Article(id=1198624396937097234, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0818, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1656950400000, receivedDateStr=2022-07-05, revisedDate=1658937600000, revisedDateStr=2022-07-28, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763703925593, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1678550400000, pubDateStr=2023-03-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763703925593, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763703925593, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763703925593, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198624396437975057, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='3', pageStart='1', pageEnd='804', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763703925474, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763704091914, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198625094596657875, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198625094596657876, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624396437975057, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=605, endPage=615, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198624397159395347, articleId=1198624396937097234, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress of anti-acute marrow leukemia drugs by targeting FLT3, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a genetic heterogeneous disease in which primordial and juvenile myeloid cells proliferate or accumulate abnormally in bone marrow, peripheral blood and other tissues, resulting in damage to normal hematopoietic function. Studies have shown that about 30% of AML patients have FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 (FLT3), FLT3 abnormal regulation is closely related to the occurrence and development of AML. At present, FLT3 has become an important target for developing small molecular targeted drugs. Currently, a variety of FLT3 inhibitors and FLT3 degraders have been developed targeting FLT3, and some compounds have exhibited good anti-AML activity. This article summarizes and sorts out the current mainstream drugs for AML therapeutic targeting FLT3, in order to provide a reference for the development and design of AML drugs.

, correspAuthors=Ya WU, Yan-le ZHI, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Hui-ya JIA, Bo YANG, Xiao-meng ZHANG, Jian-hong GONG, Ya WU, Yan-le ZHI), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198624401764741304, articleId=1198624396937097234, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=靶向FLT3的抗急性髓系白血病药物的研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

急性髓系白血病(acute myeloid leukemia, AML) 是原始和幼稚髓性细胞在骨髓、外周血和其他组织中异常增殖或积聚, 导致正常造血功能受损的一种基因异质性疾病。研究表明, 大约30%的AML患者体内存在FMS样酪氨酸激酶3 (FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3, FLT3) 激活突变, FLT3的异常调节与AML的发生及发展密切相关。FLT3已经成为开发小分子靶向药物的重要靶点, 截至目前, 以FLT3为靶点开发出来了多种FLT3抑制剂和FLT3降解剂, 相关化合物表现出较好的抗AML活性。本文总结了以FLT3为靶点的AML治疗药物的研究进展, 以期为AML药物研发和设计提供参考。

, correspAuthors=吴亚, 支燕乐, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*吴亚, E-mail: ;
支燕乐, Tel: 13783696291, E-mail:
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J Med Chem, 2021, 64, 16497-16511., articleTitle=Proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) modification of dovitinib enhances the antiproliferative effect against FLT3-ITD-positive acute myeloid leukemia cells, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1198702061022966659, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624396937097234, doi=10.1016/j.bioorg.2021.105508, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2022, volume=119, issue=null, pageStart=105508, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[71], rfOrder=70, authorNames=null, journalName=Bioorg Chem, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Chen Y, Yuan X, Tang M, et al. Degrading FLT3-ITD protein by proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC)[J]. 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Name Chemical structure Target Clinical research progress (AML) Inhibitor type
