Article(id=1198652621964800258, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0943, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1659196800000, receivedDateStr=2022-07-31, revisedDate=1663257600000, revisedDateStr=2022-09-16, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763710654965, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1691769600000, pubDateStr=2023-08-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763710654965, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763710654965, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763710654965, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198652605778985059, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='8', pageStart='0', pageEnd='2540', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1691769600000', pubDateStr='2023-08-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763710651106, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1763710739504, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596347, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596348, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=2070, endPage=2084, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198652624657543510, articleId=1198652621964800258, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Cancer genomics and precision medicine, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

It has been noted for decades that cancer is essentially a genomic disease. Benefiting from the latest development of high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics technologies, a variety of genetic alterations have been identified for their roles in cancer occurrence and development, giving rise to new opportunities for anti-cancer drug discovery. In particular, the rapid advancement of cancer genomics has paved the way for the precision medicine that has gained compelling achievement in the past years and significantly benefited cancer patients. In this review, we summarize the main types of genomic abnormalities in cancer, the application of functional genomics research in cancer research, and in particular the translational application of cancer genomics in clinical diagnosis, drug discovery and cancer precision medicine. With this review, we hope to better understand cancer genomics research and provide future perspectives for its application in precision medicine.

, authors=null, authorsList=Yi-yang YAN, Min HUANG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Min HUANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198652627962655290, articleId=1198652621964800258, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=肿瘤基因组学研究与肿瘤精准治疗, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

肿瘤是一种基因疾病的认识, 最早可以追溯到一个世纪前。近年来, 得益于高通量测序和生物信息技术的不断发展创新, 肿瘤基因组研究取得了显著的进展。肿瘤发生发展过程中发挥重要作用的多种遗传改变被不断阐明, 为抗肿瘤药物研发带来了新的机会。特别重要的是, 肿瘤基因组研究的突破, 直接催生了当前发展迅猛的肿瘤精准治疗, 显著提升了肿瘤药物治疗的临床获益, 并推动肿瘤药物治疗进入新时代。本文总结了肿瘤基因组异常的主要表现形式, 举例阐明了功能基因组研究在肿瘤研究中的主要应用, 特别关注了肿瘤基因组学研究在临床诊断、新药研发及肿瘤精准治疗方面的应用, 旨在深入理解基因组导向的肿瘤精准医疗, 并对未来的发展提出思考与展望。

, authors=null, authorsList=闫溢洋, 黄敏, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=黄敏, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*黄敏, Tel: 86-21-50806722, E-mail:
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肿瘤基因组学研究与肿瘤精准治疗
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闫溢洋 1, 2 , 黄敏 1, 2, 3, *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(8): 2070-2084
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药学学报 |综述 2023 , 58 (8) : 2070 -2084
