高效的抗病毒活性。其中2-和3-噻吩基衍生物3334的抗病毒活性最佳, EC50值分别为0.7和0.4 nmol·L-1。而在苯环上引入卤素、烷基及烷氧基等取代基则会使化合物的抗病毒活性显著下降。
共晶结果显示酮酰胺基团可以与靶蛋白中的Trp427形成氢键作用力(图 3A), Lu等[31]依据生物电子等排原理将酮酰胺基团替换成磺酰胺基团, 拟通过增强与Trp427之间的氢键作用提高化合物的活性。活性结果表明化合物35的活性最佳, 在M33假型病毒吸附实验中的IC50值为7 nmol·L-1
氮杂吲哚酰基哌嗪类化合物构效关系如图 6所示: 哌嗪环中引入甲基等较小取代基时化合物的活性保持或略有增强, 而引入较大取代基时, 其抑制活性显著降低; 苯甲酰胺基团是一个关键药效团, 可容纳小体积取代基的修饰, 具有有限的化学空间, 将苯甲酰胺中的苯环替换为取代苯环或者其他五元、六元杂环得到的化合物中, 2-和3-噻吩同类物表现出最佳效能, 而当在芳环中引入较大取代基时, 活性显著降低; 依据生物电子等排原理, α-羰基酰胺替换为砜基等电子等排体表现出相当或下降的活性水平; 吲哚环上具有较大的修饰空间, 对氮杂吲哚环C-4、C-7位进行取代时抗病毒活性显著提高, C-5、C-6位取代则活性降低; Wang等[28]针对吲哚环C-7位进行了更多更细致的讨论。其中大多数化合物都表现出良好的抗病毒活性, 尤其是小分子BMS-626529表现出更强的抗病毒活性, 同时具有广谱抗病毒性质, 对除A、E亚型外的所有亚型都有抑制活性, 目前其前药fostemsavir已经成功上市。
2005年, Zhao等[32]通过高通量筛选发现了草酰胺类的小分子化合物NBD-556 (IC50 = 6.9 μmol·L-1, SI = 8.7), 通过与HIV-1的包膜糖蛋白直接作用而抑制gp120-CD4相互作用。NBD-556和NBD-557均属于CD4小分子模拟物(small-molecule CD4 mimics, SMCMs), 其通过与gp120中的“Phe43口袋”结合, 诱导gp120构象发生改变从而无法与CD4受体结合。该类化合物的结构由3部分组成(图 7): 区域Ⅰ为卤代苯环, 可伸入HIV-1 gp120外结构域上的“Phe43口袋”, 是该类化合物发挥作用的重要药效团; 区域Ⅱ为草酰胺连接基团; 区域Ⅲ是与gp120蛋白界面残基形成广泛相互作用的脂肪环或芳香环[33-35]
然而, 研究表明NBD-556及其类似物的明显缺点是其在阻止CD4结合的同时, 却扮演了CD4受体激动剂的角色, 即能够诱导gp120生成协同受体CCR5的结合位点, 反而促进病毒侵入宿主细胞。因此, 为了获得有效的gp120侵入抑制剂同时避免CD4受体激动活性, 研究者对NBD-556进行了广泛的结构修饰[36]
NBD-556与gp120的共晶结构(图 8A) 显示, 草酰胺基团可以与Asn 425、Gly473形成氢键相互作用, 而四甲基哌啶环与空腔中的残基均未形成明显的相互作用, 而是伸出暴露在口袋外面, 因此推测四甲基哌啶部分可以被其他基团取代, 以期能与蛋白周围的氨基酸残基形成额外的相互作用提高结合亲和力[37-39]。Curreli等[36]通过对四甲基哌啶环进行修饰, 得到了一系列活性明显提高的含哌啶和噻唑环的衍生物。然而, 这些化合物几乎都保留了与NBD-556相似的激动剂特性, 如图 9所示, 只有小分子NBD-09027含有部分拮抗剂特性(IC50 = 2.2 μmol·L-1, CC50 = 24 μmol·L-1, SI = 11)。随后以NBD-09027为先导, 基于构象限制策略将柔性的草酰胺基团替换为刚性的吡咯环结构。实验结果表明, 草酰胺基团的修饰对增强NBD系列侵入抑制剂的抗病毒活性至关重要, 并成功地将CD4激动剂转化为完全的拮抗剂NBD-11021 (IC50 = 0.27 μmol·L-1, CC50 = 34 μmol·L-1, SI = 126)。
