Article(id=1198622899180503794, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198622898320671473, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0824, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1656950400000, receivedDateStr=2022-07-05, revisedDate=1660060800000, revisedDateStr=2022-08-10, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763703568501, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1673452800000, pubDateStr=2023-01-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763703568501, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763703568501, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763703568501, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198622898320671473, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='234', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1673452800000', pubDateStr='2023-01-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763703568296, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1763703697615, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198623440782586642, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198622898320671473, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198623440782586643, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198622898320671473, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=9, endPage=20, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198622899444744950, articleId=1198622899180503794, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Progress on targets and therapeutic drugs for pancreatic cancer, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Pancreatic cancer is a highly malignant tumor with a poor prognosis. It is very hard to treat pancreatic cancers for their high heterogeneity, complex tumor microenvironment, and drug resistance. Currently, gemcitabine plus nab-paclitaxel, capecitabine and FOLFIRINOX are standard chemotherapy for resectable or advanced metastatic pancreatic cancer. Considering the limited efficacy and toxic side effects of chemotherapy, targeted and immune drugs have gradually attracted attention and made some progress. In this article, we systematically reviewed the chemotherapeutic drugs, targets and related targeted drugs, and immunotherapy drugs for pancreatic cancer.

, authors=null, authorsList=Hong YANG, Wan LI, Sha LI, Li-wen REN, Yi-zhi ZHANG, Yi-hui YANG, Bin-bin GE, Xiang-jin ZHENG, Jin-yi LIU, Sen ZHANG, Guan-hua DU, Jin-hua WANG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Jin-hua WANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198622902573695802, articleId=1198622899180503794, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=胰腺癌药物靶点及治疗药物的研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

胰腺癌是一种恶性程度高、患者总体预后不良的肿瘤。高异质性、复杂的肿瘤微环境、耐药性更是加剧了胰腺癌治疗的困难性。目前, 吉西他滨联合卡培他滨、白蛋白紫杉醇等以及FOLFIRINOX是可切除或晚期转移性胰腺癌的标准化学疗法。鉴于化疗疗效有限且伴随毒副作用, 近来靶向药物及免疫治疗药物逐渐引起重视并取得一定进展。本文将对胰腺癌的化疗药物、靶点及靶向药物、免疫治疗药物进行系统综述。

, authors=null, authorsList=杨红, 李婉, 李莎, 任利文, 张宜之, 杨艺辉, 葛彬彬, 郑湘锦, 刘金宜, 张森, 杜冠华, 王金华, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=王金华, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*王金华, Tel: 86-10-63165313, E-mail:
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J Clin Oncol, 2016, 34: 3020., articleTitle=Phase 2 trial of the indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase pathway (IDO) inhibitor indoximod plus gemcitabine/nab-paclitaxel for the treatment of metastatic pancreas cancer: interim analysis, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1198702087094759917, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198622899180503794, doi=10.1186/s12935-020-1147-9, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2020, volume=20, issue=null, pageStart=66, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[46], rfOrder=45, authorNames=null, journalName=Cancer Cell Int, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Luo W, Yang G, Luo W, et al. Novel therapeutic strategies and perspectives for metastatic pancreatic cancer: vaccine therapy is more than just a theory[J]. 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Drug name Structure Organization Target Approved Line of treatment Clinical trial
Gemcitabine hydrochloride Lilly Anti-metabolic 1996 First Gemcitabine
TS-1 (tegafur/gimeracil/potassium oxonate) TAIHO 2006 First GEST
Nab-paclitaxel Celgene Anti-mitotic 2013 First MPACT
Oxaliplatin Yakult Honsha DNA synthesis 2013 Second CONKO-003 PANCREOX
Nanoliposomal irinotecan (Onivyde) Ipsen TOP1 2015 Second NAPOLI-1
), ArticleFig(id=1198702078001508415, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198622899180503794, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Chemotherapy drugs for pancreatic cancer

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Drug name Structure Organization Target Approved Line of treatment Clinical trial
Gemcitabine hydrochloride Lilly Anti-metabolic 1996 First Gemcitabine
TS-1 (tegafur/gimeracil/potassium oxonate) TAIHO 2006 First GEST
Nab-paclitaxel Celgene Anti-mitotic 2013 First MPACT
Oxaliplatin Yakult Honsha DNA synthesis 2013 Second CONKO-003 PANCREOX
Nanoliposomal irinotecan (Onivyde) Ipsen TOP1 2015 Second NAPOLI-1
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胰腺癌药物靶点及治疗药物的研究进展
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杨红 , 李婉 , 李莎 , 任利文 , 张宜之 , 杨艺辉 , 葛彬彬 , 郑湘锦 , 刘金宜 , 张森 , 杜冠华 , 王金华 *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(1): 9-20
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药学学报 |综述 2023 , 58 (1) : 9 -20
胰腺癌药物靶点及治疗药物的研究进展
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杨红, 李婉, 李莎, 任利文, 张宜之, 杨艺辉, 葛彬彬, 郑湘锦, 刘金宜, 张森, 杜冠华, 王金华*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 药物靶点研究与新药筛选北京市重点实验室, 北京 100050
通讯作者:
*王金华, Tel: 86-10-63165313, E-mail:
Progress on targets and therapeutic drugs for pancreatic cancer
Hong YANG, Wan LI, Sha LI, Li-wen REN, Yi-zhi ZHANG, Yi-hui YANG, Bin-bin GE, Xiang-jin ZHENG, Jin-yi LIU, Sen ZHANG, Guan-hua DU, Jin-hua WANG*
Affiliations
  • Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Target Identification and Drug Screening, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2023-01-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0824
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胰腺癌是一种恶性程度高、患者总体预后不良的肿瘤。高异质性、复杂的肿瘤微环境、耐药性更是加剧了胰腺癌治疗的困难性。目前, 吉西他滨联合卡培他滨、白蛋白紫杉醇等以及FOLFIRINOX是可切除或晚期转移性胰腺癌的标准化学疗法。鉴于化疗疗效有限且伴随毒副作用, 近来靶向药物及免疫治疗药物逐渐引起重视并取得一定进展。本文将对胰腺癌的化疗药物、靶点及靶向药物、免疫治疗药物进行系统综述。

胰腺癌  /  化疗  /  药物靶点  /  靶向治疗  /  免疫治疗

Pancreatic cancer is a highly malignant tumor with a poor prognosis. It is very hard to treat pancreatic cancers for their high heterogeneity, complex tumor microenvironment, and drug resistance. Currently, gemcitabine plus nab-paclitaxel, capecitabine and FOLFIRINOX are standard chemotherapy for resectable or advanced metastatic pancreatic cancer. Considering the limited efficacy and toxic side effects of chemotherapy, targeted and immune drugs have gradually attracted attention and made some progress. In this article, we systematically reviewed the chemotherapeutic drugs, targets and related targeted drugs, and immunotherapy drugs for pancreatic cancer.