1 (Sorafenib) FLT3/MEK/PDGFR/VEGFR/KIT/RET/Raf
2 (Sunitinib) FLT3/KIT/PDGFR/RET/VEGFR
3 (Ponatinib) FLT3/ABL/KIT/PDGFR/FGFR/RET/EPH/VEGFR
4 (Cabozantinib) FLT3/RET/MET/KIT/VEGFR
5 (Midostourin) FLT3/PRKCA/VEGFR2/PDGFRα/β/KIT Approved for listing by FDA in 2017
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The first generation of FLT3 inhibitors. AML: Acute myeloid leukemia

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Name Chemical structure Target Clinical research progress (AML) Inhibitor type
1 (Sorafenib) FLT3/MEK/PDGFR/VEGFR/KIT/RET/Raf
2 (Sunitinib) FLT3/KIT/PDGFR/RET/VEGFR
3 (Ponatinib) FLT3/ABL/KIT/PDGFR/FGFR/RET/EPH/VEGFR
4 (Cabozantinib) FLT3/RET/MET/KIT/VEGFR
5 (Midostourin) FLT3/PRKCA/VEGFR2/PDGFRα/β/KIT Approved for listing by FDA in 2017
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Name Chemical structure Target Clinical research progress (AML) Inhibitor type
6 (Quizartinib) FLT3 Approved by Japan in 2019
7 (Crenolanib) FLT3, PDGFR-α, PDGFR-β
8 (Gilteritinib) FLT3, AXL Approved in United States and Japan in 2018
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The second generation of FLT3 inhibitors

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Name Chemical structure Target Clinical research progress (AML) Inhibitor type
6 (Quizartinib) FLT3 Approved by Japan in 2019
7 (Crenolanib) FLT3, PDGFR-α, PDGFR-β
8 (Gilteritinib) FLT3, AXL Approved in United States and Japan in 2018
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靶向FLT3的抗急性髓系白血病药物的研究进展
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贾会亚 , 杨波 , 张晓梦 , 弓建红 , 吴亚 * , 支燕乐 *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(3): 605-615
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药学学报 | 综述 2023, 58(3): 605-615
靶向FLT3的抗急性髓系白血病药物的研究进展
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贾会亚, 杨波, 张晓梦, 弓建红, 吴亚* , 支燕乐*
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  • 河南中医药大学, 河南 郑州 450000

通讯作者:

*吴亚, E-mail: ;
支燕乐, Tel: 13783696291, E-mail:
Research progress of anti-acute marrow leukemia drugs by targeting FLT3
Hui-ya JIA, Bo YANG, Xiao-meng ZHANG, Jian-hong GONG, Ya WU* , Yan-le ZHI*
Affiliations
  • Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450000, China
出版时间: 2023-03-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0818
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急性髓系白血病(acute myeloid leukemia, AML) 是原始和幼稚髓性细胞在骨髓、外周血和其他组织中异常增殖或积聚, 导致正常造血功能受损的一种基因异质性疾病。研究表明, 大约30%的AML患者体内存在FMS样酪氨酸激酶3 (FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3, FLT3) 激活突变, FLT3的异常调节与AML的发生及发展密切相关。FLT3已经成为开发小分子靶向药物的重要靶点, 截至目前, 以FLT3为靶点开发出来了多种FLT3抑制剂和FLT3降解剂, 相关化合物表现出较好的抗AML活性。本文总结了以FLT3为靶点的AML治疗药物的研究进展, 以期为AML药物研发和设计提供参考。

急性髓系白血病  /  FLT3  /  FLT3抑制剂  /  白血病  /  FLT3降解剂

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a genetic heterogeneous disease in which primordial and juvenile myeloid cells proliferate or accumulate abnormally in bone marrow, peripheral blood and other tissues, resulting in damage to normal hematopoietic function. Studies have shown that about 30% of AML patients have FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 (FLT3), FLT3 abnormal regulation is closely related to the occurrence and development of AML. At present, FLT3 has become an important target for developing small molecular targeted drugs. Currently, a variety of FLT3 inhibitors and FLT3 degraders have been developed targeting FLT3, and some compounds have exhibited good anti-AML activity. This article summarizes and sorts out the current mainstream drugs for AML therapeutic targeting FLT3, in order to provide a reference for the development and design of AML drugs.

