Article(id=1210516747229204999, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0880, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1658160000000, receivedDateStr=2022-07-19, revisedDate=1660665600000, revisedDateStr=2022-08-17, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766539282852, onlineDateStr=2025-12-24, pubDate=1665504000000, pubDateStr=2022-10-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766539282852, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766539282852, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539282852, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210516741998907791, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2022', volume='57', issue='10', pageStart='1', pageEnd='3258', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766539281606, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539576214, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210517977762500872, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210517977762500873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=3157, endPage=3162, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210516747694772776, articleId=1210516747229204999, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=The combined application of PBPK model and PopPK model in the dose selection of pediatric drug development: an example of rivaroxaban, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Model-informed drug development (MIDD) in the development of pediatric drugs is drawing more and more attention due to the insufficiency of subjects, lack of research on ontogeny, and the limitation of ethic. The core of MIDD used for dose selection includes the population pharmacokinetic (PopPK) model and physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model, as well as model-based simulation and prediction. PBPK model has the advantage of predicting the optimal pediatric dose before the clinical trials and has the ability of extrapolation from adult model to pediatric model. PopPK model characterizes the pediatric PK feature based on the analysis of clinical data and can be used to explore the significant covariates, which is a power tool for individualized medicine in children. With their own advantages and disadvantages, PBPK and PopPK model should be jointly used in the pediatric drug development to refine the dose regimen for children at different ages. In this study, the pediatric drug development of rivaroxaban was taken as an example to introduce the combined application of PBPK model and PopPK model in the design and validation of pediatric dose regimen in Phase Ⅰ, Ⅱ and Ⅲ trials, which may provide reference to MIDD in other pediatric drug development.

, correspAuthors=Tian-yan ZHOU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2022 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Wei-zhe JIAN, Rong CHEN, Tian-yan ZHOU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1210516750760809167, articleId=1210516747229204999, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=联合应用PBPK模型和PopPK模型助力儿科用药研发中的剂量选择: 以利伐沙班为例, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

在儿科用药研发面临巨大挑战的背景下, 模型引导的药物研发(model-informed drug development, MIDD) 在儿科新药研发中日益受到重视。在指导剂量选择时, MIDD的核心内容包括基于生理的药物动力学(physiologically based pharmacokinetic, PBPK) 模型和群体药物动力学(population pharmacokinetic, PopPK) 模型的建立和仿真预测。PBPK模型用于开展临床试验前对儿科剂量进行预测, 具有从成人PK外推至儿科PK的能力; PopPK模型用于从儿科临床数据中分析得到药物的PK特征, 分析影响药物PK行为的关键协变量, 指导个体化儿科用药。这两种模型各有优势与不足, 需要在儿科新药研发各个阶段进行联合运用, 互相补充, 共同为儿童各年龄阶段的剂量选择发挥作用。本文以利伐沙班儿科用药研发为例, 介绍PBPK模型和PopPK模型在儿科Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ期临床试验中设计和验证给药方案的联合应用, 为其他儿科用药研发中MIDD的应用提供参考。

, correspAuthors=周田彦, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*周田彦, Tel: 86-10-82801717, E-mail:
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Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 2011, 67: 5-16., articleTitle=The role of population PK-PD modelling in paediatric clinical research, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1210516759220719988, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516747229204999, doi=10.1007/s40262-013-0090-5, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2014, volume=53, issue=null, pageStart=89, pageEnd=102, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[19], rfOrder=18, authorNames=null, journalName=Clin Pharmacokinet, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Willmann S, Becker C, Burghaus R, et al. Development of a paediatric population-based model of the pharmacokinetics of rivaroxaban[J]. Clin Pharmacokinet, 2014, 53: 89-102., articleTitle=Development of a paediatric population-based model of the pharmacokinetics of rivaroxaban, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1210516759384297855, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516747229204999, doi=10.1002/psp4.12688, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2021, volume=10, issue=null, pageStart=1195, pageEnd=1207, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[20], rfOrder=19, authorNames=null, journalName=CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Willmann S, Coboeken K, Zhang Y, et al. Population pharmacokinetic analysis of rivaroxaban in children and comparison to prospective physiologically-based pharmacokinetic predictions[J]. CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol, 2021, 10: 1195-1207., articleTitle=Population pharmacokinetic analysis of rivaroxaban in children and comparison to prospective physiologically-based pharmacokinetic predictions, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1210516759480766855, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516747229204999, doi=10.1111/j.1365-2125.2012.04181.x, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2012, volume=74, issue=null, pageStart=86, pageEnd=97, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[21], rfOrder=20, authorNames=null, journalName=Br J Clin Pharmacol, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Xu XS, Moore K, Burton P, et al. Population pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of rivaroxaban in patients with acute coronary syndromes[J]. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 2012, 74: 86-97., articleTitle=Population pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of rivaroxaban in patients with acute coronary syndromes, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1210516759589818768, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516747229204999, doi=10.1016/S2352-3026(19)30161-9, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2019, volume=6, issue=null, pageStart=e500, pageEnd=e509, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[22], rfOrder=21, authorNames=null, journalName=Lancet Haematol, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Monagle P, Lensing AWA, Thelen K, et al. Bodyweight-adjusted rivaroxaban for children with venous thromboembolism (EINSTEIN-Jr): results from three multicentre, single-arm, phase 2 studies[J]. 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PBPK predictions of the pediatric population are represented as 90% prediction interval (grey shaded area) or geometric means (black closed points). PopPK or NCA derived exposure metrics are represented as blue open or closed points, respectively. The adult reference is represented as geometric means (thick red line) and 90% confidence interval (red shaded area in the background of the graph). The quotation of the figure is licensed by the original publisher, and any third party is not allowed to quote the figure without permission , figureFileSmall=95tKcHaW4Dk3ADQgJsv3sA==, figureFileBig=2GQhzfxzWysS8sQrYYoWwQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516755013832774, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516747229204999, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=KiFTcdrzFTddUatD81Ky+A==, figureFileBig=zNzHfeK38BlEZ71btsuX4w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516755181604954, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516747229204999, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= Joint applications of PBPK and PopPK model in the pediatric drug development of rivaroxaban. ADME: Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion , figureFileSmall=KiFTcdrzFTddUatD81Ky+A==, figureFileBig=zNzHfeK38BlEZ71btsuX4w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516755299045476, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516747229204999, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=U7Qq17WCTpYopCCbF+cS3g==, figureFileBig=ZSU5S3wH4nxh+7dS/IYYNQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516755403903093, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516747229204999, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= Evolution of bodyweight adjusted total daily doses during the development of rivaroxaban<sup>[<a href="javascript:;" class="mag_content_a" onclick="piaofuRef(this,'b20')" rid="b20">20</a>, <a href="javascript:;" class="mag_content_a" onclick="piaofuRef(this,'b22')" rid="b22">22</a>]</sup> , figureFileSmall=U7Qq17WCTpYopCCbF+cS3g==, figureFileBig=ZSU5S3wH4nxh+7dS/IYYNQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516755504566404, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516747229204999, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Bodyweight /kgRegimen A Phase IRegimen B Phase IIRegimen C Phase IIRegimen D Phase III