肿瘤基因组学研究与肿瘤精准治疗
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闫溢洋1, 2, 黄敏1, 2, 3, *
作者信息
  • 1.中国科学院上海药物研究所, 新药研究国家重点实验室, 上海 201203
  • 2.中国科学院大学, 北京 100009
  • 3.国科大杭州高等研究院, 药物科学与技术学院, 浙江 杭州 310024
通讯作者:
*黄敏, Tel: 86-21-50806722, E-mail:
Cancer genomics and precision medicine
Yi-yang YAN1, 2, Min HUANG1, 2, 3, *
Affiliations
  • 1. State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
  • 2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100009, China
  • 3. School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China
出版时间: 2023-08-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0943
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肿瘤是一种基因疾病的认识, 最早可以追溯到一个世纪前。近年来, 得益于高通量测序和生物信息技术的不断发展创新, 肿瘤基因组研究取得了显著的进展。肿瘤发生发展过程中发挥重要作用的多种遗传改变被不断阐明, 为抗肿瘤药物研发带来了新的机会。特别重要的是, 肿瘤基因组研究的突破, 直接催生了当前发展迅猛的肿瘤精准治疗, 显著提升了肿瘤药物治疗的临床获益, 并推动肿瘤药物治疗进入新时代。本文总结了肿瘤基因组异常的主要表现形式, 举例阐明了功能基因组研究在肿瘤研究中的主要应用, 特别关注了肿瘤基因组学研究在临床诊断、新药研发及肿瘤精准治疗方面的应用, 旨在深入理解基因组导向的肿瘤精准医疗, 并对未来的发展提出思考与展望。

肿瘤基因组  /  基因突变  /  功能基因组  /  基因编辑  /  精准医疗

It has been noted for decades that cancer is essentially a genomic disease. Benefiting from the latest development of high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics technologies, a variety of genetic alterations have been identified for their roles in cancer occurrence and development, giving rise to new opportunities for anti-cancer drug discovery. In particular, the rapid advancement of cancer genomics has paved the way for the precision medicine that has gained compelling achievement in the past years and significantly benefited cancer patients. In this review, we summarize the main types of genomic abnormalities in cancer, the application of functional genomics research in cancer research, and in particular the translational application of cancer genomics in clinical diagnosis, drug discovery and cancer precision medicine. With this review, we hope to better understand cancer genomics research and provide future perspectives for its application in precision medicine.

cancer genomics  /  genomic alteration  /  functional genomics  /  gene editing  /  precision medicine
闫溢洋, 黄敏. 肿瘤基因组学研究与肿瘤精准治疗. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2070 -2084 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0943
Yi-yang YAN, Min HUANG. Cancer genomics and precision medicine[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2070 -2084 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0943
肿瘤是一种复杂的疾病, 因其高发病率和死亡率, 半个多世纪以来, 一直是生物医学领域研究的重点。随着生命科学和基因组测序技术的不断发展, 人们越来越深刻地认识到, 肿瘤从根本上来说是一种基因组疾病, 基因变异往往是肿瘤发生的直接原因。而基因组的不稳定性促使肿瘤在发展过程中产生新的突变以改变自身信号通路和细胞表型等, 并因此获得持续增殖、规避生长抑制和细胞死亡及免疫逃逸等能力。因此, 明确肿瘤发生发展过程中所伴随的基因组变化, 成为认识肿瘤发生发展机制的重要途径。
对于肿瘤是基因组疾病的这一认识, 最早可以追溯到一个多世纪以前。Theodor Boveri和David von Hansemann发现肿瘤细胞分裂过程中伴随染色体畸变, 推测肿瘤可能由遗传物质的异常造成[1]。这一观点随后被证实, 分子生物学家们鉴定出第一个癌基因HRAS, 并确定了原癌基因(proto-oncogenes) 和抑癌基因(tumor suppressor genes)[2, 3]两类与肿瘤相关的基因。随着越来越多的癌基因和抑癌基因被发现, 人们逐渐认识到, 全面了解基因组序列是系统发现肿瘤驱动基因的必经之路。随着人类基因组计划(Human Genome Project, HGP) 对人类基因组图谱的绘制完成, 人类对基因组的研究能力和认识水平都迈上了新的台阶, 肿瘤基因组研究也成为随之而来的首要任务[4]。美国国家癌症研究所提出的肿瘤基因组图谱(the Cancer Genome Atlas, TCGA) 计划和国际癌症基因组联盟(the International Cancer Genome Consortium, ICGC) 项目[5]几乎同时启动, 由此进入了肿瘤基因组时代。
肿瘤基因组计划的启动和实施离不开基因组测序技术的发展。从最初的基于毛细管的测序到DNA微阵列技术再到高通量测序技术, 大规模DNA测序所需的基础设施不断完善, 测序成本不断降低[4]。其中, 高通量测序技术(high-throughput sequencing) (又称二代测序技术, next generation sequencing, NGS) 的出现和发展彻底改变了基因组学的发展。全基因组测序(whole genome sequencing, WGS) 推动肿瘤基因组学从分析个别基因转向针对全基因组的系统研究; 序列捕获技术则可以对感兴趣的特定DNA区域展开更深度的测序, 如针对人类基因编码区进行的外显子测序(whole exome sequencing, WES)。