acute myeloid leukemia  /  FLT3  /  FLT3 inhibitor  /  leukemia  /  FLT3 degrading agent
贾会亚, 杨波, 张晓梦, 弓建红, 吴亚, 支燕乐. 靶向FLT3的抗急性髓系白血病药物的研究进展. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (3) : 605 -615 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0818
Hui-ya JIA, Bo YANG, Xiao-meng ZHANG, Jian-hong GONG, Ya WU, Yan-le ZHI. Research progress of anti-acute marrow leukemia drugs by targeting FLT3[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (3) : 605 -615 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0818
急性髓系白血病(acute myeloid leukemia, AML) 是成人中最常见的白血病之一, 属于造血系统恶性肿瘤, 具有强侵袭性和高异质性的特点, 主要表现为髓系分化受阻, 未成熟髓系祖细胞增生[1, 2]。据统计, 全世界每年有超过25万的成年人被诊断为AML, AML患者的5年总生存期(OS) 小于50%[3]。尽管在过去几十年中, AML的治疗取得了相当大的进展, 但仍有2/3的年轻患者和90%的老年患者死于这种疾病[4]。美国癌症协会估计, 2021年AML新发病例和死亡人数将分别增加到20 240例和11 400例[5]。因此, 开发新型抗AML药物迫在眉睫。目前, 分子靶向治疗已成为肿瘤治疗的重要手段之一, FMS样酪氨酸激酶3 (FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3, FLT3) 是治疗AML的重要靶点之一。
FLT3是编码酪氨酸激酶的基因, 由993个氨基酸构成, 属于Ⅲ型受体酪氨酸激酶家族[5]。在造血干细胞的生存、增殖和分化过程中发挥着重要作用。FLT3与同样属于RTK家族的c-Kit、cFMS和PDGFR高度同源, 其结构是由5个细胞外结构域(extracellular domain, ECD)、1个跨膜结构域(transmembrane domain, TMD)、1个近膜结构域(juxtamembrane domain, JMD)、2个由插入结构域分隔的酪氨酸激酶结构域(tyrosine kinase domain, TKD) 组成[6]。FLT3主要在正常的造血干细胞和造血祖细胞的细胞表面表达, 其配体主要在骨髓基质细胞中表达[7]。FLT3配体能选择性刺激CD34+祖细胞的增殖, 特异性与FLT3结合, 而一旦与FLT3结合, FLT3配体就能诱导受体发生二聚化并使激酶域内的酪氨酸残基自磷酸化。当FLT3被磷酸化后, 会激活下游信号传导通路, 主要包括RAS/RAF/MEK、PI3K/AKT和JAK/STAT5等, 而这些通路均参与调节细胞增殖、分化和细胞存活[8-10] (图 1)。FLT3突变通常会导致其异常活化, 在不与配体结合的情况下, 发生自身磷酸化激活下游信号通路, 导致造血细胞和淋巴细胞的异常增殖, 引发多种恶性血液疾病。
FLT3突变主要有两种类型: ①近膜结构域的内部串联重复突变(internal tandem duplication, ITD): ITD突变是最早被发现的一类FLT3激活突变, 是指在FLT3的近膜结构域插入重复串联的氨基酸序列, 约25%的AML患者体内会发生这种突变[11]。具有ITD突变的AML患者, 往往伴随有白细胞数目增多, 原始骨髓细胞与血细胞百分比增加等临床表现, 且携带FLT3-ITD突变的AML患者复发率高、不良反应多, 预后较差[12]; ② FLT3点突变(tyrosine kinase domain, TKD), FLT3的点突变主要发生在TKD的活化环(activation loop) 上, 大约7%的AML患者携带TKD突变。FLT3基因第20位外显子发生插入或者删除, 可使FLT3中TKD的C端D835发生突变, 这是最常见的点突变。TKD突变一部分来自患者自身携带, 另一部分是患者在治疗过程中受药物诱导产生, 受药物诱导产生的TKD突变是引起药物耐药和疾病复发的重要原因[13]