pancreatic cancer  /  chemotherapy  /  drug target  /  targeted therapy  /  immunotherapy
杨红, 李婉, 李莎, 任利文, 张宜之, 杨艺辉, 葛彬彬, 郑湘锦, 刘金宜, 张森, 杜冠华, 王金华. 胰腺癌药物靶点及治疗药物的研究进展. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (1) : 9 -20 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0824
Hong YANG, Wan LI, Sha LI, Li-wen REN, Yi-zhi ZHANG, Yi-hui YANG, Bin-bin GE, Xiang-jin ZHENG, Jin-yi LIU, Sen ZHANG, Guan-hua DU, Jin-hua WANG. Progress on targets and therapeutic drugs for pancreatic cancer[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (1) : 9 -20 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0824
胰腺癌(pancreatic cancer, PC) 是一种常见恶性消化道肿瘤, 发病率呈逐年上升趋势。胰腺癌是所有癌症中死亡率最高、存活率最低的癌症, 目前被称为“癌症之王”。胰腺位于人体右上腹后侧, 位置隐蔽, 容易被忽略, 因此胰腺癌早期诊断较为困难, 超过80%以上首次确诊即为晚期, 只有10%的患者适合手术切除。即使适合手术的患者, 术后发生转移的几率也很大, 并且这些复发的患者往往对放疗和化疗呈现高耐药性[1]。早期治疗胰腺癌的药物主要是化疗药物, 后来随着胰腺癌的分子机制不断被阐明, 靶向药物发展迅速。近年来随着肿瘤免疫的发展, 胰腺癌的免疫治疗也取得一些进展。本文主要对胰腺癌的化疗药物、靶点及靶向药物、免疫治疗进行综述。
吉西他滨(dFdC/2′, 2′-difluorodeoxycytidine) 是一种胞嘧啶核苷衍生物, 可在细胞内脱氧胞苷激酶(deoxycytidine kinase, dCK)、嘧啶核苷单磷酸激酶(pyrimidine nucleoside monophosphate kinase, NMPK) 和核苷二磷酸激酶(nucleoside diphosphate kinase, NDPK) 的作用下分别转化为吉西他滨单磷酸(monophosphate, dFdCMP)、二磷酸(diphosphate, dFdCDP) 和三磷酸(triphosphate, dFdCTP)。其中, dFdCTP通过掺入DNA从而阻断G1/S期以阻断细胞周期进展, 还可通过抑制DNA聚合酶αβ以阻断DNA合成和修复。1997年, 吉西他滨被FDA批准为治疗晚期胰腺癌患者的一线治疗, 这是胰腺癌治疗进展的里程碑事件。
Nab-PTX是一种新型的白蛋白结合、无溶剂和水溶性的紫杉醇纳米制剂, 可通过作用于微管蛋白从而抑制肿瘤细胞有丝分裂过程。它有效克服了紫杉醇注射液水溶性差、易引发严重过敏反应等缺点。此外, 独特的纳米剂型及白蛋白与肿瘤细胞中高表达的富含半胱氨酸的酸性分泌蛋白(secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine, SPARC) 受体结合的特性可有效提高药物的靶向作用, 从而增加肿瘤部位药物浓度, 提升紫杉醇疗效, 减少其他组织系统的毒副作用。2013年, Von Hoff等[2]在MPACT研究中报道了白蛋白紫杉醇联合吉西他滨(AG方案) 治疗疗效显著高于吉西他滨单药组。该方案于2013年被FDA批准可联合吉西他滨作为晚期转移性胰腺癌的一线治疗。
OXA是一种由草酸酯基和1, 2-二氨基环己烷(1, 2-diaminocyclohexane, DACH) 包围中央铂原子的第三代铂类抗肿瘤药物, 其可与DNA的嘌呤碱基发生链内或链间交联形成Pt-DNA加合物, 从而阻碍DNA的复制、转录和修复。OXA联合5-氟尿嘧啶(5-fluorouracil, 5-FU) 和亚叶酸(folinic acid/leucovorin/LV) (OFF方案) 已于2013年被批准用于晚期难治性胰腺癌的二线治疗。
盐酸伊立替康(irinotecan, CPT-11) 是喜树碱的水溶性衍生物。它是一种前体药, 可在肝脏内羧酸酯酶的作用下转化为活性代谢物7-乙基-10-羟基喜树碱(7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin, SN-38)。SN-38可抑制DNA复制所必需的拓扑异构酶I (topoisomerase I, TOP I) 活性, 以诱导DNA发生单链损伤、阻断DNA复制从而产生细胞毒性。然而, CPT-11存在水溶性差、生物半衰期短、生物相容性差及易引起毒副作用等缺点。这促使了脂质体盐酸伊立替康(商品名Onivyde) 的开发。脂质体作为药物载体具有靶向性、稳定性、缓释性、低毒性、高细胞亲和性等优点。2015年, Onivyde在美国以孤儿药及优先审批身份获批上市, 适应症为与5-FU和亚叶酸联合用于吉西他滨治疗不佳的晚期胰腺癌患者。
FOLFIRINOX是一种由奥沙利铂、伊立替康、5-FU和亚叶酸(folinic acid/leucovorin/LV) 组成的多药治疗胰腺癌方案, 这是基于Conroy等[3]在2011年发表的ACCORD11/PRODIGE4研究。2018年Conroy等[4]报道了通过减少伊立替康剂量或省略5-FU推注从而建立的一种改良的FOLFIRINOX (mFOLFIRINOX) 方案的疗效。mFOLFIRINOX与吉西他滨组相比, mFOLFIRINOX组可显著改善胰腺癌患者的中位无进展生存期(median progression free survival, mPFS), 但mFOLFIRINOX也伴随更多不良反应。
替吉奥(S-1/TS-1) 是新一代氟尿嘧啶衍生物口服抗癌复方制剂, 由替加氟(tegafur, FT)、吉美嘧啶(gimeracil, CDHP)、奥替拉西钾(potassium oxonate, OXO) 按照1∶0.4∶1的比例组成。FT是5-FU的前体药物, 具有优良的口服生物利用度, 可在体内转化为5-FU并经过各种途径被激活形成活性代谢物从而抑制DNA的合成和修复; CDHP是二氢嘧啶脱氢酶(dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase, DPD) 抑制剂, 可抑制FT的分解代谢, 从而保持较高的血药浓度并延长药物作用时间; OXO则能抑制胃肠道中5-FU的磷酸化, 通过影响5-FU在胃肠道的分布从而减轻毒副作用。2006年, S-1已在日本被批准用于一线治疗胰腺癌。