技术的进步推动肿瘤基因组研究的飞速进展, 也带来了肿瘤研究和诊疗的重大转折点。通过测序构建的肿瘤生物信息数据库和基因组图谱推动了肿瘤发生发展的分子机制的研究, 提示新的抗肿瘤药物靶标, 对肿瘤的诊断和精准治疗具有重大意义。以非小细胞肺癌为代表的多种肿瘤已经进入了基于驱动基因突变(driver gene mutation) 的精准医疗(precision medicine) 的新时代, 全面革新了肿瘤治疗的模式。基于上述背景, 本文重点综述了肿瘤基因组异常的主要形式及功能基因组学在肿瘤研究中的应用, 特别关注了基因组研究对于帮助发现肿瘤诊断标志物、治疗靶标及实现肿瘤精准医疗的重大意义。
过去十几年, 基因组研究技术的飞速发展和肿瘤相关基因组信息的大量涌现, 让研究者看到了一个越来越全面、完整的肿瘤基因组全景。与正常细胞相比, 肿瘤细胞基因组发生了诸多改变。基因组的异常主要表现在基因序列、染色质结构和表观遗传3个层面, 具体包括单核苷酸变异、基因拷贝数改变、微卫星不稳定、染色质重排、染色体碎裂, 以及表观修饰紊乱等(图 1)。这些改变可能导致原癌基因的异常激活和抑癌基因的功能丧失, 对于肿瘤发生发展具有重要意义。
单核苷酸变异(single nucleotide variations, SNVs) 指DNA序列中单一核苷酸的改变, 在基因的编码区及非编码区都有可能发生。发生在基因编码区或外显子区域的SNVs可分为同义突变(synonymous mutation) 和非同义突变(non-synonymous mutation)。非同义突变可能会激活相应的蛋白质或导致蛋白质功能丧失。SNVs可以是胚系突变或体细胞突变, 通常以体细胞突变为主。如肿瘤中最常见的癌基因KRAS发生SNV导致的异常激活, 属于体细胞突变; 而乳腺癌相关的抑癌基因BRCA1/2通过SNV丧失功能, 则主要源于胚系突变。
BRAF基因激活突变是肿瘤基因组测序研究的关键发现之一[6]。BRAF基因编码一种丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶, 承接上游RAS信号, 并通过MAP激酶级联反应传递, 其异常激活会促进肿瘤的发生发展。BRAF突变最常见于黑色素瘤、结直肠癌和甲状腺癌, 最常见的突变形式是编码蛋白的第600位缬氨酸被替换为谷氨酸(Ⅴ600E)。特异针对BRAF-Ⅴ600E突变体设计的小分子抑制剂维罗非尼(vemurafenib) 能显著改善未经治疗的黑色素瘤患者的总生存和无进展生存期[7], 已被美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA) 批准用于晚期转移性或无法切除的黑色素瘤的治疗。
除编码区外, 发生在基因顺势调控位点如启动子元件内的SNVs也有可能显著影响基因的表达和功能。如在膀胱癌、甲状腺癌、胶质瘤和黑色素瘤等多种肿瘤类型中检测到端粒逆转录酶TERT启动子处存在SNVs (如脑胶质瘤TERT在启动子区发生的124C > T、146C > T突变)[8]。TERT的启动子区能被多种转录因子调控, 其中ETS转录因子是调控TERT表达和端粒酶活性的主要转录因子之一。当TERT的启动子区域发生突变时, ETS转录因子与TERT启动子区域的相互作用被显著增强, 进而促进TERT基因的表达, 参与肿瘤发生发展。
插入和缺失(insertion-deletion, InDel) 突变指在基因组某个位置上发生不同大小的DNA片段的插入或者缺失, 其长度通常在50 bp以下, 多出现在基因内部甚至是外显子、启动子等重要区域。这种变异往往能够引起基因功能发生重大变化, 是一种非常重要的基因组结构变异。
表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor receptor, EGFR) 是典型的由插入和缺失突变引起癌基因激活的例子。EGFR是一种受体酪氨酸激酶, 通常情况下感受到配体刺激后, EGFR能通过激活下游通路促进细胞增殖和对抗细胞凋亡。早在20世纪90年代, 人们就发现了EGFR在肺癌组织中的表达量显著高于癌旁组织[9], 推动了靶向EGFR的抗肿瘤药物的研究。然而, 对于EGFR作为抗肿瘤靶标认识的突破, 却来源于对EGFR基因的测序。研究发现, 部分非小细胞肺癌患者的EGFR激酶活性结构域中存在多种形式的激活突变[10, 11], 其中第19号外显子746~750位氨基酸间的短框缺失(Del19, 约占EGFR突变的45%~50%) 和第21号外显子区858位精氨酸替代亮氨酸的点突变(L858R, 约占EGFR突变的40%~45%) 是两种最典型的激活突变[12-14]。临床研究结果显示, 这两个区域的突变与以吉非替尼(gefitinib) 为代表的EGFR抑制剂对非小细胞肺癌的疗效密切相关。此外, EGFR突变中有5%~6%为第20号外显子的插入突变(exon 20ins, 主要定位于酪氨酸激酶结构域C-螺旋后的C末端环上)[15]。早期上市的EGFR抑制剂对该突变的抑制效果不佳, 而新的EGFR抑制剂mobocertinib于2021年9月获美国FDA加速审批上市, 用于治疗携带EGFR exon 20ins的非小细胞肺癌患者。
拷贝数变异(copy number variations, CNVs) 一般指1 kb以上的基因片段的拷贝数增加或减少, 主要是基因组重排所导致的, 表现为基因片段的重复或缺失, 可能会导致癌基因的过表达(如MYC基因扩增) 或抑癌基因的缺失(如RB1缺失), 是基因异常的重要形式之一。
成纤维细胞生长因子受体1 (fibroblast growth factor receptor 1, FGFR1) 基因扩增是最常见的癌基因拷贝数变异之一, 与多种肿瘤的发生发展密切相关。FGFR1基因扩增会导致FGFR1异常激活, 通过激活下游信号通路促进细胞生长、增殖。一项研究对232例肺鳞癌样本进行了基因拷贝数的深度分析, 发现存在频繁和局灶性的FGFR1扩增。研究者随后在一个独立样本队列中证实, 超过20%的鳞状细胞肺癌发生了FGFR1扩增, 并通过基因敲除和小分子抑制剂等实验手段证实了局灶性FGFR1扩增与肿瘤生长相关[16]。编码肝细胞生长因子受体(hepatocyte growth factor receptor) 的原癌基因MET扩增是另一典型的癌基因拷贝数变异的例子。研究提示, MET高拷贝数与肿瘤不良预后和较短生存期显著相关[17], 研究者进一步在肺癌细胞模型中进行探究, 发现MET扩增可导致MET过表达并激活, 通过不依赖配体的方式激活下游信号通路[18]。除了基因扩增, 抑癌基因的拷贝数缺失变异也是常见的情况, 如抑制周期蛋白CDK激酶的抑癌基因CDKN2A/2B在多种肿瘤中存在缺失变异。散发性黑色素瘤的全基因组研究结果表明, CDKN2A是最常见的体细胞突变之一, 其拷贝数缺失是黏膜和肢端黑色素瘤中最主要的突变表现形式[19]。此外, CDKN2A缺失突变与黑色素瘤的侵袭和转移也显著相关, 超过75%的黑色素瘤转移患者存在该基因的杂合或纯合缺失[20]
微卫星(microsatellite, MS) 指人类基因组中的一类短串联重复DNA序列。相对于正常组织, 肿瘤组织中由于重复单元的插入或缺失而造成微卫星任意长度改变的现象称为微卫星不稳定性(microsatellite instability, MSI)。MSI是错配修复缺陷(mismatch repair deficient, dMMR) 肿瘤的典型分子特征, 它的出现与特定原癌基因和抑癌基因的突变密切相关, 因此对于肿瘤生物学研究具有重要意义。
MSI现象最早在结直肠癌中发现[21], 根据出现的频率可将其定义为微卫星稳定(microsatellite stability, MSS)、低频微卫星不稳定(low-frequency MSI, MSI-L) 和高频微卫星不稳定(high-frequency MSI, MSI-H) 三种类型。相关研究表明, MSI-H最常见于结直肠癌, 且对于结直肠癌预后有明确的临床意义[22], 是临床重要的肿瘤标志物。此外, 多项临床试验结果表明, MSI-H/dMMR肿瘤患者对免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint blockades, ICBs) 抗PD-1抗体派木单抗(pembrolizumab)、纳武利尤单抗(nivolumab) 表现出更好的治疗效果[23, 24]。当前, MSI作为肿瘤免疫治疗的生物标志物已经在临床上得到应用。