研究发现, FLT3作为细胞信号传导中一种重要的受体酪氨酸激酶, 可以导致细胞的异常增殖, 诱导肿瘤发生, 特别是与AML的发生、发展密切相关, 大约70%的AML患者中, FLT3是过表达的。临床研究表明, FLT3的过表达与预后不良有关[14]。因此, 以FLT3为靶点的小分子抗AML药物成为研究热点。根据化合物对FLT3选择性的强弱, 可逆FLT3抑制剂分为第一代非选择性FLT3抑制剂和第二代选择性FLT3抑制剂。第一代的非选择性抑制剂有化合物1 (sorafenib)、化合物2 (sunitinib)、化合物3 (ponatinib)、化合物4 (cabozantinib)、化合物5 (midostourin) 等, 见表 1
Sorafenib (1) 是一种Ⅱ型口服多靶点激酶抑制剂, 已分别于2007年和2005年获美国FDA批准, 用于治疗不可切除的肝细胞癌(HCC) 和晚期肾细胞癌(RCC) 患者[15]。1994年, 拜耳和Onyx合作共同致力于靶向作用于Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK通路的药物的研发。使用高通量筛选(high througput screening, HTS) 得到了对Raf激酶具有抑制活性的化合物3-噻吩基尿素, 以此为先导化合物, 设计得到类似物3-氨基-异噁唑, 并逐步进行结构修饰得到了sorafenib[16, 17], 它具有双重的抗肿瘤作用: 既可通过阻断由Raf/MEK/ERK介导的细胞信号传导通路而直接抑制肿瘤细胞的增殖, 还可通过抑制血管内皮生长因子(VEGF) 和血小板衍生生长因子(PDGF) 受体阻断肿瘤新生血管的形成, 间接地抑制肿瘤细胞的生长, sorafenib能够特异性抑制FLT3-ITD, 其对FLT3的IC50值为58.0 nmol·L-1[18]。但是在治疗浓度下, 不能有效抑制FLT3-TKD突变的活性, 并且会产生严重的不良反应, 如腹泻、疲劳和皮肤毒性(如手足综合征) 等, 导致治疗终止[19], 目前针对AML的临床试验停滞在Ⅲ期研究阶段。
Sunitinib (2) 是一种Ⅰ型小分子口服多激酶抑制剂, 已于2006年被美国FDA批准用于转移性肾细胞癌和胃肠道间质癌的治疗[20]。Sunitinib由美国辉瑞公司研发, 是以吲哚啉-2-酮为先导化合物进行结构修饰和改造得到的, 通过抑制VEGF和PDGF等受体来抑制细胞生长, 达到抑制肿瘤和新生血管形成的作用[21]。与其他酪氨酸激酶抑制剂(tyrosine kinase inhibitors, TKIs) 相比, sunitinib具有抑制肿瘤血管生成和抗肿瘤细胞生长的多重作用[22], 其对FLT3、PDGFRβ和VEGFR2等均具有抑制活性, IC50分别为21.0、2.0和80.0 nmol·L-1。其在临床研究期间报告了5例死亡病例, 均与感染引起的并发症相关, 其他不良反应有胃肠道并发症、出血、血液计数下降和皮肤并发症[23]
Ponatinib (3) 是一种Ⅱ型口服多靶点酪氨酸激酶抑制剂, 能够有效地抑制Bcr-Abl (包括T315I突变)、FLT3和Src激酶的活性。临床上用于治疗成人慢性髓细胞白血病(CML) 和Ph染色体阳性急性淋巴细胞白血病(Ph+ALL) 两种罕见白血病[24]。Ponatinib是美国Ariad公司利用其基于结构的计算机辅助药物设计得到的高特异性BCR-ABL激酶抑制剂[25], 被认为是费城染色体的抑制剂, 它能有效阻断由费城染色体产生的原始和所有突变形式的蛋白, 具有潜在的抗血管生成和抗肿瘤活性。常见的不良反应有白细胞降低、血小板减少、贫血、肿胀、皮疹和腹泻。