鉴于目前胰腺癌化疗药物疗效有限, 新的化疗药物逐渐被研发并走入临床研究阶段。SBP-101是一种精胺的多胺类似物, 在I期临床试验(NCT02657330) 中表现良好的剂量耐受性, 其中剂量在0.2 mg‧kg-1‧day-1时肿瘤反应和存活率最佳, 且无骨髓毒性或周围神经病变, 提示该药作为单一药物或联合用药的价值[5]。目前正在进行SBP-101联合白蛋白紫杉醇和吉西他滨治疗晚期或转移性胰腺癌的临床II期研究(NCT03412799)。EndoTAG-1 (SB-05) 是一种新型的紫杉醇阳离子脂质体制剂, 在II期临床试验中与吉西他滨联用显著提高了晚期PC患者生存率, 且具备良好的安全性(NCT00377936)[6]。目前正在进行针对FOLFIRINOX治疗失败的可测量局部晚期和/或转移性胰腺癌患者的III期临床试验(NCT03126435)。LP-184是新一代的DNA烷化剂, 临床前实验显示其可使小鼠胰腺肿瘤显著缩小90%以上, 而未治疗小鼠肿瘤体积同期增长了11倍以上[7]。LP-184于2021年8月被FDA认定为孤儿药, 用于胰腺癌的治疗。晚期胰腺癌的一线及二线治疗和胰腺癌的化疗药物分别如图 1表 1所示。
KRAS是胰腺导管腺癌(pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, PDAC) 中最频繁突变的基因(> 95%), 其突变是PDAC的一个早期和始发事件, 常见于1级胰腺上皮内瘤变(pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia, PanIN) 和导管内乳头状黏液性肿瘤(intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms, IPMNs) 中。其中, 最常见的突变发生在第一个或第二个核苷酸外显子2的第12位密码子上: 野生型GGT (甘氨酸) 转化为GAT (天冬氨酸; G12D-c.35G > A) (40%)、GTT (缬氨酸; G12V-c.35 G > T) (33%)、CGT (精氨酸; G12R-c.34G > C) (15%)、GCT (丙氨酸; G12A-c.350 G > C)、AGT (丝氨酸; G12S-c.34 G > A) 或TGT (半胱氨酸; G12C-c.34G > T)。其他较不常见的点突变发生在外显子2的第13位密码子(G13D、G13C、G13S、G13R) (7%)、外显子3的第61位密码子(Q61H、Q61L、Q61K、Q61R) (1%~2%)、外显子4的第117位密码子(K117) 和第146位密码子(A146) (< 1%)[8]。这些突变可导致Ras蛋白活性受到损害并阻止GTPase激活蛋白(GTPase-activating proteins, GAPs) 将活性GTP结合形式转化为非活性的GDP结合形式, 从而使Ras蛋白持续处于活化状态, 进而诱导多种下游通路级联的持续激活, 导致胰腺细胞增殖失控而癌变。因此, 靶向KRAS具有从源头上阻断胰腺癌发生发展的潜力。
利用KRASmut siRNA以抑制基因的表达是一种有效的靶向策略。iExosomes是一种靶向KRAS G12D的外泌体包裹siRNA, 其在大量临床前模型中显示出强大效果[9], 目前正针对胰腺导管癌开展I期临床试验(NCT03608631)。
Sotorasib (AMG-510) 是一种KRAS G12C小分子抑制剂, 通过与KRAS G12C独特的半胱氨酸形成不可逆的共价键, 将蛋白锁定在非活性状态, 从而阻止下游致癌信号传递[10]。KRAS G12C抑制剂adagrasib (MRTX849) 在I/II期KRYSTAL-1研究(NCT03785249) 中也显示了针对胰腺癌的积极结果。
PDAC存在多种RTKs表达异常。它们作为生长因子、神经营养因子和其他细胞外信号分子的受体, 参与激活许多通路, 并与肿瘤细胞增殖、分化、迁移和凋亡等密切相关。因此, RTKs是潜在且有效的靶点。
EGFR是ErbB受体家族成员, 其在胰腺癌中未发生突变, 但在约90%的肿瘤中过表达, 是胰腺癌治疗的重要潜在靶点。厄洛替尼(erlotinib) 是一种高特异性、可逆的EGFR抑制剂。在一项针对569名患者的随机III期临床试验(NCT00040183) 中, 与吉西他滨单药相比, erlotinib联合吉西他滨可显著延长晚期胰腺癌患者的中位总生存期(median overall survival, mOS)[11]。该联合方案已于2005年被FDA批准用于局部晚期不可切除或有远处转移的胰腺癌患者的一线治疗。
HER2是一种185 kDa的跨膜糖蛋白受体, 具有酪氨酸激酶活性, 其基因扩增和蛋白表达分别发生在2.1%~24%和7.2%~61.2%的胰腺癌中, 并在多种胰腺癌细胞系中显示较高的表达水平。HER3也被观察到在PC中高表达, 且其高表达与PC患者预后不良相关。Zenocutuzumab (Zeno/MCLA-128) 是一种针对HER2和HER3的新型双特异性抗体, 可阻断HER3与配体神经调节蛋白1 (neuregulin 1, NRG1) 或NRG1融合蛋白的相互作用, 进而抑制HER2/HER3异二聚化和PI3K/AKT/mTOR信号通路的激活[12]。2020年7月, FDA授予Zeno孤儿药地位, 用于NRG1融合突变胰腺癌患者的治疗。
VEGFR在胰腺癌中过表达, 并可与血管内皮生长因子(VEGF) 结合导致信号蛋白的二聚化和激活, 从而参与血管的形成过程, 包括血管渗透、内皮细胞增殖、迁移等。此外, VEGF被报道在PDAC中过表达, 且肿瘤VEGF水平和微血管密度与PDAC进展密切相关, 这提示靶向VEGF/VEGFR的潜在价值。索凡替尼(surufatinib) 是一种具有抗血管生成和免疫调节双重活性的小分子多激酶抑制剂, 可同时靶向VEGFR-1、-2和-3、FGFR1和集落刺激因子1 (colony stimulating factor 1, CSF-1) 受体(CSF-1R), 于2020年被FDA批准用于无法进行手术治疗的晚期和进行性胰腺神经内分泌肿瘤(pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours, pNETs)[13]