肿瘤的基因变异通常是复杂多样的。恶性前体细胞可能存在多种自发突变, 在疾病发展过程中还伴随着多基因变异的累积。肿瘤突变负荷(tumor mutational burden, TMB) 指肿瘤细胞中的体细胞突变数量, 通常用每百万碱基的突变个数(mutations/Mb) 来表示。
由于DNA复制过程中错配修复系统缺陷等内在因素或暴露于环境诱变剂等外在因素, 多种肿瘤如肺癌、黑色素瘤、膀胱癌等中存在较高的TMB[25, 26], 临床主要利用基于NGS的全外显子测序和特定靶向panel测序检测肿瘤进展中可能累积的大量基因组改变, 以此辅助疾病的诊断与治疗。高TMB表明肿瘤基因组中存在更多的突变, 而越多的异常基因可能通过转录产生越多的肿瘤新生抗原(neoantigens), 从而有利于激活免疫细胞。近年来, TMB与肿瘤靶向免疫治疗相关性的研究进行得如火如荼。相关结果表明, TMB与多种ICBs如CTLA-4抗体、PD-1抗体等治疗后患者的总体生存期相关[27, 28]。当前, TMB与MSI一样作为肿瘤免疫治疗应答的预测生物标志物被广泛应用。
染色质结构重排在癌变过程中具有重要意义, 它可能导致基因组编码区或调控区序列发生交换从而引起强的致癌突变。利用无偏倚的WGS可以对染色质重排进行检测, 结合转录组测序数据, 可以进一步判断融合产生的新基因能否表达及表达量高低, 从而为疾病发生发展机制探究及治疗靶点发现提供支持。
染色质重排最有可能导致的后果是产生新的融合基因。基因融合导致蛋白编码异常和功能失调, 其中最典型的例子就是慢性粒细胞白血病的标志性染色体易位所形成的费城染色体[29], 这种易位所产生的BCR-ABL融合基因编码了一种持续激活的酪氨酸激酶BCR-ABL, 通过激活下游信号通路, 促进肿瘤细胞生长并抑制细胞凋亡的发生, 造成细胞生长失控。具有划时代意义的首个小分子肿瘤靶向治疗药物imatinib就是针对BCR-ABL蛋白激酶设计的小分子抑制剂, 当前已经成为慢性粒细胞白血病的一线治疗药物。染色质重排导致的基因融合也可能会造成转录紊乱, 如在滤泡性淋巴瘤中染色质重排将18号染色体BCL-2基因易位到14号染色体IGH基因调控区域, 最终导致BCL-2蛋白组成性高表达并引起细胞凋亡障碍, 成为滤泡性淋巴瘤发病的始动机制和早期事件[30]
传统观念认为, 驱动肿瘤发生发展的获得性点突变和染色体重排是随着时间的推移逐渐累积的。基于二代测序技术, 人们发现了一种染色质碎裂(chromothripsis) 的现象[31], 即在单次的细胞危机中发生数十到数百次的基因重排, 这些重排引发了一条或几条染色体在所涉及的区域之间来回交叉和拷贝数的频繁震荡, 这一现象对于探究基因组重塑的起源和突发性癌症具有重要意义。
染色质碎裂是肿瘤基因组不稳定性的主要形式之一。一项在38种肿瘤中进行的全基因组测序研究系统分析了2 658例肿瘤样本的染色质碎裂现象及特点, 发现染色质破碎现象在肿瘤中普遍存在, 且在某些肿瘤中的发生频率甚至超过50%。该研究揭示了染色体碎裂可能导致多种癌基因的扩增和抑癌基因的失活, 对于诱导肿瘤发生发展具有重要作用[32]
由染色质碎裂引起的病灶染色质扩增除了介导癌基因过表达引起肿瘤发生外, 还有可能提高某些耐药基因的表达水平而导致肿瘤治疗失败。如对甲氨蝶呤耐药的克隆进行全基因组测序分析发现, 染色体碎裂会促进染色体外DNA (ecDNA) 的形成, 这些染色体外遗传单位经常携带癌基因和耐药基因扩增, 它们会优先栓系在染色体末端附近, 并对化疗或放疗等肿瘤治疗手段引起的DNA损伤作出响应, 重新整合到染色体上, 使细胞快速获得耐受性[33]。因此, 基于染色体碎裂驱动肿瘤耐药这一现象设计用药方案, 可能有利于预防耐药, 改善肿瘤治疗效果。
表观遗传指的是在基因序列不改变的条件下所发生的基因的可遗传改变, 其主要表现形式包括DNA甲基化、组蛋白修饰、核小体重塑和非编码RNA调控。表观遗传通过调控基因表达影响多种生物学过程, 因此其调控过程异常往往会参与诱导肿瘤的发生发展[34]。研究显示, 大约50%的人类肿瘤中含有染色质相关蛋白改变, 提示了表观遗传学改变在肿瘤发生发展中的重要性[35, 36]
DNA甲基化是最早与肿瘤进行关联性研究的表观遗传修饰[37]。在正常情况下, DNA甲基化修饰往往会导致基因表达沉默, 其异常可能会使癌基因过度激活或抑癌基因功能丧失。DNA甲基化的异常表现形式主要有超甲基化、低甲基化和印记丢失。
DNA超甲基化指的是正常情况下未甲基化的特定位点获得甲基化, 其中研究最多的主要是基因启动子区CpG岛的甲基化改变。在正常细胞中CpG岛和CG富集区的大多数胞嘧啶是未甲基化的。但在肿瘤细胞中常出现CpG岛高甲基化或超甲基化的改变, 其结果是导致特定基因如抑癌基因等的表达失活。CpG岛甲基化引起的抑癌基因表达失活最初在RB基因中发现, 与未甲基化状态相比, RB基因启动子区域的特异性高甲基化导致其表达水平显著降低[38]
DNA低甲基化在多种恶性肿瘤细胞中存在, 通常表现为基因组总甲基化水平降低。全基因组测序研究揭示了约25%的急性髓系白血病(acute myeloid leukemia, AML) 患者存在甲基转移酶DNMT3A的失活突变, 该突变导致AML细胞中多种癌基因启动子甲基化水平降低, 与患者较差的总体生存率密切相关[39, 40]
印迹丢失指由于两个亲本等位基因异常低甲基化而导致特异性单等位基因表达的异常。如胰岛素样生长因子2 (insulin-like growth factor 2, IGF2) 是一种重要的胚胎有丝分裂生长促进因子, 在维持细胞正常生长过程中起关键作用, 其基因表达以基因组印迹方式受表观遗传调控, 印迹丢失常导致IGF2过表达从而促进肿瘤细胞的恶性生长[41]
组蛋白是染色质的主要蛋白质组成, 组蛋白可以发生多种翻译后修饰, 包括磷酸化、乙酰化、糖基化、甲基化等。根据被修饰的氨基酸种类和修饰类型的不同, 这些修饰可以分别促成抑制性或开放性染色质结构, 抑制或激活基因表达, 在生物体不同的生命周期中发挥重要作用。基因组研究提示, 组蛋白翻译后修饰可以作为重要的表观遗传标记, 被修饰位点突变或修饰蛋白异常引起的组蛋白修饰失调会导致多种类型的肿瘤[42]
肿瘤中引起组蛋白修饰紊乱比较常见的原因是相关修饰酶的基因突变。这在血液系统肿瘤中尤为常见, 如组蛋白甲基转移酶EZH2和Dot1l的功能获得性突变、MLL的失活突变等都与血液系统肿瘤的发生发展密切相关。近年来的研究发现实体瘤中也存在相关突变。如编码组蛋白赖氨酸乙酰转移酶(lysine acetyltransferase, KAT) 的CREBBP是小细胞肺癌(small-cell lung cancer, SCLC) 中最常见的突变基因之一, 该基因缺失突变会导致紧密连接和细胞黏附基因组蛋白乙酰化水平降低和表达减少, 进而促进SCLC的转化[43]。由于组蛋白乙酰化修饰过程高度动态化, 由KAT和组蛋白去乙酰化酶(histone deacetylase, HDAC) 两个酶家族竞争性调节, 因此使用HDAC抑制剂处理可部分恢复组蛋白乙酰化水平和相关基因表达, 发挥抗肿瘤作用[43]
除了表观修饰酶突变, 组蛋白的修饰位点也会发生突变。其中, 多种儿童肿瘤中存在的组蛋白H3的高频错义突变是修饰位点突变的典型例子。组蛋白H3的36位赖氨酸突变为甲硫氨酸(H3K36M) 会损害间充质祖细胞的分化, 导致未分化肉瘤的发生。究其原因, 主要是H3K36M突变的核小体无法被H3K36甲基转移酶甲基化, 而该位点甲基化的丢失引起全基因组范围内H3K27甲基化水平升高, 进而导致polycomb抑制复合物1 (polycomb repression complex 1, PRC1) 的再分布和其靶基因的去抑制, 最终阻断间充质细胞分化[44]
核小体重塑(nucleosome remo-deling) 指的是依赖于ATP的重塑复合体通过重塑核小体(改变核小体位置和组蛋白组成、排出核小体八聚体或组蛋白二聚体等) 来改变染色质结构, 进而实现对染色质功能和基因表达的调控[45]