2-2.60.8---
2.6-30.81.01.52.4
3-41.21.21.82.7
4-51.81.81.74.2
5-62.22.82.84.8
6-72.83.63.64.8
7-83.24.44.45.4
8-92.86.46.47.2
9-104.26.46.48.4
10-124.86.86.89.0
12-205.08.08.010.0
20-307.510.010.010.0
30-4010.015.015.015.0
40-5015.015.015.015.0
> 5020.020.020.020.0
), ArticleFig(id=1210516755638784143, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516747229204999, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Bodyweight-adjusted doses for children equivalent to adult dose of 20 mg in the pediatric drug development of rivaroxaban[20, 22]. Data are total daily doses of rivaroxaban in mg

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Bodyweight /kgRegimen A Phase IRegimen B Phase IIRegimen C Phase IIRegimen D Phase III
2-2.60.8---
2.6-30.81.01.52.4
3-41.21.21.82.7
4-51.81.81.74.2
5-62.22.82.84.8
6-72.83.63.64.8
7-83.24.44.45.4
8-92.86.46.47.2
9-104.26.46.48.4
10-124.86.86.89.0
12-205.08.08.010.0
20-307.510.010.010.0
30-4010.015.015.015.0
40-5015.015.015.015.0
> 5020.020.020.020.0
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联合应用PBPK模型和PopPK模型助力儿科用药研发中的剂量选择: 以利伐沙班为例
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简伟哲 , 陈镕 , 周田彦 *
药学学报 | 综述 2022,57(10): 3157-3162
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药学学报 | 综述 2022, 57(10): 3157-3162
联合应用PBPK模型和PopPK模型助力儿科用药研发中的剂量选择: 以利伐沙班为例
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简伟哲, 陈镕, 周田彦*
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  • 北京大学药学院药剂系, 北京 100191

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*周田彦, Tel: 86-10-82801717, E-mail:
The combined application of PBPK model and PopPK model in the dose selection of pediatric drug development: an example of rivaroxaban
Wei-zhe JIAN, Rong CHEN, Tian-yan ZHOU*
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  • Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
出版时间: 2022-10-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0880
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在儿科用药研发面临巨大挑战的背景下, 模型引导的药物研发(model-informed drug development, MIDD) 在儿科新药研发中日益受到重视。在指导剂量选择时, MIDD的核心内容包括基于生理的药物动力学(physiologically based pharmacokinetic, PBPK) 模型和群体药物动力学(population pharmacokinetic, PopPK) 模型的建立和仿真预测。PBPK模型用于开展临床试验前对儿科剂量进行预测, 具有从成人PK外推至儿科PK的能力; PopPK模型用于从儿科临床数据中分析得到药物的PK特征, 分析影响药物PK行为的关键协变量, 指导个体化儿科用药。这两种模型各有优势与不足, 需要在儿科新药研发各个阶段进行联合运用, 互相补充, 共同为儿童各年龄阶段的剂量选择发挥作用。本文以利伐沙班儿科用药研发为例, 介绍PBPK模型和PopPK模型在儿科Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ期临床试验中设计和验证给药方案的联合应用, 为其他儿科用药研发中MIDD的应用提供参考。

模型引导的药物研发  /  儿科药物  /  群体药物动力学模型  /  基于生理的药物动力学模型  /  利伐沙班

Model-informed drug development (MIDD) in the development of pediatric drugs is drawing more and more attention due to the insufficiency of subjects, lack of research on ontogeny, and the limitation of ethic. The core of MIDD used for dose selection includes the population pharmacokinetic (PopPK) model and physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model, as well as model-based simulation and prediction. PBPK model has the advantage of predicting the optimal pediatric dose before the clinical trials and has the ability of extrapolation from adult model to pediatric model. PopPK model characterizes the pediatric PK feature based on the analysis of clinical data and can be used to explore the significant covariates, which is a power tool for individualized medicine in children. With their own advantages and disadvantages, PBPK and PopPK model should be jointly used in the pediatric drug development to refine the dose regimen for children at different ages. In this study, the pediatric drug development of rivaroxaban was taken as an example to introduce the combined application of PBPK model and PopPK model in the design and validation of pediatric dose regimen in Phase Ⅰ, Ⅱ and Ⅲ trials, which may provide reference to MIDD in other pediatric drug development.