Cabozantinib (4) 是一种Ⅱ型多靶点小分子酪氨酸激酶抑制剂, 于2012年获得FDA批准用于治疗不可手术切除的恶性局部晚期或转移性甲状腺髓样癌的治疗, 2016年获FDA批准用于晚期肾癌的治疗。其对KIT、FLT3和AXL的IC50值分别为5.0、7.5和42.0 nmol·L-1, 对MET、ROS1、RET、NTRK等激酶也具有抑制活性[26-28]。Cabozantinib由美国Exelixis生物制药公司研发[29], 主要以与前列腺癌增长、扩散有关的MET和VEGFR2酪氨酸激酶为靶点, 抑制肿瘤的转移和血管生成。Cabozantinib在甲状腺髓样癌、肾癌、非小细胞肺癌、肝癌、软组织肉瘤、前列腺癌、乳腺癌、卵巢癌、肠癌等多种实体瘤中有较好的治疗效果, 对骨转移患者的治疗效果尤其突出[30], 但在治疗AML方面, 处于Ⅰ期临床研究阶段。
Midostourin (5) 是一种Ⅰ型多靶点激酶抑制剂, 对FLT3具有较强的抑制活性, IC50为912.0 nmol·L-1[31]。临床试验表明, midostourin联合标准化疗方案治疗组的患者总生存率优于安慰剂联合化疗组, 于2017年被批准与标准化疗联合用于治疗原发的含FLT3突变的AML患者。Midostourin最初是作为对蛋白激酶C具有高度选择性的星孢素衍生物被开发出来的[32], 可抑制FLT3受体信号转导, 诱导细胞周期停滞, 促使表达FLT3突变型受体和过表达FLT3野生型受体的白血病细胞凋亡[33]。但是, 经midostourin治疗的患者, 会发生FLT3-F691I/L、FLT3-N676K/S/D突变, 引起耐药, 导致疾病复发[34, 35]
综上所述, 第一代FLT3抑制剂为多靶点激酶抑制剂, 对FLT3缺乏特异性, 在抑制FLT3时, 同时会对PDGFR、KIT和VEGFR等激酶产生抑制作用[36], 常因脱靶而引起毒性和不良反应, 限制临床治疗效果。随后, 人们进一步开发出来了新一代高效、高选择性的FLT3抑制剂, 主要有quizartinib (6)、crenolanib (7)、gilteritinib (8) 等, 见表 2
Quizartinib (6, 图 2) 最初是通过分子筛选发现的首个新型双芳基脲类FLT3抑制剂, 于2018年被美国FDA和欧洲药品管理局批准用于治疗复发/难治性AML, 该药于2019年在日本获批上市[37]。Quizartinib既可单药用于治疗携带FLT3-ITD的AML, 也可与化疗药物联合使用[38, 39]。Quizartinib与FLT3的晶体复合物表明, 二芳基脲中的羰基与Cys828形成氢键, NH与αC螺旋中的Glu661形成氢键作用, 由此可见, quizartinib中的二芳基脲结构对增强FLT3的抑制活性至关重要。Quizartinib中的对取代苯环处于关门残基Phe691和DFG基序Phe830之间, 并和这两个残基形成π-π键相互作用, 进一步增强了其对FLT3的抑制活性[40]
研究表明, quizartinib对复发/难治性AML患者的白血病细胞的IC50值达到了0.3 nmol·L-1。在2 nmol·L-1时, quizartinib可显著抑制其细胞中FLT3的磷酸化。Quizartinib对FLT3-ITD突变的IC50为1.1 nmol·L-1, 对RS4-11细胞(携带野生型FLT3) 的IC50为4.2 nmol·L-1, 对MV4-11的IC50为0.56 nmol·L-1[41]。与第一代FLT3抑制剂相比, quizartinib具有更好的药代动力学特性、更高的选择性和更好的耐受性[42, 43]。Quizartinib已经成为临床上FLT3抑制剂的首选药物。