gp120与NBD-11021的复合物晶体结构(图 8B) 显示, 吡咯环和吡啶环的氮原子可以分别与Asn425和Asp 368形成氢键作用力, 而先导化合物并无与Asp 368的相互作用。但NBD-11021哌啶环的烷基部分和噻唑环上的4-甲基均暴露于蛋白溶剂界面, 且与周围氨基酸未产生相互作用力。因此, 研究人员以NBD-11021为先导, 用甲胺基取代哌啶环, 在保留能够与gp120的Asp368形成氢键的氨基的同时, 还对苯环进行修饰以增强化合物和靶标之间的相互作用[40, 41], 得到了多个NBD-11021类似物。其中, 化合物NBD-14189 (IC50 = 0.089 μmol·L-1, CC50 = 21.9 μmol·L-1, SI = 246) 具有明显增强的抗病毒活性[42], 但NBD-14189存在毒性较大和水溶性较差(pH = 7.4, Sol. = 42.4~214 μg·mL-1) 的问题。Curreli等[43]在其吡咯环上引入甲基得到化合物NBD-14270 (IC50 = 0.18 μmol·L-1, CC50 =109 μmol·L-1, SI = 681), 与先导相比毒性明显降低且水溶性(pH = 7.4, Sol. = 734 μg·mL-1) 显著改善。因此, NBD-14270可以作为潜在的临床候选药物进一步优化[42]。有趣的是, 近期Losada等[44]报道该类化合物可连接HIV-1 RT dNTP和非核苷类逆转录酶抑制剂(NNRTIs) 结合位点, 并表现出较好的HIV-1 RT抑制活性(40, IC50(RT) = 1.5 μmol·L-1; 41, IC50(RT) = 2.3 μmol·L-1)。共晶结果显示(图 10AB) NBD类分子的酰胺键上的氮原子在溶剂开口区与Asp 110之间形成氢键, 这与之前报道过的HIV-1双位点抑制剂不同, 可作为新作用机制的HIV-1 RT抑制剂进行进一步的开发。
针对NBD-556类衍生物存在细胞毒性大的缺点, Tsuji等[45]用吡啶环取代苯环得到了CD4模拟物KKN-134 (42, IC50 = 5.1 μmol·L-1, CC50 > 100 μmol·L-1)。此外, 还设计合成环己烷螺环类衍生物YIR-821 (43, IC50 = 0.64 μmol·L-1, CC50 > 100 μmol·L-1), 对接结果(图 10C) 显示化合物YIR-821的胍基和酮酰胺除了和关键性氨基酸残基Met426、Asn425、Trp427、Asp474形成氢键作用外, 还通过胍基和苯环分别与Asp474、Trp427形成疏水作用力及π-π堆积作用力, 这可能是抗病毒活性提高的原因。以该化合物为先导连接PEG单元得到环己烷螺环衍生物TKB-002 (44, IC50 < 0.1 μmol·L-1, CC50 > 100 μmol·L-1) 具有更高的抗HIV活性[46]。为增加此类化合物的水溶性, 该课题组设计并合成了含有吡啶环及PEG结构但不含环己烷基团的化合物45a~45d46 (图 11), 水溶性明显提高。然而, 只有化合物45a (IC50 =1.5 μmol·L-1, CC50 > 100 μmol·L-1) 和46 (IC50 = 6.7 μmol·L-1, CC50 > 100 μmol·L-1) 具有微弱的抗HIV活性, 较先导化合物YIR-821仍存在一定差距[45]
三唑肽类化合物可通过抑制gp120与CD4受体的相互作用发挥抗病毒作用。该类化合物可以同时靶向gp120保守的双重位点: ① gp120外部区域中由Thr257和Ser375构成的“Phe43口袋”; ②内部区域中由I1e109、Trp112、Phe210及β20/21上的Met426构成的疏水口袋。代表性化合物为47 (UM15, EC50 = 0.08~62.5 μmol·L-1) 对HIV-1多种亚型均具有较好的抑制活性[47]。如图 12所示, 通过构象限制策略对化合物47位于溶剂界面的基团环合得到六肽化合物48 (AAR029b, IC50 = 30 nmol·L-1)[48], 可有效抑制gp120-CD4相互作用。此外, 该类化合物还表现出独特的抗病毒作用机制, 通过诱导gp120的脱落, 使p24衣壳蛋白从病毒内腔释放, 在与细胞融合之前使病毒失活。活性测试结果表明, 该化合物具有良好的抗病毒活性, 细胞毒性极低(EC50 = 200 nmol·L-1, CC50 > 300 μmol·L-1)。