model-informed drug development  /  pediatric drug  /  population pharmacokinetic model  /  physiologically based pharmacokinetic model  /  rivaroxaban
简伟哲, 陈镕, 周田彦. 联合应用PBPK模型和PopPK模型助力儿科用药研发中的剂量选择: 以利伐沙班为例. 药学学报, 2022 , 57 (10) : 3157 -3162 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0880
Wei-zhe JIAN, Rong CHEN, Tian-yan ZHOU. The combined application of PBPK model and PopPK model in the dose selection of pediatric drug development: an example of rivaroxaban[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2022 , 57 (10) : 3157 -3162 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0880
长期以来, 儿科用药研发都是制药企业亟待解决的重要问题。儿科受试者数量不足、剂量选择困难、伦理要求严格、以及儿童生长发育对药物吸收、分布、代谢、排泄(ADME) 过程的影响研究不足等限制, 让儿科用药的研发面临重大挑战[1, 2]。FDA在2007至2020年间收到超过400种药物的儿科用药申报, 但仍有约25%的药物未在任何年龄分组的儿科患者中获批使用[3, 4]。在我国, 儿童药品的种类占全部药物种类的比例更是不足10%, 临床对儿科用药的需求十分迫切[5]。为满足临床对儿科用药的需求, 各国出台了一系列政策鼓励企业开展儿科用药的研发。我国在近年出台了多项鼓励儿科用药研发的政策[6-8], 并相应推出了指导儿科用药研发的技术指南, 如《儿科人群药代动力学研究技术指导原则》、《儿科人群药物临床试验技术指导原则》和《成人用药数据外推至儿科人群的技术指导原则》等。
在儿科用药的研发中, 未能选择安全又有效的剂量是其主要困难[3, 9, 10]。为了选择合适的剂量, 制药企业在儿科用药研发过程中对模型引导的药物研发(model-informed drug development, MIDD) 的需求不断增加, 作为监管部门也推荐在新药研发和儿科用药研发运用模型化与仿真(modeling and simulation, M & S) 方法[4]。据统计, 2012年至2020年间提交至美国FDA的275项儿科用药申报中, 有134个项目(48.7%) 在研发过程中运用了M & S方法, 主要用于预测儿科初始剂量和对给药方案进行验证和优化[3]
鉴于儿科用药研发对MIDD不断增加的需求, 本文将简要介绍M & S方法在预测儿科用药剂量中的应用、优势和挑战, 并以新型口服抗凝药物利伐沙班(rivaroxaban) 的儿科用药研发项目为例介绍其具体应用, 为MIDD方法在其他儿科药物研发中的应用提供范例。
在儿科用药的研发中, M & S方法用于剂量选择时主要包括基于生理的药物动力学(physiologically based pharmacokinetic, PBPK) 模型和群体药物动力学(population pharmacokinetic, PopPK) 模型。PBPK模型整合体外和/或动物实验获得的药物相关参数和生理系统相关参数, 以及儿童发育学信息, 机制性地描述药物的ADME过程, 是一种“自下而上(bottom-up)”的方法[11, 12]。PBPK模型从参数出发可以通过引入成人与儿童的生理参数差异, 预测药物在成人与儿童上的PK行为差异[13, 14]。PopPK模型从数据出发, 以房室模型、统计模型和随机成分描述给药后的药物浓度-时间曲线, 是一种“自上而下(top-down)”的方法[12, 15]。PopPK模型适用于从儿科临床数据中分析得到药物的儿科PK特征, 以及分析影响药物PK行为的关键协变量[11]
儿科用药研发中, 在开展临床试验前对儿科剂量进行预测是PBPK模型的优势所在, 而对临床试验中收集的儿科数据进行充分的事后分析则是PopPK模型的长项。两者在儿科用药研发中的应用各有所长, 因而在一些儿科用药研发项目中有必要同时运用PBPK和PopPK建模方法, 以相互补充和印证。