NTRK基因融合可产生异常的TRK蛋白(又称TRK融合蛋白), 这些异常蛋白具有构象激活的特性, 可导致下游通路激活, 促进肿瘤细胞活化、增殖。针对47个切除的PDAC样本的研究表明, 与正常的相邻组织比较, TRKA、B、C表达分别增加了68%、64%和66%, 并与胰腺癌侵袭型表型密切相关[14]。鉴于TRK在肿瘤中的重要作用, 各项研究也积极开展。恩曲替尼(entrectinib/RXDX-101) 是一种由NTRK与ROS1/ALK融合产生的TRK和ROS的选择性抑制剂。在一项名为STARTRK-2的II期临床试验(NCT02568267) 中, 总共3名具有NTRK1和ROS1融合的胰腺癌患者在接受entrectinib治疗后均表现影像学和/或临床益处, 且耐受性良好[15]。拉罗替尼(larotrectinib/LOXO-101/Vitrakvi) 是一种泛瘤种精准靶向治疗药物, 已于2018年被FDA批准用于治疗各种具有NTRK基因融合肿瘤, 包括胰腺癌[16]。虽然NTRK融合在胰腺癌中非常罕见, 但实际发生率并无标准统计, 且在选定的群体中已经观察到TRK抑制剂的良好实质性反应。因此, 进一步研究该靶向治疗策略是合理且有前景的。
c-Met是一种多功能跨膜酪氨酸激酶, 其在胰腺癌组织中的表达被上调, 并可作为受体结合肝细胞生长因子(hepatocyte growth factor, HGF), 通过激活PI3K/AKT、MAPK/ERK及FAK等信号传导途径, 以促进胰腺癌细胞的增殖、迁移和侵袭并介导耐药性。c-Met也是一种潜在的胰腺癌干细胞(pancreatic cancer stem cells, PCSCs) 表面标志物, 其高表达能够诱导体外的肿瘤球形成, 且可增加胰腺癌细胞在免疫缺陷小鼠的致瘤潜力。Cabozantinib (XL184) 是c-Met和VEGFR-2的双重抑制剂。目前, 已有多项cabozantinib与免疫药物联用的临床研究, 如联合pembrolizumab (NCT05052723) 和atezolizumab (NCT04820179)。其他c-Met抑制剂还包括AL2846、merestinib (LY-2801653)、crizotinib和capmatinib (INC280)。它们均在临床前研究中初步显示了抗胰腺癌活性, 但尚未开展针对胰腺癌的临床研究或处于临床I期阶段。
多激酶抑制剂同样在胰腺癌的治疗中发挥了重要作用。舒尼替尼(sunitinib) 是一种口服小分子多靶点受体酪氨酸激酶抑制剂, 其已于2016年被FDA批准用于不可手术或转移性胰腺源性神经内分泌肿瘤的治疗。Masitinib是另一种选择性靶向CSF-1R、c-Kit、LYN、FYN、PDGFR的小分子RTKs抑制剂。临床研究显示, 与安慰剂组相比, masitinib与吉西他滨联合在伴有“疼痛” (100 mm量表上VAS评分 > 20 mm) 的PC患者和具有特定有害的基因组生物标志物(genomic biomarker, GBM) 患者的两个亚群中产生了显著的生存优势[17]
FAK是一种定位于黏着斑的非受体性酪氨酸激酶, 为整合蛋白介导的信号转导中的重要成员。FAK在大多数PDAC中被高度激活, 并与肿瘤大小和肿瘤分期显著相关, 其高表达可诱导免疫抑制性微环境[低水平CD8+ T淋巴细胞和高水平CD206+巨噬细胞、骨髓源性抑制细胞(MDSCs) 和调节性T细胞(Tregs)] 和高水平纤维化, 从而介导PDAC的免疫抗性和化疗耐药。激活的FAK还可通过介导下游Ras/ERK通路的激活, 以调节胶原蛋白III和V、骨膜素及骨桥蛋白等关键细胞外基质(extracellular matrix, ECM) 蛋白和赖氨酰氧化酶样蛋白2 (lysyl oxidase like protein 2, LOXL2) 的表达, 并诱导ECM的产生和重塑, 从而促进胰腺肿瘤的侵袭和转移[18]。临床前数据表明, FAK抑制剂和程序性细胞死亡蛋白-1 (programmed death-1, PD-1) 检查点阻滞剂联合使用可在胰腺癌中产生协同和显著的抗肿瘤作用, 这促使了一项旨在测试FAK抑制剂(defactinib/VS-6063) 联合pembrolizumab和吉西他滨在晚期胰腺癌中的安全性、耐受性和抗肿瘤功效的I期临床试验(NCT02546531) 的开展。研究结果显示该联合方案耐受性良好, 并具备初步的临床活性。此外, defactinib联合pembrolizumab用于可切除胰腺导管腺癌的新辅助治疗(NCT03727880) 和defactinib联合立体定向放射治疗(stereotactic body radiation therapy, SBRT) 用于局部晚期胰腺癌患者(NCT04331041) 的两项II期临床研究正在进行。GSK2256098是一种高选择性的靶向FAK Y397磷酸化位点的小分子FAK抑制剂, 可以剂量依赖的方式抑制PDAC细胞的生长和存活[19]。值得注意的是, FAK抑制剂的长期使用可导致耐药的发生, 这可能是由STAT3的反馈性激活所介导。
在PDAC细胞中存在ATM突变, 这种突变可增加胰腺癌小鼠模型的基因组不稳定性和转移潜能, 且突变导致的缺陷可进一步增加胰腺肿瘤细胞对互补的ATR通路的依赖性[20]。因此, ATR对于ATM突变患者是一个有希望的治疗靶点。Ceralasertib (AZD6738) 是一种ATR激酶抑制剂, 其在I期临床试验中显示与奥拉帕利[聚ADP核糖聚合酶(poly ADP ribose polymerase, PARP) 抑制剂] 或放疗联用可延迟肿瘤的生长, 且提高放疗敏感性, 而与同源重组修复(homologous recombination repair, HR) 状态无关, 这提示AZD6738良好的应用潜力。目前, 一项评价ceralasertib单独和联合奥拉帕尼在各种胰腺癌中疗效的II期临床试验(NCT03682289) 正在进行中。
PARP是修复DNA单链断裂和复制叉损伤的关键成分。PARP抑制剂在乳腺癌易感基因(breast cancer susceptibility gene, BRAC) 突变的PDAC中具有显著的抗肿瘤作用, 其作用机制是通过催化抑制和捕获单链断裂处的DNA上的PARP, 导致单链损伤的累积, 进一步引发双链断裂。由于同源重组缺陷(homologous recombination deficiency, HRD) 肿瘤无法准确修复, 这可导致DNA损伤累积从而介导肿瘤细胞死亡。奥拉帕尼(olaparib) 是一种PARP抑制剂, 其在一项随机、双盲、安慰剂对照的III期临床试验(NCT02184195) 中显著改善了生殖系BRCA突变(germline BRCA mutation, gBRCAm) 的转移性胰腺癌患者的中位无进展生存期(7.4个月vs 3.8个月; P = 0.004), 风险比率(hazard rate, HR) 为0.53; 95%置信区间(confidence interval, CI) 为0.35~0.82, 并于2019年获该适应症的FDA批准[21]。另一项单臂II期临床试验(NCT03140670) 评估了PARP抑制剂鲁卡替尼(rucaparib) 对晚期PC和致病性生殖系或体细胞BRCA或BRCA2的伴侣和定位子(partner and localizer of BRCA2, PALB2) 突变患者的维持性单药治疗疗效, 结果显示rucaparib耐受性良好, 无剂量限制性毒性, 这一发现扩大了PARP抑制剂的受益人群。此外, PARP抑制剂或铂类药物还可提高PDAC对放疗的敏感性。在BRCA1和BRCA2突变的PDAC患者中, PARP抑制剂或铂类药物的放射治疗应答率超过70%, 优于标准一线化疗(如吉西他滨) 的应答率。