ATP依赖性的重塑复合体在核小体重塑过程中发挥着重要作用, 根据亚基组成和功能活性, 这些ATP依赖的重塑复合体可分为4个亚家族: ISWI、CHD、SWI/SNF和INO80[46], 其中, 编码SWI/SNF染色质重构复合物亚基的基因是最常见的突变靶标。肿瘤基因组测序研究显示近25%的肿瘤存在一个或多个SWI/SNF相关基因的突变[47], 且特定亚基突变在特定肿瘤类型中发生, 具有一定的组织特异性[48]。SWI/SNF基因突变通常是功能缺失的突变, 表现为双等位基因失活或蛋白表达缺失, 常与其他致癌基因异常激活共同发生, 是临床上精准治疗的热门研究领域。
全基因组和转录组测序研究显示, 至少90%的基因组活跃转录产生RNA, 但只有不到2%的是蛋白质编码基因。非编码RNA (non-coding RNA, ncRNA) 包括微小RNA (microRNAs, miRNAs) 和长非编码RNA (long non-coding RNAs, lncRNAs) 等, 对于多种基因的表达具有调控作用, 因此它们的转录或功能异常可能会对肿瘤发生发展产生重要影响[49]
肿瘤中miRNAs调控异常受到较广泛关注的是miR-34家族, 相关研究表明该家族中的3个成员miR-34a、miR-34b和miR-34c在肺癌、乳腺癌等多种肿瘤中下调[50, 51], 其中miR-34a作为关键的肿瘤抑制调节因子是该家族中被研究最多的成员之一, 它参与调控与细胞周期、细胞分化与凋亡相关的众多基因的表达, 拮抗肿瘤细胞生长和转移等所必需的过程, 因此其转录下调或功能异常有利于肿瘤的发生和转移[52]
LncRNAs能以多种不同的方式调控基因的表达, 进而促进或抑制肿瘤的发生发展, 其中lncRNA对于癌基因MYC的多层次调控作用就是一个典型的例子。MYC基因扩增往往伴随染色质上邻近的lncRNA基因PVT1的扩增,而后者具有稳定MYC转录的功能[53]; 但是在另一研究报道中, 基因组DNA损伤的应激情况下, p53诱导PVT1基因转录产生的亚型PVT1B能抑制邻近MYC基因的转录, 从而帮助p53发挥抑制肿瘤生长的功能[54]; 此外, PVT1的启动子能以一种与MYC基因启动子竞争结合自身增强子的方式抑制MYC基因转录, 发挥肿瘤抑制的功能, 这是一种独立于PVT1的lncRNA的调控方式[55]
高通量测序和生物信息技术的发展从各种类型的肿瘤细胞中获得了大量的基因组变异信息, 但众多发生变异的基因和基因调控元件在肿瘤发生发展过程中是否发挥作用以及发挥怎样的作用, 依旧没有被完全解释, 这也限制了对于肿瘤的深入理解和更高效治疗方案的开发。功能基因组学的出现为解决这一问题提供了新思路, 它通过基因编辑技术与高通量的分子、遗传和细胞技术相结合的研究策略, 在基因及调控元件变化与表型改变间建立联系, 评估基因功能, 进而在基因组范围内寻找有效的治疗靶标(图 2)。
功能基因组学研究离不开基因编辑技术的发展, 从传统的核酸酶相关技术到RNA引导的RNA干扰技术再到基于CRISPR/Cas系统的基因编辑技术, 研究者们逐渐能够快速且准确地对所感兴趣的基因进行改造和修饰, 从而通过基因功能丧失(loss-of-function) 和功能获得(gain-of-function) 的方式识别与疾病相关或无关的基因变化。
基因编辑技术起初来源于对生物体DNA断裂现象及内源性修复机制的应用, 由各种内源或外源因素造成的DNA双链断裂(double-strand breaks, DSBs) 损伤可以通过细胞天然的修复系统, 即非同源末端连接(non-homologous end joining, NHEJ) 和同源重组(homologous recombination, HR) 进行连接修复, 前者可能会引起随机的小片段插入或丢失进而导致相关功能障碍, 后者则可根据模板DNA序列进行定向修复[56]。基于此, 研究者们开发了各种制造靶向DSBs和利用HR修复途径的基因编辑技术。
最初的基因编辑技术将外源性目的基因导入受体细胞, 通过同源序列交换, 使外源性DNA片段重组至基因组, 实现特定基因失活或修复缺陷基因的目的。但该技术的最大问题是外源基因与目的基因的重组率非常低, 为后续研究带来了许多困难。锌指核酸酶(zinc finger nuclease, ZFN) 技术是一种利用人工改造核酸内切酶的基因编辑技术, 其基本原理是负责识别DNA位点的锌指DNA结合蛋白与负责切割DNA的核酸内切酶相融合, 所产生的融合蛋白可以在特定位点诱导DNA断裂, 为基因编辑带来了突破性进展[57]。随后, 与ZFN相类似, 识别特异DNA序列的转录激活效应蛋白与核酸内切酶组成的转录激活效应核酸酶(transcription activator-like effector nuclease, TALEN) 也被应用于基因编辑[58]。这些技术大大推进了细胞治疗和遗传学领域的发展, 但针对每一个新的基因操作部位都需要利用蛋白质工程进行设计和定制, 其应用也因此受到了一定的限制。
双链RNA介导的干扰(RNA interference, RNAi) 是一种能特异性破坏靶基因表达的过程, 它通过RNA加工产生的小干扰RNA (small interference RNAs, siRNAs) 或短发卡RNA (short hairpin RNAs, shRNAs) 靶向和它们序列同源互补的mRNA并使之降解, 导致基因表达沉默[59]。与ZFN和TALEN不同, RNAi只通过表达发挥靶向功能的小RNA就可以完成对基因功能的调控, 因此可以实现对人类基因组的大规模干扰[60]。近年来各种shRNA设计工具的开发与大规模寡聚核苷酸合成技术的发展促进了高度复杂shRNA文库的使用, 同时与NGS相结合, 可以同时对数千个基因进行功能筛选和评估, 进一步推动了功能基因组学的发展[61]
然而, 由于脱靶效应的影响, RNAi技术在肿瘤靶标发现和验证方面可能会出现假阳性结果; 此外, RNAi只能导致目标基因的表达量降低, 不能实现完全敲除, 而一些靶点需要完全耗尽才能产生显著的生物学效应, 因此缺乏效力的RNAi可能会导致假阴性结果[61]
一直以来, 研究者们致力于寻找一种技术能够实现基因组规模的基因改造, 基于CRISPR/Cas系统的基因编辑技术填补了传统技术在此方面的空缺, 从多个方向快速推进了肿瘤基因组研究的进展。CRISPR/Cas系统是细菌和古细菌在进化过程中产生的一种适应性免疫防御机制, 用来保护自身的基因组免受外源核酸如噬菌体、病毒等的干扰和破坏[62]。根据Cas蛋白的序列和结构可以将CRISPR/Cas系统分为Ⅰ、Ⅱ和Ⅲ型, 其中需要DNA核酸内切酶Cas9蛋白的Ⅱ型系统被重点研究并开发成为一套理想的基因编辑工具。
CRISPR-Cas9技术通过表达单链向导RNA (small guide RNA, sgRNA), 以一种高度特异性的方式识别DNA序列并引入DSBs, 完成对目标基因的干扰。随着研究的深入, 通过对Cas酶进行改造和与其他生物技术进行结合等手段, 建立起了各种基因编辑平台和应用模式。经典功能丧失研究利用核酸内切酶Cas9或Cas12a与sgRNA共表达在靶基因处引入DSBs, 通过NHEJ介导的突变实现对基因的破坏。但对于特定的研究目标, 如lncRNAs或高度重复序列, RNAi和CRISPR都具有一定的局限性, 而将核酸酶活性丧失的Cas9 (dCas9) 与效应结构域相融合则可以实现对靶基因更广泛和多样化的调控。dCas9与转录抑制因子融合的功能丧失CRISPR干扰(CRISPRi) 通过编辑表观遗传修饰等机制有效抑制目标基因的表达, 基因沉默水平优于传统的RNAi。dCas9与激活效应因子融合的CRISPR激活(CRISPRa) 策略则可以上调目的基因表达[63, 64]
此外, 基于CRISPR-Cas开发的各种新基因编辑技术, 如碱基编辑(base editor)、CRISPR相关转座酶、引导编辑(prime editor)[65]等继续推动了生命科学的重大进步。碱基编辑目前主要分为胞嘧啶碱基编辑(CBEs) 和腺嘌呤碱基编辑(ABEs) 两类, 它保留了Cas酶被sgRNA引导定位到DNA靶位点的能力, 在不对DNA双链进行剪切的条件下实现G/C碱基域A/T碱基间的替换, 突破了CRISPR-Cas9在人类遗传病治疗方面效率低、生物安全性差的瓶颈[66, 67]; 而引导编辑是一种基于“搜索和替换”的基因编辑方式, 将仅保留切割单链功能的Cas9酶与逆转录酶融合, 能够实现靶标位点的插入、缺失和4种碱基所有类型的碱基替换点突变[68]