严格的伦理要求让儿科临床试验受试者数量十分有限, 使得选择安全且有效的儿科剂量成为儿科药物研发成功的瓶颈, 而M & S方法可通过预测儿科患者的PK来减少所需受试者数量。PBPK模型是研究“药物-药物相互作用” (drug-drug interaction, DDI) 和特殊人群用药的有力工具, 其中儿科患者可视为一种相对于成人的特殊患者[16]。儿科PBPK模型的建立基于对成人PBPK模型中年龄相关的器官血流量、药物代谢酶活性等参数的调整, 可预测儿科患者的PK曲线[17]。相比于传统的儿科PK研究, PBPK模型仅需较少量儿科受试者的观测值对儿科PBPK模型进行验证, 便可大致描绘出儿科患者的PK特征。此外, 儿科研究的伦理还限制对儿科受试者的密集采样, 使得儿科PK研究通常只能基于稀疏数据。传统PK研究的两步法分别对每一个体的密集数据进行拟合, 而PopPK分析时群体中的所有个体的稀疏数据都用来建立模型[18]。而且基于非线性混合效应(nonlinear mixed effect, NLME) 模型的PopPK分析, 将数据中的变异拆分为个体间变异、个体内变异和残留变异, 同时借助贝叶斯方法, 可同时模拟群体中所有个体的PK曲线[18]。因此, 儿科PopPK模型的建立无需个体的密集数据, 在儿科用药剂量选择中发挥日益重要的作用。
目前M & S方法在儿科用药研发中已有巨大进步, 但PBPK模型和PopPK模型用于儿科剂量的预测仍存在一些挑战。首先, 以药物代谢为例, 由于对儿童发育过程中细胞色素P450同工酶(CYP450) 成熟度的研究相对全面, PBPK模型对经CYP酶代谢的药物具有较好的预测能力, 而对于非CYP酶代谢的药物或代谢途径尚不明确的药物则存在预测能力不足的风险[17]。其次, PopPK模型经验性地描述药物ADME过程, 纳入的生理信息有限, 其基于成人与儿童的生理差异来进行PK外推的能力有限, 在描述机体对药物的代谢能力随年龄变化时具有一定的不确定性[11, 18]。此外, 儿科用药剂量通常基于成人与儿童具有相似量效关系的假设, 然后通过与成人相似的暴露量外推得到, 但这一假设并非在所有药物和疾病上都成立, 此时基于暴露量外推的剂量预测可能导致疗效和安全性的风险, 有必要基于儿科PK/PD模型进行深入分析。然而, 虽然面临上述挑战, 但越来越多儿科用药MIDD的案例已经证明了M & S方法在儿科用药研发中的潜在价值, 且模型预测能力将随着儿童发育的深入研究和各种模型的联合运用而不断提高。
利伐沙班是新型口服凝血因子Xa抑制剂, 首先在成人中获批用于治疗或预防多种血管栓塞疾病, 其作用机制是对凝血因子Xa的直接抑制[19]。利伐沙班口服生物利用度随着体重归一化剂量(bodyweight normalized dose, DoseNorm) 增加而降低, 清除率随着年龄增加而增加, 具有较为复杂的PK特征[20]。在利伐沙班的成人药效动力学(pharmacodynamics, PD) 研究中, 发现凝血酶原时间(prothrombin time, PTT) 与血药浓度之间存在良好线性关系[21]; 且在一项涵盖6个月至17岁儿科患者的PD研究中, 也观察到凝血因子Xa的抑制与血药浓度之间的良好线性关系[22]。利伐沙班在儿童和成人之间具有疾病和量效关系的相似性, 因此, 其儿科用药的剂量选择以达到与成人相同暴露量为目标。下面介绍PBPK模型和PopPK模型在利伐沙班儿科剂量选择中的具体应用。
在开展Ⅰ期临床试验前, 首先对成人PBPK模型进行缩放, 将利伐沙班成人PBPK模型中的体格和生理参数, 以及随年龄变化的清除率和蛋白结合率替换为儿童参数, 并将儿童发育信息考虑在内, 得到其儿科PBPK模型[19], 再根据暴露量相似假设预测其Ⅰ期临床试验儿科剂量。具体而言, 利伐沙班在成人中采用固定剂量10或20 mg给药, 成人体重典型值为70 kg, 假设儿童服用0.143和0.286 mg·kg-1 (分别等效成人10和20 mg剂量) 时能达到与成人相似的暴露量, 暴露量指标采用了最大血药浓度(Cmax)、谷浓度(Ctrough) 和曲线下面积(area under the curve, AUC)[19], 然后基于儿科PBPK模型分别仿真了不同体重儿科患者服用0.143和0.286 mg·kg-1利伐沙班后的暴露量, 如图 1A所示(仅以等效20 mg剂量的AUC为例, 后同)。
仿真结果显示, 儿童在0.286 mg·kg-1剂量下的AUC大部分位于成人预测值的90%置信区间内, 但在体重低于20 kg的患者中存在明显偏离。据此, 研究团队认为体重较低的患者应增加剂量, 而体重接近成人的患者应使用成人的固定剂量。随后, 基于该儿童PBPK模型的预测结果上调低体重患者的剂量, 得到不同体重的儿科患者达到与成人相同暴露量时所需剂量, 以该给药方案(即表 1中方案A, 以等效20 mg为例) 在6个月至18岁儿科患者中开展Ⅰ期临床试验[19, 23]
基于方案A开展儿科Ⅰ期临床试验, 纳入了年龄从6个月至18岁的60位儿科患者。获得临床数据后建立PopPK模型, 并基于儿科PBPK模型预测受试者的药物暴露量, 之后对PBPK模型、PopPK模型和非房室分析(non-compartmental analysis, NCA) 得到的暴露量指标进行了比较, 结果如图 1B所示。结果显示: ① NCA和PopPK模型计算得到的利伐沙班暴露量指标落在PBPK模型的90%预测区间内, 仅低体重患者的预测稍微偏高, 这相互印证了儿科PBPK模型和PopPK模型的准确性和预测能力[23]; ② Ⅰ期临床试验数据初步验证了PBPK模型在儿科患者中的整体预测性能良好, 尚不需要进行模型优化; ③体重与暴露量呈现正相关趋势, 且Ⅰ期临床试验的方案A无法保障低体重儿科患者的暴露量达到成人水平。因此, II期试验中需要进一步优化方案。