HDACs是维持染色体的基本组成单元核小体中组蛋白乙酰化平衡的关键酶类之一, 具有催化组蛋白的去乙酰化作用, 介导基因转录抑制过程。多种HDACs在PDAC中过表达, 包括HDAC1、HDAC2、HDAC3和HDAC7, 并与增殖、凋亡、上皮-间充质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition, EMT) 等致癌程序密切相关。如HDAC1和HDAC2可与钙黏蛋白1 (cadherin 1, CDH1) 基因的启动子结合从而下调胰腺癌中E-钙黏蛋白的表达。HDAC2还可减少促凋亡蛋白NADPH氧化酶激活蛋白(NADPH oxidase activator, NOXA) 的表达以介导胰腺癌细胞治疗耐药性[22]。根据化学性质的不同, HDAC抑制剂分为苯甲酰胺、类异羟肟酸类、环状四肽类、短链脂肪酸类等。恩替诺司(entinostat/MS-275) 是一种选择性苯甲酰胺类HDAC1和HDAC3抑制剂, 可抑制多种胰腺癌细胞系的异种移植瘤的生长, 具有剂量依赖性, 其抑制作用机制可能与诱导细胞G2/M周期阻滞相关。此外, entinostat与免疫检查点抑制剂联用可在Panc02转移性胰腺癌小鼠模型中显著降低MDSCs的免疫抑制作用, 并可诱导CD8+效应T细胞数目的增加[23]。这促使一项针对entinostat联合nivolumab治疗既往治疗过的不可切除或转移性胰腺癌的开放标签、对照的II期临床研究的开展(NCT03250273)。Ivaltinostat (CG200745) 是一种新型的异羟肟酸类pan-HDAC抑制剂, 它可诱导凋亡蛋白(PARP和caspase-3) 的表达和增加乙酰化组蛋白H3 (acetylated histone H3) 的水平, 并可联合吉西他滨/厄洛替尼在体内、外显示显著的协同抗肿瘤效应, 还可增强吉西他滨耐药胰腺癌细胞对吉西他滨的敏感性, 降低了ATP结合盒转运蛋白基因水平, 尤其是多药耐药蛋白3 (multidrug resistance protein, MRP3) 和MRP4[24]。Ivaltinostat在与吉西他滨和/或厄洛替尼联合治疗晚期胰腺癌的I期临床试验(NCT02737228) 中显示出理想的药代动力学(pharmaeokineties, PK) 和安全性。此外, 一项剂量递增、随机、多中心的Ib/II期临床研究(NCT05249101) 正在进行中, 它旨在评估ivaltinostat与卡培他滨在FOLFIRINOX治疗未进展的转移性胰腺腺癌患者中的疗效、安全性、耐受性和PK。
LOX是一种铜依赖性单胺氧化酶, 其定位于ECM, 并参与催化ECM中胶原蛋白和弹性蛋白的交联, 以控制ECM的结构和拉伸强度, 从而起到保持组织完整性的作用。该酶由纤维细胞合成和分泌(50 kDa糖基化前酶原) 并进一步经过溶胶原C-蛋白水解酶(C-proteinase) 水解(29 kDa成熟酶) 而得到。其家族成员LOX和LOXL2被观察到在小鼠转移性胰腺癌组织及胰腺癌患者中高表达, 并与患者不良预后相关。LOX可作用于HIF-1α通路、ERK、PI3K/AKT、NF-κB及其下游靶标BCL-2和Cyclin D1的激活, 从而影响胰腺癌细胞的生长、存活、迁移和侵袭。LOXL2可通过与锌指转录因子(Snail) 相互作用, 诱导EMT、调节FAK/Src活性及与细胞内黏附分子相互作用, 从而参与PDAC细胞的增殖、侵袭和迁移。此外, LOXL2活性增加可促进原发性PDAC的形成并通过调节FAK加速衰老逃逸, 还可增加纤维状胶原和ECM硬度及导致血管塌陷从而介导吉西他滨耐药[25]。以上结果均提示, LOX可作为PDAC的潜在靶点。Simtuzumab (GS-6624) 是靶向LOXL2的人源化lgG4单克隆抗体, 其在原发性和转移性异种移植肿瘤模型及肝和肺纤维化模型中均有效[26]。Simtuzumab联合吉西他滨的疗效在一项针对转移性胰腺癌患者的II期临床试验(NCT01472198) 中进行了测试。虽然该组合并未提高患者的PFS, 但却代表了一种靶向LOX的可靠策略。许多小分子LOX抑制剂也逐渐被应用到PDAC中, 如BAPN、PXS-5505, 但它们在临床中的疗效仍有待进一步探索。
TGF-β是一种多功能的细胞因子, 其在胰腺癌中以肿瘤阶段和微环境依赖的方式发挥着促肿瘤发生和肿瘤抑制的双重作用。在肿瘤早期阶段, TGF-β通过促进细胞凋亡和抑制上皮细胞周期进程发挥肿瘤抑制因子的作用。但在晚期阶段, TGF-β在胰腺癌组织中高表达, 并可诱导基因组不稳定性、EMT、血管新生、免疫逃逸、细胞运动和转移, 从而充当肿瘤启动子的角色。此外, 基于24个PDAC样本的外显子测序结果, 分析得到的胰腺癌的12种核心信号传导途径包含TGF-β信号通路。由此可见, TGF-β是胰腺癌重要的治疗靶点。有研究显示, 使用ppp-siRNA (siRNA 5′端引入三磷酸基团) 同时沉默TGF-β和激活维甲酸诱导基因I (retinoic acid inducible gene I, RIG-I) 信号传导可诱导干扰素调节因子3 (interferon regulatory factor 3, IRF-3) 磷酸化、I型干扰素(interferon 1, IFN-1) 和C-XC基序趋化因子10 (C-X-C motif chemokine 10, CXCL10) 的生成及caspase-9介导的细胞凋亡, 并可在原位胰腺癌Panc02小鼠模型的全身治疗中显示出抗肿瘤活性[27]。这提示TGF-β反义RNA分子是一种可取的靶向策略。Trabedersen (OT-101/AP12009) 作为一种特异性靶向TGF-β2 mRNA的硫代磷酸酯反义寡核苷酸, 可明显抑制胰腺癌细胞增殖并阻断细胞迁移, 在转移性胰腺癌小鼠模型中则可显著抑制肿瘤生长、抑制血管生成和淋巴结转移[28]。其在I/II期临床试验(NCT00844064) 中显示了良好的数据: trabedersen安全且耐受性良好。唯一预期的不良反应是非严重和暂时性血小板减少。鉴于TGF-β作用的双重性, 靶向TGF-β药物的研发应考虑患者的临床背景。否则, 当TGF-β发挥肿瘤抑制作用或者TGF-β受体发生突变时, 抗TGF-β药物可能会引起严重的不良反应。