Quizartinib常见的不良反应有发热、中性粒细胞减少、血小板减少、贫血和QTcF延长[44-46]。其临床应用也受到耐药性的挑战。研究表明, RUNX1在AML细胞的增殖分化过程中发挥重要作用, RUNX1的高表达是引起quizartinib耐药的一个重要原因[47, 48]。还有一些研究表明, 下游FGF/Ras/ERK和Wnt信号传导通路的激活是quizartinib耐药的重要原因[49]。FGF2通过激活FGFR1和下游的MAPK效应因子而引起耐药[50]。另外, FLT3与quizartinib的共晶体结构表明, quizartinib的结合依赖于分子中的二芳基脲结构与关门残基F691和F830的相互作用, F691和F830的突变都可能导致其对FLT3的抑制活性显著减弱而产生耐药[51]
Crenolanib (7) 最初作为PDGFR抑制剂开发, 但后续研究表明其对FLT3-ITD和FLT3-TKD突变亚型均有较好活性, 故后续作为FLT3抑制剂用于AML的治疗[52], crenolanib对PDGFRα、PDGFRβ和FLT3三者的Kd值分别为3.2、2.1和0.74 nmol·L-1[53]。Crenolanib对FLT3-ITD突变的MV4-11和Molm-13均具有显著抑制活性, IC50分别为1.3和4.9 nmol·L-1。Crenolanib对含FLT3-ITD-TKD也具有较好的抑制活性, 可以显著抑制含有FLT3-ITD-TKD双突变的Ba/F3细胞的增殖[54]
Crenolanib可联合阿糖胞苷和蒽环类诱导化疗, 该疗法在新诊断的FLT3突变AML患者中产生较高的缓解率。与quizartinib相比, crenolanib对红细胞集落生长的破坏较小, 这有利于降低骨髓抑制的不良反应。相关研究表明, crenolanib能显著抑制Molm细胞和含FLT3-D835V突变的AML患者细胞中的FLT3磷酸化[52]
Gilteritinib (8, 图 3) 由Astellas与Kotobuki Pharmaceutical合作研发, 是一种Ⅰ型酪氨酸激酶抑制剂, 对FLT3和AXL具有高度选择性, 但对c-KIT的抑制活性较弱。对于治疗携带FLT3突变的复发/难治性AML具有显著临床优势, 被FDA授予治疗AML的突破性疗法资格, 于2018年在日本和美国先后上市, 是全球首个获批的单药治疗携带FLT3突变的复发/难治性AML的FLT3抑制剂[55, 56]
Gilteritinib对含有FLT3-ITD、FLT3-D835Y、FLT3-ITD-D835Y、FLT3-ITD-F691L、FLT3-ITD-F691I突变的Ba/F3细胞均具有显著的抗增殖活性, IC50值分别为1.8、1.6、2.1、22.0和49.0 nmol·L-1[57]。临床试验表明, gilteritinib对携带FLT3-ITD和FLT3-D835突变的AML患者治疗效果较好。在gilteritinib与FLT3的结合模式中, 氨基甲酰与Glu692和Cys694形成两个氢键, 增强了其对FLT3的抑制活性[58]
与化疗相比, 在复发/难治性FLT3突变的AML患者中, gilteritinib治疗组的生存期更长、患者缓解比例更高[59]。Gilteritinib能有效抑制FLT3-ITD-TKD复合突变, 从而降低了继发耐药风险[60]。Gilteritinib联合标准诱导化疗在新诊断的携带FLT3突变AML患者中表现出良好的耐受性和较好的疗效[61]。作为第二代FLT3抑制剂, gilteritinib具有高度特异性, 没有相关的“脱靶”活性, 并显示出可接受的毒性。Gilteritinib治疗相关的常见不良反应有腹泻(37%)、贫血(34%)、疲劳(33%)、天冬氨酸转氨酶升高(26%) 和丙氨酸转氨酶升高(19%)[62]
尽管FLT3抑制剂在治疗AML方面取得了一定的效果, 但是这些可逆的FLT3抑制剂, 在用药一段时间后, 会使患者体内会产生新的点突变, 如D835V/Y/F/H、F691I/L、Y842C/H、A848P和A627P[63], 导致患者对FLT3抑制剂产生耐药。因此, 开发结构新颖、对多种FLT3突变均有抑制作用的不可逆FLT3抑制剂, 对弥补当前复发或难治性AML治疗的不足具有重要价值。迄今为止, 共价结合的TKIs在癌症治疗方面取得了良好的效果, 与可逆抑制剂相比, TKIs具有更长的靶向停留时间、更高的选择性和更长的响应时间[64]