基因编辑技术的发展实现了对目标基因的精准改造, 与日益发展成熟的高通量测序和细胞表型研究技术相结合, 成功建立了基因组规模的功能缺失、获得或修饰型筛选策略, 在肿瘤研究领域被广泛应用, 在阐明肿瘤特点和寻找治疗靶点等方面不断取得新进展。
高通量测序技术的大力应用已经为研究者展示了几乎每一种类型肿瘤的基因变化全景图谱, 但这些突变大多是随机的“乘客”, 通过克隆进化传播, 但并不会促进肿瘤的发展。在众多发生改变的基因中, 只有少数才是促进肿瘤细胞不受控制地生长和增殖的“驱动力”, 也是精准医学所寻找的真正的治疗靶点。功能基因组学研究可以快速高效地改造研究者感兴趣的候选基因, 进而自上而下地生成肿瘤模型, 重现肿瘤相关事件, 帮助研究者识别驱动突变并进一步理解它们促进肿瘤发生发展的功能。
近年来一项关于弥漫性大B细胞淋巴瘤(diffuse large B cell lymphoma, DLBCL) 的研究工作比较好地体现了通过CRISPR筛选进行肿瘤功能基因组学研究对于识别驱动突变基因的价值和意义。DLBCL是最常见的血液恶性肿瘤之一, 以往研究虽然不断发现该疾病中的基因改变, 但这些改变是否真的影响肿瘤细胞生长增殖尚不清楚。因此, 研究者对基于全外显子测序和转录组测序分析发现的在DLBCL中反复突变的150个假定驱动基因进行无偏倚CRISPR筛选, 通过构建sgRNA文库在DLBCL细胞系中对各个靶基因进行干扰, 最终鉴定出35个功能性癌基因, 它们与肿瘤细胞的生长和增殖密切相关。其中9个驱动基因在特定细胞亚群中发挥重要功能, 即敲除EBF1、IRF4、CARD11、MYD88和IKBKB对于ABC型DLBCL细胞选择性致死, 而敲除ABTB7A、XPO1、TGFBR2和PTPN6则会引起GCB型DLBCL细胞选择性致死, 提示上述关键驱动基因的小分子抑制剂可能带来临床相应的DLBCL患者的治疗获益[69]
除了诱导肿瘤细胞生长和增殖外, 关键基因突变对于肿瘤的侵袭和转移也具有一定的驱动作用, 而功能基因组学研究在识别这些驱动突变方面也有了一些重要发现。一项整合了基因组CRISPR-Cas9筛选与单细胞多组学分析的研究发现[70], 肿瘤中频繁突变的抑癌基因LKB1是调节肺腺癌原发肿瘤中染色质可及性的主要因子之一, 它的失活会导致早期原发肿瘤与晚期转移瘤的差异表观遗传重编程, 在肿瘤发展进化中具有重要作用。利用肿瘤转移的体内模型, 研究者进一步发现LKB1的缺失激活了早期内胚层转录因子SOX17, 这对于在LKB1缺陷的细胞中驱动第二波增强转移能力的表观遗传改变至关重要。
在过去很长一段时间里, 对于肿瘤体细胞驱动突变的研究主要集中在基因组编码区, 但全基因组的泛癌分析显示基因组非编码区普遍存在单核苷酸多态性[71], 提示非编码区的异常改变同样也有诱导肿瘤发生的可能, 但其具体功能还不明确。功能基因组学的出现和发展则使研究者能够深入理解非编码基因组变异是如何干扰正常基因表达和产生肿瘤相关表型的。
基因组非编码区具有各种功能调节元件如启动子、增强子等, 它们的各种异常改变可能会影响癌基因或抑癌基因的表达进而诱导肿瘤发生[72, 73]。利用功能基因组学对所感兴趣的基因附近的非编码区序列进行干扰, 可以识别各种已知或未知的调节元件并探究它们对肿瘤发生发展的影响。以癌基因HER2为例, 研究者根据其附近DNaseⅠ超敏感位点(调节性DNA序列的标记物) 进行sgRNA文库设计, 并利用变体Cas酶对可能的调控元件进行抑制或激活, 然后从细胞层面检测HER2蛋白表达水平就可以识别出对HER2基因表达具有调节作用的调控元件, 这些有意义的调控元件则有可能成为HER2过表达乳腺癌的潜在治疗靶点[74]。此外, 非编码区突变还可能与肿瘤耐药有关。如对与黑色素瘤BRAF抑制剂耐药相关的基因(NF1、NF2和CUL3) 附近的碱基序列进行靶向敲除和筛选可以发现在CUL3基因5'-端附近的染色质开放区域聚集更多的顺式调控元件, 与启动子相互作用, 提示这些非编码区的突变与肿瘤耐药密切相关[75]
由非编码区转录产生的ncRNAs如miRNAs和lncRNAs等的失调同样也是导致肿瘤的风险因素之一[76], 功能基因组学深入探究了这种异常改变在促进肿瘤细胞增殖和耐药发生等方面的作用。如利用CRISPR-Cas9技术在小鼠体内对全基因组层面的miRNAs进行靶向敲除和筛选发现, 多种miRNAs为可作为肿瘤抑制因子发挥功能, 其功能丧失会驱动癌症发生肺部转移[77]。而在耐药性方面的一个典型例子是对阿糖胞苷治疗敏感性的探究, 基于从人类泛癌细胞系的药物遗传学数据库中初步确定的可能耐药基因, 研究者通过CRISPRa对转录lncRNA的非编码区进行基因组规模的干扰, 最终分析发现, GAS6-AS2 lncRNA的转录激活会导致GAS6/TAM通路的过度激活, 从而导致包括急性髓系白血病在内的多种肿瘤对阿糖胞苷治疗不敏感[78]
肿瘤异质性(heterogeneity) 指在肿瘤之间(瘤间异质性) 和肿瘤内(瘤内异质性) 存在多种具有不同表型的细胞亚群的现象, 它的出现主要源于以遗传不稳定性为内在驱动力的类似自然选择的克隆进化[79]。瘤间或瘤内异质性的存在也是临床肿瘤靶向治疗失败、耐药或肿瘤复发的重要原因之一[80]。功能基因组学的发展实现了对于能够概括肿瘤异质性及重现异质性形成过程的研究模型的构建, 进一步加快了人们探究肿瘤复杂遗传特征的步伐。
瘤间异质性的复杂情况要求肿瘤研究模型必须能涵盖不同的基因型, 尽可能全面地认识肿瘤的基因背景与疾病进展的关系。近年来, 通过构建包含不同已知突变组合的细胞系、类器官和实验动物的肿瘤模型, 为探究肿瘤间异质性、筛选有效的靶向治疗药物或寻找新的潜在治疗靶点提供了重要的研究模型。传统的细胞系模型多年来在肿瘤研究和药物开发中发挥着重要作用, 尤其是肿瘤细胞系百科全书(Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia, CCLE) 的建立更加系统地反映了肿瘤基因组的多样性, 便于寻找指征药物敏感性的潜在标志物[81]。而体内肿瘤模型如患者来源的肿瘤异种移植模型(patient-derived tumorxenografts, PDX) 相较于细胞系更保留了供体肿瘤的主要组织学和遗传学特征, 且具有更高的稳定性, 被广泛用于临床前研究[82]。近年来, 随着培养系统和实验技术的不断发展, 类器官(organoid) 研究模型也逐渐成为肿瘤研究中的重要工具。研究者利用CRISPR技术构建一系列具有常见致癌基因突变不同组合的鼠类器官模型, 发现携带KRAS或BRAF突变联合TP53及SMAD4破坏的肠上皮细胞中, 短暂的TGFβ暴露会驱动YAP/taz依赖性的不可逆的谱系转换, 使人肠道上皮细胞恢复至胚胎肠道状态, 这可能是导致WNT靶向治疗获得型耐药和肿瘤细胞不依赖WNT生长的潜在机制[83]
功能基因组学的发展同样也为瘤内异质性的探究带来了新的机遇。随着技术的进步, 衍生出了各种谱系示踪策略, 研究者能在一群肿瘤细胞中标示不同的克隆亚群, 进而监测它们的动态变化。通过生成具有独特分子标识符(UMIs) 的sgRNA文库[84], 或利用包含独特标识符的HDR模板集引入静态条形码的方式[85], 研究者们可以标记和筛选克隆扩增的细胞从而进行谱系示踪。而CRISPR相关技术还可作为分子记录器, 在基因组中创建独特且多样的功能条形码, 用于追踪细胞谱系的进化或回溯性追踪某些谱系的起源[86]。如Umkehrer等[87]开发了一种针对异质性细胞群的CRISPRa克隆示踪技术(CaTCH), 利用绿色荧光蛋白融合基因对DNA条形码进行标记, 在小鼠黑色素瘤细胞中发现了对RAF和MEK抑制剂联用组合原发耐药的克隆亚群, 为认识相关耐药机制提供了新的线索。
在肿瘤的发生发展过程中, 基因调控网络发生复杂的变化来促进肿瘤细胞生长和增殖, 相应地, 肿瘤细胞也因此形成了过度依赖某些必需基因的特殊脆弱性(vulnerability)。而肿瘤功能基因组研究工作的一个中心目标就是寻找这些必需基因, 并以此作为潜在的治疗靶点, 开发新的抗肿瘤药物。