CSF-1是一种分泌型细胞因子, 其在PDAC中的表达被上调。它可通过CFS1R相互作用, 参与诱导肿瘤相关巨噬细胞(tumor-associated macrophages, TAMs) 消耗及细胞毒性T淋巴细胞抗原4 (cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4, CTLA-4) 和PD-L1上调。Pexidartinib (PLX3397) 是一种同时靶向CSF1R、c-Kit和FLT3的小分子抑制剂, 可诱导PDAC原位模型中肿瘤的消退和TAMs数量的减少[29], 其与durvalumab联用在针对晚期或转移性胰腺癌的I期MEDIPLEX研究(NCT02777710) 中表现良好的安全性和耐受性。
CXCR4在大多数胰腺癌组织和癌前病变中表达, 且表达水平随胰腺上皮内瘤变(pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasias, PanINs) 进展及其向PDAC的转化而增加。在胰腺癌中, CXCR4与转移和侵袭密切相关。它与配体基质细胞衍生因子-1 (stromal cell derived factor-1, SDF-1) (又称CXCL12) 相互作用, 可增强趋化性、基质黏附、PDAC细胞的侵袭性表型并促进EMT。CXCR4+癌症干细胞(CSCs) 存在于侵袭性胰腺肿瘤的前沿, 也表明了CXCR4在侵袭过程中的重要作用。此外, 肿瘤中激活的CXCL12/CXCR4还可通过局部自分泌和旁分泌机制促进肿瘤生长并可通过抑制T细胞浸润和激活免疫抑制因子从而限制免疫监视[30]。这提示了靶向CXCR4疗法联合免疫疗法的应用潜力。Motixafortide (BL-8040) 是一种靶向CXCR4的合成多肽, 可增加CD8+效应T细胞肿瘤浸润并减少髓源性抑制细胞和循环调节性T细胞。Motixafortide与pembrolizumab联合化疗在COMBAT/KEYNOTE-202临床试验(NCT02826486) 中显示良好的安全性和耐受性, 且在预后不良和病情严重的转移性胰腺癌患者中显示出改善疗效的迹象[31]。Plerixafor (AMD3100) 是一种小分子CXCR4抑制剂, 可诱导PDAC原位瘤模型小鼠中癌细胞间T细胞的快速聚集, 并可与α-PD-L1协同作用, 从而减少癌细胞以抑制肿瘤的生长。它还可有效降低高表达CXCR4的胰腺癌细胞在裸鼠体内的转移潜能[32], 并且在晚期胰腺癌患者中具有良好的安全性(NCT02179970)。目前正在进行一项评估plerixafor联合cemiplimab治疗转移性胰腺癌患者的安全性和临床活性的II期试验(NCT04177810)。
在PDAC中, CCL2-CCR2趋化因子轴参与肿瘤相关TAMs的募集, 这种募集作用所诱导的TAMs在肿瘤微环境中的迁移有助于免疫抑制环境的发展, 且还与PDAC的化学放射抗性相关。PF-04136309是一种CCR2抑制剂, 其在小鼠原位瘤模型中可抑制肿瘤的生长并减少肝转移和TAM浸润。一项针对可切除和局部晚期胰腺癌患者的Ib期临床试验(NCT01413022) 显示, PF-04136309联合FOLFIRINOX治疗组的客观有效率为49% (16/33), 且该组患者被观察到TAMs和Treg数量减少及CD4+和CD8+ T细胞增多[33]
自噬(autophagy) 是一种动态调节的分解代谢途径, 包括3种类型: 巨自噬、微自噬和伴侣蛋白介导的自噬, 其中巨自噬是PDAC主要被激活的途径。几种PDAC细胞系和PanIN进展至PDAC的后期阶段均显示高水平的自噬活性, 包括自噬体和自噬溶酶体的数量和大小增加。胰腺癌细胞可利用自噬从分解的底物中获得葡萄糖和氨基酸, 为三羧酸循环(tricarboxylic acid cycle, TCA)、氧化磷酸化(oxidative phosphorylation, OXPHOS) 和ATP生物合成提供燃料, 以应对高细胞分裂率和营养缺乏所造成的压力, 从而驱动PDAC细胞的存活。羟氯喹(hydroxychloroquine, HCQ) 是一种4-氨基喹啉衍生物类自噬抑制剂, 与氯喹作用相似但毒性更小, 其也被报道具有抗胰腺癌活性。针对HCQ治疗胰腺癌的多项临床试验显示已完成或正在进行。此外, 有研究报道, 自噬可选择性地靶向主要组织相容性复合体I类(MHC-I) 降解并与CD8+ T细胞浸润减少密切相关, 因此自噬是胰腺癌细胞免疫原性的关键调节因子[34], 这提示了自噬抑制剂与双重免疫疗法(PD-1+CTLA-4抑制剂) 联用的潜在价值。未来仍需要更多的临床试验去证实该方案的疗效。
透明质酸(hyaluronic acid, HA) 是一种天然存在的非硫酸化糖胺聚糖, 为正常ECM的主要成分。HA在PDAC中高表达, 并与肿瘤进展、治疗抗性和不良预后相关。HA聚合物可通过结合和捕获水分子, 影响组织结构、延展性和ECM完整性, 还可增加肿瘤硬度和肿瘤基质的间质液压, 从而减少药物递送效率。此外, HA还能与CD44相互作用, 通过调节酪氨酸受体, 促进血管生成、EMT和化疗耐药性[35]。透明质酸酶则能够降低体内透明质酸的活性, 从而提高组织液体渗透能力。因此, 利用HAase降解HA是一种可行的策略。PEGPH20是一种聚乙二醇化重组人透明质酸酶, 被报道可降低胰腺肿瘤HA含量和间质液压, 其与吉西他滨联用可诱导基质重塑并提高荷瘤小鼠生存率[36]
L-asp是一种酰胺基水解酶, 能够在血液中特异性催化天冬酰胺(asparagine, Asn) 水解为L-天冬氨酸和氨, 从而使某些肿瘤无法摄取足够的天冬酰胺从而导致其细胞增殖受到抑制, 以达到抗肿瘤的目的, 但对正常细胞影响较小。这种酶疗法自1966年以来一直用于治疗白血病, 目前正在探索将其用于其他恶性肿瘤的治疗, 包括胰腺癌。然而, L-asp疗法存在限制其应用的重大问题, 包括免疫原性和严重过敏反应。此外, 由于其半衰期短且清除速度快, L-asp必须大剂量重复给药才能产生有益的临床结果。为了克服L-asp的这些问题, 已经研究了这种酶的各种化学修饰, 包括: 将小的水溶性分子, 如葡聚糖、聚乙二醇(PEG) 和乙酸酐等附着在L-asp上, 或者利用红细胞将酶进行包封, 从而降低免疫原性并延长酶活性的循环半衰期[37]。Eryaspase (ERY-001) 由红细胞封装L-天冬酰胺酶所组成。据报道无论天冬酰胺合成酶(asparagine synthetase, ASNS) 表达水平如何,Eryaspase与吉西他滨或FOLFOX联合可显著改善转移性胰腺癌患者的mOS[38]