Ang等[49]发现了一种双功能HIV-1侵入抑制剂(dual-acting virucidal entry inhibitor, DAVEI), 由凝集素氰病毒素与gp41外部区域末端的Trp 3肽序列组成, 可以同时与gp120和gp41结合。为了减小该类抑制剂的分子质量, Gaffney等[50]将凝集素氰病毒素替换为小分子CD4模拟物BNM-Ⅲ-170, 通过铜催化的叠氮-端炔环加成反应将BNM-Ⅲ-170与Trp3链接(图 13), 并探讨不同长度的连接链对活性的影响。其中, 49 (BNM-L3-Trp3) 的病毒抑制效力达到0.58 μmol·L-1, 病毒溶解能力的活性为7.2 μmol·L-1。双功能HIV-1抑制剂作用机制独特, 但是它们诱导病毒膜破裂的机制尚不明确。尽管如此, 作为一种新颖、高效的HIV-1侵入抑制剂, DAVEI类化合物具有巨大的应用前景, 有待深入的机制研究。
Pu等[51]通过分子杂合策略设计了一种靶向gp120-CD4结合位点和gp41中的NHR区域的双功能HIV-1抑制剂50 (FD028)。通过将FD016 (NBD-556的类似物, gp120-CD4结合抑制剂) 与FD017 (HIV-1融合抑制剂) 用2-氧乙烯连接得到。研究结果表明, FD028 (IC50 = 0.42~1.42 μmol·L-1) 对不同亚型的HIV-1耐药菌株具有广谱抑制作用, 并且没有显著的细胞毒性。因此, FD028具有进一步开发为HIV-1抑制剂的潜力。
Herschhorn等[52]通过高通量筛选发现了一种含酰肼结构的化合物51 (18A)。这类化合物不干扰Env与CD4和CCR5的结合, 但可以有效阻断包膜糖蛋白中两种CD4诱导的构象变化, 即gp120 V1/V2区域的重排以及gp41 HR1区域的形成。使用含不同分离株的包膜糖蛋白重组的HIV假病毒进行检测, 发现该化合物具有广谱抗HIV活性。尽管与BMS类、NBD类化合物相比, 这类小分子对HIV-1的抑制活性较弱(IC50 = 6.4 μmol·L-1), 但其独特的作用机制对研究HIV-1侵入和gp120不同构象状态具有重要价值, 可作为先导开发新型高效广谱的抗艾滋病药物。
Soler等[53]通过对桦木酸的ω-氨基烷酸类化合物进行结构修饰获得小分子52 (RPR1036112, EC50 = 0.27 μmol·L-1, CC50 = 17 μmol·L-1) 和53 (IC95643, EC50 = 0.31 μmol·L-1, CC50 = 8.9 μmol·L-1)[54]。研究发现其作用于HIV-1的侵入阶段发挥抗病毒作用[54-56]。Takeuchi等[57]通过对三萜类化合物RPR103611和IC9564结构修饰得到了两种新型HIV-1侵入抑制剂齐墩果酸衍生物54 (EC50 = 1.7 μmol·L-1, CC50 = 79 μmol·L-1) 和12-酮型齐墩果酸衍生物55 (EC50 = 0.5 μmol·L-1, CC50 = 128 μmol·L-1) (图 14)。与先导化合物相比, 这两种化合物的抗病毒活性略有下降, 但细胞毒性显著降低。
HIV-1的表面糖蛋白gp120是以对称三聚体的形式镶嵌在病毒上, 同一三聚体蛋白中的两个Phe43结合口袋之间的距离为30~60 Å[58], 这为多价态gp120抑制剂的设计提供了基础。56 (AL-385) 是在研究肠道病毒71型(EV-71) 抑制剂的过程中发现的HIV和EV-71双重抑制剂(图 15), 通过直接靶向gp120来抑制HIV-1进入宿主细胞, 从而发挥抗病毒作用。Marti-Mari等[59]对AL-385进行优化发现抗HIV-1小分子抑制剂57 (AL-470) 和58 (AL-471)。以AL-470为先导, 经结构修饰得到具有高效抗HIV-1活性的化合物59 (AL-558, EC50 = 0.06 μmol·L-1), 可作为先导进行进一步的结构修饰。