FF-10101 (9, 图 4) 是Yamaura等[65]开发的一种高选择性、不可逆的FLT3抑制剂, 它通过共价键与FLT3的Cys695结合, 产生不可逆的抑制作用。FF-10101对多种导致quizartinib耐药的FLT3突变均表现出良好的治疗效果, 对FLT3-WT和FLT3-D835Y的IC50分别为0.2和0.16 nmol·L-1。目前正处于Ⅱ期临床研究阶段。
体外实验表明, FF-10101对正常的造血功能影响较小, Yamaura等[65]将表达FLT3-ITD、FLT3-ITD-D835Y和FLT3-ITD-F691I的小鼠骨髓淋巴母细胞(简称32D细胞) 皮下接种NOD/SCID小鼠, 评价了FF-10101对携带不同FLT3突变的细胞的抗增殖活性。结果表明, FF-10101对FLT3-ITD突变的32D细胞的抗增殖作用与quizartinib相同, FF-10101对FLT3-ITD-D835Y和FLT3-ITD-F691L突变的32D细胞的抗增殖作用强于quizartinib。在2021年ASCO年会中, 报告了FF-10101的首个Ⅰ期临床试验数据, 试验显示该药在复发/难治性AML患者中耐受性良好, 并表现出持续的FLT3抑制作用。
Bensinger等[66]通过对sunitinib的结构进行优化, 在吲哚环上引入迈克尔加成受体, 设计合成了基于Cys828的不可逆FLT3抑制剂BSc5371 (10, 图 5)。迈克尔加成受体的引入显著提高了化合物对FLT3的选择性, 可以克服FLT3耐药突变, 对FLT3及其突变体均具有显著的抑制作用(对FLT3-ITD的IC50为5.8 nmol·L-1, FLT3-ITD-D835V的IC50为0.83 nmol·L-1, FLT3-ITD-F691L的IC50为1.5 nmol·L-1, FLT3-D835H的IC50为1.3 nmol·L-1), 对MV4-11和Molm-14细胞的IC50分别为6.0 nmol·L-1和7.8 nmol·L-1, 目前该化合物处于临床前研究阶段。
蛋白降解靶向嵌合体(proteolytic targeting chimera, PROTAC) 是Craig Martin Crews教授等于2001年报道的一种利用泛素-蛋白酶体系统(ubiquitin-proteasome system, UPS) 降解蛋白质的双功能分子[67]。小分子PROTAC兼具抑制和降解两种功能, 它由3部分组成: E3泛素连接酶结合配体、靶蛋白(protein of interest, POI) 结合的配体和连接两配体的连接链。PROTAC通过“劫持”UPS来降解蛋白质, 它结合E3泛素连接酶和靶蛋白, 从而导致靶蛋白上暴露的赖氨酸被E3泛素连接酶复合物泛素化, 随后UPS介导的蛋白降解(图 6)。PROTACs不仅提供了结合活性, 而且还具有消除传统抑制剂“无药物作用”或非酶促蛋白的蛋白质靶点的巨大潜力。
Burslem等[68]以FLT3抑制剂quizartinib做靶头, 通过一个优化的连接链, 用VHL配体替代亲水区的吗啉结构, 得到化合物11 (图 7)。化合物11抑制FLT3-ITD和FLT3-WT的IC50值分别为43.0和36.0 nmol·L-1, 较quizartinib的抑制作用都略有降低, 但在两种情况下仍对FLT3保持较强的抑制活性。在MV4-11细胞中, 化合物11的抗增殖效果优于quizartinib, 化合物11对MV4-11的IC50为0.6 nmol·L-1, 作用效果比quizartinib (IC50值为1.87 nmol·L-1) 强3.5倍[68]。将quizartinib转化为PROTAC, 细胞抗增殖活性比quizartinib更强, 由此可见, 将激酶抑制剂转化为PROTAC可以产生活性更好的抗AML化合物, 进一步揭示了PROTAC的优势。
Huang等[69]通过将一种多激酶抑制剂与配体结合, 得到一种多激酶降解剂化合物12 (TL12-186, 图 8)。在1 mmol·L-1时, 化合物12对FLT3在内的193个激酶的抑制活性 > 90%。使用定量蛋白质组学发现, 化合物12能够使包括FLT3在内的28种激酶降解, 在Molm-14细胞中, 化合物12对FLT3降解呈时间依赖性, 特别是在处理4~8 h后FLT3的降解较为明显, 此结果表明FLT3是一个可以被降解的靶点。