胰腺癌细胞表现出广泛的糖代谢重编程, 表现为葡萄糖摄取增多、乳酸生成增加及高糖酵解通量。三羧酸循环作为糖代谢的主要途径, 其对于肿瘤细胞存活和增殖至关重要。Devimistat (CPI-613) 是两种三羧酸循环关键酶(丙酮酸脱氢酶和α-酮戊二酸脱氢酶) 的选择性抑制剂, 可靶向肿瘤细胞中线粒体能量代谢改变形式并引起线粒体酶活性的变化, 进而导致肿瘤细胞凋亡、坏死和自噬[39]。在一项针对转移性胰腺癌患者的I/II期临床试验(NCT03699319) 中, 与FOLFIRINOX治疗组相比, devimistat联合mFOLFIRINOX组的客观缓解率达61%。然而, 一项针对转移性胰腺癌的III期临床试验(NCT03504423) 报道, 在mFOLFIRINOX中加入devimistat并不能显著改善客观缓解率(objective response rate, ORR)、PFS或OS。胰腺癌潜在靶点及靶向药物如图 2所示。
免疫治疗已成为一种新的癌症治疗方式, 但在治疗胰腺癌方面取得的成功有限, 如单用免疫检查点抑制剂对胰腺癌无效。这可能是因为胰腺癌具有较低的免疫突变负荷和新表位负荷(癌细胞免疫原性低、产生免疫原性抗原很少), 以及很少或没有内源性肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞, 被认为是免疫反应差的癌症。与此同时, TAMs、MDSCs和Tregs还促使PDAC免疫抑制微环境的形成[40]。因此, 联合免疫疗法(双/多免疫检查点阻断、不同免疫疗法之间的组合) 或免疫疗法与放化疗、靶向药物联用是未来的发展方向。
免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint inhibitors, ICIs) 是基于相应的免疫检查点开发的单克隆抗体或小分子药物, 其中PD-1单抗(pembrolizumab、nivolumab)、PD-L1单抗(durvalumab) 和CTLA-4单抗(lpilimumab、tremeli-mumab) 在胰腺癌免疫治疗领域中的研究较多。虽然CTLA-4和PD-1途径在胰腺癌中上调, 但广泛的抑制机制导致这些药物单用无效[41]。这提示了联合用药的重要性, 如结合放/化疗及其他免疫药物等。值得一提的是, 有研究表明免疫检查点抑制剂单用或许可成为具有特定特征胰腺癌的有效疗法, 如DNA错配修复缺陷(DNA mismatch repair deficient, MMR-D)/高微卫星不稳定性(high microsatellite instability, MSI-H) 胰腺癌。这是由PDAC中遗传的种系突变(称为Lynch综合征) 或MMR基因(MLH1、PMS2、MSH2、MSH6) 的双等位体细胞失活(biallelic somatic inactivation) 所导致。MMR-D和MSI-H通常与高肿瘤突变负荷(tumor mutation burden, TMB) 相关。高TMB增加了新抗原的潜在数量, 这些新抗原可以由肿瘤细胞呈递并被宿主免疫细胞识别, 即迁移到TME中的肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞(tumor infiltrating lymphocytes, TILs)。TILs特别是CD8+ T细胞, 可协调显著的抗肿瘤反应以消除肿瘤细胞。因此, 该类型的胰腺癌患者可能对免疫疗法敏感。在ASCO指南中, 派姆单抗(pembrolizumab) 被推荐作为MMR-D或MSI-H PDAC患者的二线治疗药物[42]。这是基于KEYNOTE-158临床研究的结果。遗憾的是, 微卫星不稳定高(MSI-H) 在胰腺癌中较为罕见, 其患病率可能仅在1%左右。
靶向其他与免疫调节相关的蛋白也是一种潜在的策略。据报道, T细胞浸润与PDAC临床结果改善密切相关, 这提示了T细胞在PDAC治疗中的重要地位。CD40是一种I型膜糖蛋白, 被报道可通过诱导抗原呈递细胞的活化, 促进促炎细胞因子的释放和T细胞活化, 从而有助于改善T细胞浸润[43]。目前, 已有多种用于胰腺癌的CD40激动剂以人源化单克隆抗体的形式被研发, 如YH-003、mitazalimab (ADC-1013)、giloralimab (ABBV-927)、CDX-1140和sotigalimab (APX005M) 等, 可通过特异性结合CD40受体, 促进抗原呈提细胞的活化, 从而正向调控抗肿瘤T细胞反应。它们与化疗或免疫疗法组合用于胰腺癌治疗的临床研究最高处于II期阶段(NCT05031494、NCT04888312、NCT04807972、NCT04536077、NCT03214250) 且目前尚在进展中, 其临床疗效仍需要进一步确认。
IDO作为一种催化L-色氨酸向犬尿氨酸转化的酶, 可抑制T细胞反应并增强Tregs功能。IDO在胰腺肿瘤细胞高表达, 可通过降低NKG2D、NKp30和穿孔素阳性NK-92细胞的比例以介导NK细胞功能障碍, 从而促进胰腺癌细胞免疫逃逸[44]。这提示了IDO作为潜在靶点的可能性。Indoximod (NLG-8189) 是一种靶向IDO途径中多个靶点的小分子抑制剂, 其在临床前模型中显示与化疗联用具有协同作用。在一项I/II期临床研究(NCT02077881) 中, indoximod联合吉西他滨和白蛋白紫杉醇在转移性胰腺癌患者中具有良好的耐受性和临床活性: 患者的mOS为10.9个月, ORR为46.2% (48/104), 且具免疫应答的患者的肿瘤内显示CD8+ T细胞密度增加[45]。Epacadostat (INCB-24360) 是一种口服的选择性抑制IDO1的羟胺类小分子。然而, 在I/II期ECHO-203临床研究(NCT02318277) 中, 经epacadostat单药治疗的晚期胰腺癌患者未观察到客观反应。目前, epacadostat联合环磷酰胺和胰腺疫苗(GVAX) 针对转移性胰腺癌患者的II期临床试验(NCT03006302) 正在进行, 以测试联合用药的可行性。