功能基因组学研究主要利用CRISPR、RNAi等技术来发现必需基因, 其中CRISPR技术因其高效率和可重复性在领域内得到更广泛的应用[88]。如为了寻找AML的新的潜在治疗靶点, 研究者利用一个优化的CRISPR筛选平台, 鉴定出了包括已知治疗靶点在内的492个AML细胞特异性必需基因, 并通过基因干预和药理抑制对候选基因进行验证, 最终发现抑制KAT2A可以诱导骨髓分化和凋亡, 进而抑制肿瘤细胞增殖, 表明KAT2A抑制可以作为一种潜在的AML治疗策略[89]。美国Broad研究所和英国Sanger研究所分别完成了CRISPR-Cas9基因编辑对300多种肿瘤细胞系中必需基因的大规模筛选工作[90, 91], 共同绘制了肿瘤依赖性图谱,为肿瘤研究提供了强大的公共资源。这两项独立的大规模筛选工作发表数据具有显著的一致性[92],也反映了CRISPR-Cas9技术进行大规模筛选的可行性。
合成致死(synthetic lethality) 是肿瘤脆弱性的另一重要表现形式, 它描述了一种现象, 即两个基因中的任何一个发生突变细胞都可以存活, 但两个基因同时突变会引起细胞生长缺陷甚至死亡[93]。聚腺苷二磷酸核糖聚合酶(PARP) 抑制剂是第一个基于合成致死理念获批在临床使用的抗肿瘤药物。携带BRCA1或BRCA2 (BRCA1/2) 胚系突变的患者, 因BRCA1/2突变导致的DNA修复功能缺陷而更依赖PARP参与的修复通路, 也因此对PARP抑制剂更加敏感。近年来, 研究者通过构建shRNA和sgRNA文库在卵巢癌和乳腺癌中寻找BRCA1/2缺失情况下的其他合成致死靶点, 发现参与碱基切除修复、ATR信号转导和剪接等多种信号通路的相关基因同样也是BRCA1/2功能丧失的合成致死基因, 可作为BRCA1/2突变肿瘤的潜在治疗靶点[94]。此外,基于shRNA文库的筛选还发现了MTAP和PRMT5这一对肿瘤合成致死的“黄金搭档”。MTAP是蛋氨酸补救途径的关键酶, 在肿瘤中常与其邻近的抑癌基因CDKN2A发生共缺失, 通过shRNA大规模筛选分析, 研究者发现MTAP缺失造成细胞内代谢物甲硫腺苷(MTA) 的累积,后者能抑制精氨酸甲基转移酶PRMT5的活性,并据此证实了针对MTAP和PRMT5的合成致死效应[95-97]
肿瘤基因组学研究最终的目标是帮助提高临床诊断和治疗的能力, 将基因组学的技术手段和分析方法引入临床实践。根据患者肿瘤和正常组织的基因组分析数据, 寻找有效的诊断标志物和治疗靶标, 有利于优化临床试验设计、指导临床选择更加合适特定个体的治疗方案, 也越来越多地被证明能够实现更高的疗效和更少的不良反应, 对于肿瘤精准医疗具有重要意义(图 3)。
诊断标志物是判断肿瘤发生与分级的重要指标, 基因组学的各种前瞻性和回顾性研究鉴定出了与肿瘤相关的各种基因组异常包括DNA杂合性缺失突变、基因拷贝数改变、染色质异常、微卫星不稳定和表观修饰紊乱等, 都有可能成为潜在的诊断标志物; 此外, 由于基因组不稳定所导致的异常表达产物(mRNA、蛋白质等) 和累积的代谢物也能够帮助诊断肿瘤和明确疾病分级。因此, 基于肿瘤基因组学图谱所得到的诊断标志物对潜在人群进行检测和筛查, 有助于实现肿瘤的早期诊断和个体化治疗。
当前临床上最常见的DNA相关标志物主要是异常的癌基因, 如KRAS突变、EGFR激活突变、BCL-ABL染色质易位、EML4-ALK基因融合等, 已经在相关肿瘤诊断分型和临床治疗中得到广泛应用。对多例不同组织分型的肺癌患者进行基因异常情况分析发现, 各种组织分型之间和内部均存在显著的基因异常情况的差异, 根据基因改变情况进行重新分型并调整治疗方式, 最终实现了EFGR突变或ALK重排肿瘤患者总生存期的显著改善[98]
除了筛查已知的诊断标志物, 肿瘤基因组学研究也在不断发现新的生物标志物指导临床诊断。为了更好理解宫颈癌发病机制, 研究者[99]对102例肿瘤样本及其对照正常组织进行了全基因组测序或全外显子测序并系统分析了人乳头瘤病毒(HPV) 整合谱, 突变分析发现宫颈癌中有8个显著突变的基因, 其中包括4个此前在宫颈癌相关研究中未见报道的基因, 为寻找新的诊断标志物奠定了基础。
此外, 功能基因组学研究手段的不断发展也促进了更为灵敏的分子诊断工具的开发, 如利用Cas12和Cas13的CRISPR分子诊断系统已经被用于从患者肿瘤组织活检中鉴定相关的基因突变, 有助于建立高灵敏度的个体化肿瘤诊断和监控系统[100]
根据患者完整的肿瘤基因组图谱及特定基因组变化的临床相关性和可操作性所鉴定的肿瘤治疗靶标, 能帮助指导临床制定有效的治疗决策, 是肿瘤精准治疗的基石。异常遗传物质本身、基因异常表达的产物及遗传物质变异赋予肿瘤细胞的特定脆弱性, 都能作为潜在的治疗靶点。
渐变性淋巴瘤激酶(anaplastic lymphoma kinase, ALK) 抑制剂的成功应用是肿瘤基因组变异信息向临床转化的典范。ALK参与调控细胞内多种信号通路, 对于细胞生长、转化及抗凋亡等具有重要作用。研究表明ALK多种变异形式所导致的异常激活是强致癌因素, 在多种ALK阳性的肿瘤尤其是NSCLC中, 其主要激活突变形式为基因融合[101]。克唑替尼(crizotinib) 作为第一代ALK抑制剂是首个被FDA批准用于治疗ALK检测阳性的NSCLC靶向药物。临床试验结果显示, ALK阳性的晚期肿瘤患者在接受了抑制剂治疗后总缓解率达到57%, 无进展生存期显著提高[102]。但由于耐药突变、信号旁路激活及其他未知致癌基因出现等原因, 最终仍会出现耐药并导致疾病进展, 因此对于ALK抑制剂的研究仍在不断完善和创新, 目前第三代ALK抑制剂博瑞纳(lorlatinib) 已在国内获批上市。
异柠檬酸脱氢酶1 (isocitrate dehydrogenase 1, IDH1) 是测序发现的突变基因被开发成为治疗靶标的另一经典例子。对多形性胶质母细胞瘤样本进行基因测序分析, 研究者发现约12%患者存在IDH1相关位点反复突变[103]; 随后不久, 原发性AML的全基因组测序研究中也发现了IDH1突变的存在, 且多项临床研究提示IDH1突变与AML不良预后显著相关[104]。上述发现直接推动了IDH相关的机制研究和抗肿瘤药物研发。突变型IDH引起的致癌代谢物2-羟基戊酸(2-hydroxyglutarate, 2-HG) 的累积, 能够影响表观遗传修饰, 干扰多种酶和信号通路, 阻碍细胞正常分化过程最终驱动肿瘤发生[105]。针对突变IDH开发的小分子抑制剂已经获批上市, 用于治疗携带IDH1/2敏感突变的复发性或难治性急性髓系白血病成人患者[106, 107]
目前临床肿瘤治疗多采用双药或多药联合治疗策略, 对于提高疗效、降低治疗相关不良反应和延缓耐药发生等具有重要意义。而肿瘤基因组学研究整合患者异常基因组信息, 有助于临床设计联合疗法, 进而实现个体化治疗。
大多分子靶向疗法, 由于靶标本身二次突变以及下游或旁路激活等[108], 容易引起治疗耐药。肿瘤基因组学研究为揭示相关耐药机制提供了一定的理论支持。如大多数对EGFR抑制剂初始治疗有效的非小细胞肺癌患者最终会出现耐药。通过对耐药肿瘤的基因测序发现, 除EGFR二次突变(T790M) 外, MET扩增是导致EGFR抑制剂获得性耐药最常见的原因之一。MET扩增可以激活ERBB3, 进而激活肿瘤生长的旁路途径, 最终导致耐药发生[109]。一项多中心、开放性临床试验为EGFR突变阳性且存在MET扩增的获得型耐药的NSCLC患者设计了osimertinib (靶向EGFR) 和savolitinib (靶向MET) 的联合治疗方案, 试验结果证实了联合治疗方案的疗效与获益, 提示该联合策略有望成为EGFR TKI治疗后疾病进展且携带MET扩增的晚期NSCLC患者的治疗选择[110]