HIV-1病毒基因组具有高突变率和基因重组率, 使得其对现有靶标的药物迅速产生了不同程度的耐药性。因此瞄准具有成药潜力的新靶标、拓展药物设计新思路, 开发具有新机制的抗艾滋病药物成为了该领域研究的前沿和热点。目前已经上市的各类药物都存在不足: 蛋白酶抑制剂上市药物口服生物利用度低, 逆转录酶抑制剂药物均出现了明显的耐药性, 而融合抑制剂上市药物(小分子肽类) 则存在生产成本高、剂型受限等问题。Fostemsavir作为第一个获批上市的HIV-1吸附抑制剂, 具有良好的药代动力学并且对目前常用的抗逆转录病毒药物未表现出交叉耐药性, 可以用于治疗具有多重耐药性的艾滋病患者。本文在描述其研发历程的同时也介绍了各类侵入抑制剂的最新进展。尽管目前围绕NBD类药物代表性小分子NBD-14270的结构修饰未获得突破性进展, 但通过结构生物学研究发现其具有双功能抑制的活性, 为该类化合物的后续研究提供新的方向和思路。除此之外还介绍了几种其他结构类型的gp120侵入抑制剂, 这些化合物未来均可以作为先导用以开发新型高效广谱的抗艾滋病药物。
随着药物化学、结构信息学、分子生物学、计算机辅助药物设计等学科的快速发展, 基于传统靶标的合理药物设计和高通量筛选显著提高了抗艾滋病候选药物发现的精度和速度。此外靶向蛋白质降解技术(targeted protein degradation technology)[60]、共价结合(covalent binding)[61]等策略的应用也可缓解目前上市药物所面临的多重耐药性和脱靶效应的困境。随着病毒结构生物学研究的不断深入, 以及各类新技术和新策略在智能药物设计领域的不断成功应用, 为研发新一代抗艾滋病药物提供了有力保障。
作者贡献: 谢明卉是文章框架的构思者并负责内容的撰写和文献整理; 刘新泳、展鹏和康东伟指导文章写作; 汪昭、孙彦莹、姜向毅对论文进行了检查和修改。
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  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(81903453)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(81973181)
  • 山东省优秀青年基金资助项目(ZR2020YQ61)
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2023年第58卷第3期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-1063
  • 接收时间:2022-09-19
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-03-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-09-19
  • 修回日期:2022-10-15
基金
国家自然科学基金资助项目(81903453)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(81973181)
山东省优秀青年基金资助项目(ZR2020YQ61)
作者信息
    山东大学药学院药物化学研究所, 化学生物学教育部重点实验室, 山东 济南 250012

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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