肿瘤疫苗也是免疫领域的研究热点之一, 其被应用于多种癌症的治疗, 包括胰腺癌。多种PDAC疫苗逐渐被研发, 包括全细胞、树突状细胞(DC)、DNA和肽疫苗, 并通过靶向突变KRAS (mDC3/8-KRAS vaccine)、GAST (G17DT)、端粒酶(GV1001)、MUC-1/CEA (PANVAC)、WT1 (TLP0-001)、TLR9 (vidutolimod) 等调动机体产生免疫应答[46]。然而, 胰腺癌疫苗的研发并不顺利, 许多药物停滞在临床III期阶段。Algenpantucel-L是一种由HAPa-1和HAPa-2两种同种异体胰腺癌细胞改造并以表达鼠α-(1, 3)-半乳糖基转移酶[α-(1, 3)-galactosyltransferase, α-1, 3-GT] 为特征的全细胞疫苗。它可介导肿瘤细胞发生超急性排斥反应, 并具有补体和抗体依赖性细胞毒性。Algenpantucel-L与化放疗联用首先在可切除胰腺癌辅助治疗的II期临床试验(NCT00569387) 中取得初步成效: 患者的12个月无病生存率和总生存率分别为62%和86%。然而, 在随后的两项III期临床试验(NCT01072981、NCT01836432) 中, Algenpantucel-L联合放化疗并未达到预期的疗效。GV1001 (tertomotide hydrochloride) 是一种由16个氨基酸组成的端粒酶多肽疫苗, 其与粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, GM-GSF) 联合在一项针对不可切除胰腺癌患者的I/II期临床试验中可引起63.2% (24/38) 的患者出现免疫应答并可延长mOS。但在另一项III期临床研究(NCT02854072) 中, 与单独化疗组相比, GV1001与吉西他滨/卡培他滨却并未改善局部晚期和转移性胰腺癌患者的OS。G17DT是一种胃泌素17 (GAST17) 疫苗, 其单用(NCT02118077) 或与吉西他滨联用(NCT00044031、NCT03200821) 在晚期胰腺癌的疗效进行3项III期临床试验中, 其结果也不尽如人意。这可能与试验周期长导致肿瘤进展有关。目前, 其他疫苗也在积极研发中, 如TLP0-001是一种负载Wilms tumor-1 (WT1) 肽的DC疫苗, 可诱导抗肿瘤WT1特异性免疫反应和肿瘤消退, 其联合S-1用于化疗无效的局部晚期或转移性胰腺癌患者的III期临床试验(UMIN000027179) 正在进行。PANVAC (CVAC-301) 是以痘病毒为载体的CEACAM5和MUC1疫苗, 可诱导受感染的细胞表达非特异性受体配体和肿瘤抗原, 从而克服免疫逃逸。在一项I期临床试验(NCT00669734) 中, PANVAC联合sargramostim可延长出现免疫反应的胰腺癌患者的生存期。目前, 一项随机、对照III期临床研究(NCT00088660) 正在测试PANVACTM-VF与GM-CSF联合化疗在吉西他滨治疗失败的转移性胰腺癌患者中的安全性和有效性。
利用间皮素(MSLN)、CEA、MUC1、HER2及突变KRAS等作为抗原靶标的过继T细胞疗法(adoptive T cell therapy, ATCT) 也被应用于胰腺癌的治疗中, 并具有广阔的前景。但在后续发展中, 多个问题仍需解决, 包括: ①探索稳定表达、普适性的抗原靶点; ②增强CAR-T细胞活性、存活及侵袭等; ③降低CAR-T的毒性等; ④探索联合治疗方法等。总之, 虽然大多数药物处于临床研发的初期阶段, 但无疑是未来胰腺癌治疗的新兴希望[47]
胰腺癌治疗仍以手术切除为主, 并结合放化疗等综合治疗。自1996年吉西他滨被批准后, 各种化疗方案被提出, 包括吉西他滨+卡培他滨、替吉奥、mFOLFIRINOX等作为可切除胰腺癌辅助化疗的一线方案、吉西他滨+厄诺替尼或白蛋白紫杉醇、FOLFIRINOX、替吉奥等作为晚期转移性胰腺癌的一线治疗方案。但这些化疗方案均存在耐药性及患者生存率未得到较大改善等问题。这促使了靶向药物及免疫治疗药物的研发。
靶向药物的策略包括抑制胰腺癌细胞的生长和增殖、迁移和侵袭以及癌细胞干性、诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡、调节表观遗传、基质及肿瘤微环境等。然而, 分子靶点无法成药、毒性、不良反应及耐药性等问题使得药物产出率低, 且胰腺癌的高度异质性和发生发展机制的复杂性更是加剧了药物研发的困难性。但也有部分药物取得可喜进展, 如厄洛替尼、奥拉帕尼、派姆单抗等已被FDA批准用于特定类型胰腺癌的治疗, 多项新型药物被授予孤儿药地位。
在免疫药物方面, 新型免疫检查点抑制剂(PD-1/PD-L1、CTLA4、CD40、IDO)、肿瘤疫苗(靶向KRAS、GAST、MUC-1/CEA、WT1、TLR9、多肽疫苗及全细胞疫苗)、免疫细胞治疗均取得一定进展, 但相关的临床研究较少、多数临床研究未能显示显著的疗效及患者生存的明显改善, 未来仍需进一步研究。此外, 由于胰腺癌的免疫抑制特性促使单一免疫疗法的反应有限, 各种类型的联合治疗, 如双/多免疫检查点阻断、免疫疗法与放化疗的组合以及不同免疫疗法之间的组合, 是未来胰腺癌免疫治疗的发展方向。
庆幸的是, 随着各种组学技术、类器官技术等的发展, 胰腺癌的分子分型及发生发展机制更加明确, 这对于推进靶向、免疫药物的研发以实现胰腺癌的精准治疗具有十足重要的意义。从药物制剂方面, 胰腺癌靶向纳米递药系统的开发有助于实现靶向药物的增效减毒[48]。总之,鉴于胰腺癌的发生发展由各种突变和信号因子失调驱动而不依赖于单一的途径, 多靶点药物的开发及药物联用无疑是胰腺癌治疗的未来策略。
作者贡献: 杨红、李婉、李莎负责文献阅读和文章撰写; 任利文、杨艺辉、张宜之、葛彬彬负责文献的收集及整理; 郑湘锦、刘金宜、张森、杜冠华负责文章的校对; 王金华负责论文的指导与审阅。
利益冲突: 所有作者声明不存在任何利益冲突。
  • 北京市自然科学基金资助项目(7212157)
  • 中国医学科学院创新工程基金(2021-I2M-1-029)
  • 中国医学科学院创新工程基金(2022-I2M-JB-011)
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0824
  • 接收时间:2022-07-05
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-01-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-07-05
  • 修回日期:2022-08-10
基金
北京市自然科学基金资助项目(7212157)
中国医学科学院创新工程基金(2021-I2M-1-029)
中国医学科学院创新工程基金(2022-I2M-JB-011)
作者信息
    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 药物靶点研究与新药筛选北京市重点实验室, 北京 100050

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*王金华, Tel: 86-10-63165313, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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