Ⅱ期临床试验基于更充足的数据、已建立的PBPK和PopPK模型, 对方案A进行优化, 重新设计与成人20 mg剂量相当的给药方案, 即表 1中方案B。体重超过50 kg的儿科患者采用与成人相同的每日总剂量, 20~50 kg的患者近似采用0.286 mg·kg-1的每日总剂量, 而低于20 kg的则在方案A的基础上进行上调[22]。以0.286 mg·kg-1为参考, 体重5~20 kg患者的DoseNorm上调1倍, 小于5 kg的DoseNorm上调约50%, 后者用于首次纳入临床试验的、年龄小于6个月的儿科患者, 因此采取了相对保守的给药策略。方案B提高了低体重患儿的每日总剂量, 意在改善Ⅰ期试验中此类患者暴露量不足的情况。Ⅱ期临床试验纳入年龄从出生到18岁的93位儿科患者。
在给药方案B的实践过程中, 观察到体重小于5 kg的DoseNorm用于首次纳入的、年龄小于6个月的患儿时仍存在暴露量不足的问题, 因而在Ⅱ期临床试验后期, 进一步将其每日总剂量提高至2.7、1.8、1.5 mg, 并增加给药频率, 即表 1中方案C, 并基于PopPK模型计算受试者的暴露量指标, 结果如图 1C所示。相比于Ⅰ期试验, Ⅱ期早期给药方案B使得暴露量整体有所提高, 但低体重患儿中的暴露量仍然偏低, 后期的方案C起到一定改善作用, 但也未能完全达到成人暴露量的参考范围。
因此, 在获得Ⅱ期临床试验数据后, 再次基于模型对利伐沙班的儿科剂量进行优化, 再次提高了体重低于20 kg的儿科患者的每日总剂量和给药频率, 作为后续临床试验的推荐给药方案(即表 1中方案D), 并以该给药方案开展儿科Ⅲ期临床试验[20]
此外, Ⅱ期临床试验考察了药效指标凝血酶原时间(prothrombin time) 和活化部分凝血活酶时间(activated partial thromboplastin time) 与暴露量之间的相关性, 发现药效指标与利伐沙班血药浓度间存在较好的相关性, 提示利伐沙班可基于暴露量进行儿科精准治疗[22]
儿科Ⅲ期临床试验纳入年龄从出生到18岁的316位儿科患者。获得Ⅲ期临床试验数据后, 研究者汇集所有临床试验数据建立儿科PopPK模型, 进行影响因素分析。PopPK模型中识别出的协变量包括[20]: 吸收速率常数(ka) 受不同剂型的影响(式1); 相对生物利用度(F) 随剂量增加而降低(式2); 清除率(CL)、中心室和外周是表观分布容积(Vc; Vp)、隔室间清除率(Q) 随体重(BW) 增加而增加(式3~6)。
$ {k}_{\mathrm{a}}=\left\{\begin{array}{cc}0.799& \mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{s}, \mathrm{ }\mathrm{g}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{ }\ \mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{d}\ \mathrm{ }\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{ }\ \mathrm{s}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\\ 0.266& \mathrm{u}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{ }\ \mathrm{s}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\end{array}\right. $
$ F={F}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}} +\mathrm{ }({F}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}}-{F}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{x}})\cdot \mathrm{e}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{p}\left(-\frac{\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}2}{{D}_{50}}\cdot Dos{e}_{\mathrm{n}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{m}}\right) $
$ \mathrm{C}\mathrm{L}=\mathrm{C}{\mathrm{L}}_{\mathrm{T}\mathrm{V}}\cdot {\left(\frac{\mathrm{B}\mathrm{W}}{\mathrm{B}{\mathrm{W}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}}}\right)}^{0.481} $