免疫疗法是当前肿瘤治疗的热门研究领域之一, 近年来获得了较多实质性进展, 但临床上并非所有患者都能响应免疫治疗, 总缓解率仍相对较低。通过肿瘤基因组研究, 将临床标准免疫疗法与增强免疫应答的辅助性免疫疗法相结合, 为增敏肿瘤免疫治疗、提高患者临床获益提供了新的策略方向。KRAS突变的肺腺癌患者免疫治疗应答率低是临床上常见的问题之一, 为鉴定肿瘤免疫的相关调控因子, 研究者构建了以表观遗传调控为重点的sgRNA文库, 通过CRISPR体内筛选发现, 肿瘤细胞组蛋白分子伴侣Asf1a缺失能够显著增敏抗PD-1治疗[111]。相关机制研究提示, 肿瘤细胞Asf1a缺陷通过上调GM-CSF表达能够促进M1样巨噬细胞极化, 与PD-1联用能够促进T细胞活化进而产生协同治疗作用。该研究为抗PD-1免疫治疗与Asf1a抑制相结合的新型联合治疗策略提供了理论基础。
肿瘤基因组学的不断发展也推动了临床试验设计不断革新。在基因组学不断进步和精准医学研究不断深入的大背景下所衍生出的两类新的临床研究策略——篮子试验(basket trials) 和伞式试验(umbrella trials), 进一步推动了生物标志物指导下的靶向治疗的临床开发。
篮子试验指的是对具有共同分子改变的多种疾病进行靶向治疗的设计[112], 打破了传统基于肿瘤发生部位和病理类型进行分组的局限性。一项研究通过篮子试验评估了恩曲替尼(entrectinib) 用于NTRK融合阳性晚期或转移性实体瘤的治疗效果。该分析纳入了54例携带NTRK1、NTRK2和NTRK3基因融合的转移性或晚期实体肿瘤患者(10种不同的肿瘤类型和19种不同的组织学类型), 对其进行疗效和安全性分析, 其结果表明恩曲替尼在NTRK融合阳性的实体肿瘤患者中产生了持续的治疗效果, 且耐受性良好, 提示常规进行NTRK抑制剂可成为NTRK融合阳性肿瘤患者的治疗选择[113]。篮子试验为具有特定基因组改变的患者扩大了获得靶向治疗的机会, 尤其适合用于研究在多种肿瘤类型中发生频率较低的突变或个别疾病特异性研究很难积累足够数量受试者的情况。
伞式试验指的是根据预测标志物或其他预测性因素将单一疾病分为多个亚层, 进而同时评估多种靶向治疗的临床试验[112]。Lung-MAP (Lung Cancer Master Protocol) 是伞式试验的代表性研究之一, 也是美国国家肿瘤研究所启动的第一个生物标志物驱动的临床研究。该研究将晚期或复发的鳞状非小细胞肺癌患者根据生物标志物检测结果分组进行针对性治疗, 具有不同基因改变的患者分别给予不同的靶向治疗方案, 如针对PIK3CA突变人群采用PI3Kα的抑制剂taselisib, 对同源修复重组缺陷患者使用PARP抑制剂talazoparib等。该研究充分体现了伞式试验在最有可能获益的患者中同时评估多种靶向治疗方案效果的特点, 有助于解决鳞状非小细胞肺癌靶向治疗中存在的问题[114]
人类肿瘤的基因组测序和功能基因组学的发展极大地提高了研究者对于肿瘤的认识, 并在一定程度上促进了相关数据分析结果向疾病早期准确诊断与开发抗肿瘤治疗方法的临床转化。但是, 在肿瘤研究领域研究者仍有很长的路要走, 当前肿瘤发生发展机制并未被完全阐释清楚, 治疗过程中仍存在疗效和相关不良反应不尽如人意的情况。
在肿瘤的遗传分子机制方面, 仍有很多问题亟待解决。除上文所述, 不同个体/部位肿瘤之间和同一肿瘤内部所存在的不同表型细胞亚群外(空间异质性), 随着时间推移和疾病进展, 肿瘤细胞基因组也因各种外界和内在因素不断发生变化(时间异质性)。因此, 相同患者在不同疾病阶段对治疗的敏感程度可能发生变化, 这也是临床上多种靶向治疗耐药或肿瘤复发的关键原因。此外, 对于肿瘤异质性的理解和探索已进一步拓展到肿瘤细胞与微环境的相互作用。微环境成分如血液与淋巴管系统、浸润的正常细胞(尤其是免疫细胞)、细胞外基质的成分等差异巨大, 使肿瘤发展及治疗应答也不尽相同。如肿瘤细胞通过有氧糖酵解诱导高乳酸的肿瘤微环境, 不仅能够剥夺免疫细胞的营养物质, 还能为调节性T细胞提供乳酸维持其免疫抑制功能, 进一步促进肿瘤发展[115]。因此, 进一步探究肿瘤基因组的动态变化及肿瘤细胞与微环境中其他组分的相互作用有利于为开发更加安全有效的治疗手段提供方向。
另一方面, 科学的发展离不开技术的进步。各种基因编辑技术与其他生物技术的结合在构建临床前研究模型、推动肿瘤基因组学研究与抗肿瘤药物研发中发挥着不可估量的作用。如前文中所述, 利用基因编辑技术在肿瘤细胞系、类器官模型、动物等各种体外和体内研究模型中引入感兴趣的基因改变, 同时结合高通量筛选技术, 研究者发现了众多与肿瘤发生发展相关的异常基因改变, 并基于这些发现开发了靶向治疗药物。但值得注意的是, 临床前研究模型与正常生理病理环境相比还是存在多种局限性, 如经基因编辑技术改造的细胞系模型在多次传代过程中基因组稳定性发生变化; 动物模型与人之间存在关键性遗传、分子生物学差异; 研究模型只能模拟肿瘤的特定过程或某一阶段的特定进展而无法模拟肿瘤病理变化的整个过程等, 这些都会导致临床前研究成果临床转化率低或相关药物无法达到预估效果。因此, 进一步完善临床前研究模型, 更好地模拟人类肿瘤的真实发生发展过程, 对于肿瘤研究及临床转化同样具有重要意义。此外, 在临床转化过程中所存在的伦理、法律和社会经济方面的影响也需要研究者进行更深入的思考和理解。
最后, 肿瘤是极为复杂的系统疾病, 除基因组外, 在转录组、蛋白质组和代谢组等多个层面上都有可能发生异常, 且多种组学间往往是相互关联的。目前, 对于肿瘤基因组的认识已相对较为全面, 但仅仅从基因组层面进行研究只能解释单层面的问题, 不足以阐明肿瘤复杂的发病机制, 而整合其他组学技术如蛋白质组学、代谢组学等的多组学研究为进一步探究肿瘤发展过程和个体化治疗提供诸多新的见解, 完善了人们对于肿瘤恶性转化和预后的认识。如通过对43株不同来源的KRAS突变肿瘤细胞进行基因组、转录组、蛋白质组及磷酸化蛋白质组的多维组学整合分析, 研究者发现了KRAS突变肿瘤具有显著分子特征和预后差异的3个亚群, 并在此基础上提出了临床预后最差亚型敏感的潜在药物治疗组合[116]。另一项在肝炎病毒感染相关早期肝癌肿瘤组织中进行的蛋白质组学和磷酸蛋白组学分析将早期肝癌患者分为3个具有不同临床预后的亚群, 并发现S-Ⅲ亚型患者中调控胆固醇代谢的关键酶SOAT1明显上调, 显著影响肿瘤细胞的增殖和转移, 提示SOAT1可作为早期肝癌S-Ⅲ亚型潜在治疗靶点[117]。总之, 多组学整合研究从系统和整体角度出发, 目前已在肿瘤研究领域取得诸多显著成果, 对于推动肿瘤研究和临床相关获益具有重要的科学价值。未来随着技术的不断发展与突破, 基因组学与其他组学的整合研究将在肿瘤研究领域扮演愈加重要的角色, 进一步加快攻克肿瘤的步伐, 带来肿瘤复杂生物学机制探索和个体化治疗的突破, 使更多肿瘤患者获益。
作者贡献: 闫溢洋负责相关文献的收集、文章作图及综述的撰写; 黄敏是综述框架的构思者及负责人, 指导论文写作并对论文进行了修改和检查。全体作者都阅读并同意最终的文本。
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  • 上海市优秀学术带头人计划项目(20XD1424800)
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2023年第58卷第8期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0943
  • 接收时间:2022-07-31
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-08-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-07-31
  • 修回日期:2022-09-16
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上海市优秀学术带头人计划项目(20XD1424800)
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    1.中国科学院上海药物研究所, 新药研究国家重点实验室, 上海 201203
    2.中国科学院大学, 北京 100009
    3.国科大杭州高等研究院, 药物科学与技术学院, 浙江 杭州 310024

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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