$ {V}_{\mathrm{c}}={{V}_{\mathrm{c}, }}_{\mathrm{T}\mathrm{V}}\cdot {\left(\frac{\mathrm{B}\mathrm{W}}{\mathrm{B}{\mathrm{W}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}}}\right)}^{0.821} $
$ {V}_{\mathrm{p}}={{V}_{\mathrm{p}, }}_{\mathrm{T}\mathrm{V}}\cdot {\left(\frac{\mathrm{B}\mathrm{W}}{\mathrm{B}{\mathrm{W}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}}}\right)}^{0.821} $
$ Q={Q}_{\mathrm{T}\mathrm{V}}\cdot {\left(\frac{\mathrm{B}\mathrm{W}}{\mathrm{B}{\mathrm{W}}_{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}}}\right)}^{0.761} $
其中, 相对生物利用度与DoseNorm之间的关系使用成人PopPK模型中建立的数学关系[24], D50表示相对生物利用度为50%时对应的DoseNorm。其他在成人PopPK模型中显著的协变量, 如肝肾功能、合并用药对清除率的影响, 因儿科临床试验中未能纳入足够多的受试者而无法识别为显著协变量。
儿科Ⅲ期临床试验对方案D进行了考察, 结果如图 1D所示。基于早期建立PBPK模型预测的暴露量和通过PopPK模型后验估计的暴露量趋势一致, 该方案下不同年龄组患者的暴露量均落在成人有效暴露量的90%置信区间内, 结果表明方案D已经可以满足临床儿科用药需求。
临床试验观测值与模型预测值的比较结果提示, 现有PBPK模型对年龄小于2岁的儿科患者的暴露量存在高估、清除率存在低估。研究团队认为造成该预测偏倚的可能原因是“单位肝脏重量中的酶量在成人与儿童间相同”这一假设并不完全成立, 且目前纳入的儿童发育信息不够全面[20]。现有PBPK模型对年龄小于2岁的儿科患者暴露量的高估, 也是前期研究中对低体重患儿剂量预测不足的可能原因之一。
利伐沙班儿科用药研发中, M & S方法的应用贯穿于Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ期临床试验, 各期试验数据的获得与模型的建立、应用和优化形成了良好的“学习-验证”循环, 如图 2所示。PBPK模型首先为儿科Ⅰ期临床试验预测起始剂量, 而后基于Ⅰ期临床试验数据建立的PopPK模型与PBPK模型相互印证, 共同优化了Ⅱ、Ⅲ期临床试验的给药方案, 在低体重患儿中的DoseNorm多次上调, 如图 3所示。在Ⅲ期临床试验结束后, PopPK模型分析了影响利伐沙班儿科患者PK的关键影响因素, 进一步为利伐沙班在儿科患者中的精准用药奠定基础。因此, 在利伐沙班儿科剂量的选择过程中, PBPK模型与PopPK模型的联合应用发挥了重要作用, 为各年龄段儿科患者选定了安全且有效的剂量。
总之, 随着M & S技术的日益普及和业内对该方法的日益重视, MIDD在越来越多的儿科用药研发中已被使用或即将被使用, 以解决受试者数量不足、剂量选择困难、伦理要求严格以及儿科发育信息缺失对儿科用药研发的限制。同时, 基于MIDD的剂量选择有助于儿科用药研发提高效率、降低风险、提升成功率, 从而突破临床儿科用药缺乏的困局, 使更多的儿童在药物治疗中获益。
作者贡献: 简伟哲负责文献检索及文章的撰写; 陈镕负责文章内容的补充、修改和校对; 周田彦负责文章的选题、写作指导、修改及校对。
利益冲突: 本文所有作者声明无任何利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82073919)
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2022年第57卷第10期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0880
  • 接收时间:2022-07-19
  • 首发时间:2025-12-24
  • 出版时间:2022-10-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-07-19
  • 修回日期:2022-08-17
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    北京大学药学院药剂系, 北京 100191

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