曹升等[70]将dovitinib (13, 图 9) 经化学修饰转化为招募CRBN的PROTACs, 发现了化合物14, 化合物14在体内和体外对所有类型的FLT3 (野生型FLT3、FLT3-ITD和FLT3-D835Y)、PDGFR和KIT都具有抑制作用。化合物14对携带FLT3-ITD突变的AML细胞的抗增殖活性比dovitinib强, 很大程度上可以降低细胞内FLT3-ITD和KIT的含量, 抑制FLT3和KIT的下游信号通路的激活。将MV4-11细胞接种于NOD/SCID小鼠, 建立小鼠异种移植模型。对照组CD45+的比例为32.23%, 实验组(化合物14) 骨髓中CD45+的比例为5.25%, 由此可见化合物14显著降低了骨髓中CD45+的比例, 且化合物14对小鼠体重无显著影响。通过进一步的生物学研究表明, 化合物14可以诱导FLT3-ITD和KIT蛋白以泛素-蛋白酶体依赖的方式降解, 完全阻断其下游信号通路, 显著降低了FLT3-ITD突变的AML细胞的ROS水平。ROS过多产生可导致DNA损伤水平增加、双链断裂(DSBs) 和错误修复频率增加, 从而进一步增加FLT3-ITD的突变频率, 这也是发生耐药的重要原因。由此可见, 将小分子改造为蛋白降解剂后可以显著增强其体内抗增殖活性, 减少耐药性。
Chen等[71]采用来那度胺作为配体, 结合E3泛素连接酶, 三唑作为连接子合成了PF1~18。在PF1~18中, 大多数化合物对MV4-11和Molm-13均具有显著的抗增殖活性。同时建立了携带ITD、ITD-D835V和ITD-F691L突变的BaF3细胞, 以评估化合物PF1~18的抗增殖作用, 结果显示化合物15 (PF15) 和化合物16 (PF16) (图 10) 在3个突变细胞中均表现出较强的抑制活性, IC50值为7.85~193.0 nmol·L-1。作用机制研究表明化合物15和化合物16均能明显诱导FLT3降解, 且均呈剂量依赖性。在100 nmol·L-1时, 连续监测FLT3的降解情况发现, 化合物15和化合物16在1~24 h之间都能以时间依赖的方式促进FLT3的降解, 在6 h时, 化合物对FLT3的降解效果达到最大值, 直至24 h时仍能保持对FLT3的完全降解。通过进一步研究表明化合物15也能下调FLT3和STAT5的磷酸化。化合物15对FLT3的IC50值为36.0 nmol·L-1, 而对c-Kit的抑制活性较弱(IC50 = 1 259.0 nmol·L-1), 有利于避免骨髓抑制的不良反应, 增大治疗窗。将不同剂量的化合物15通过腹腔内注射给药10天后, 研究化合物15对BaF3-FLT3-ITD异种移植瘤的抑瘤效果。结果表明, 低剂量组(10 mg·kg-1) 抑制肿瘤生长效果良好, 抑瘤率为58.4%, 同时高剂量组(20 mg·kg-1) 则表现出较高的抑瘤率。分离小鼠外周血血清, 进行生化分析, 发现低剂量组和高剂量组都对小鼠的心脏、肝脏和肾脏几乎没有不良反应。为了更准确地反映化合物15对FLT3-ITD+AML的治疗效果, 建立了BaF3-FLT3-ITD原位模型来评价裸鼠的生存期, 结果显示无药物干预的模型组, BaF3-FLT3-ITD细胞浸润, 中位生存期仅为11天。低剂量组每天20 mg·kg-1腹腔内注射延长中位生存期达15天, 然而, 40 mg·kg-1组每天单次治疗的中位生存期相当于20 mg·kg-1腹腔内注射每天两次。对FLT3野生型细胞的Kinome scanning和细胞选择性表明, 与亲本抑制剂相比, PROTAC分子可以提高安全治疗窗口, 而体内异种移植模型和生存期评估验证了PROTAC的有效性。
药物耐药是激酶类抗肿瘤药物普遍存在的难题, 尽管研究者在FLT3小分子抑制剂用于治疗耐药性AML方面进行了很多探索, 但实际治疗过程中却由于复杂多变的疾病机制等因素而使得多数药物因为耐药而限制疗效。截至目前, 第一代FLT3抑制剂为多靶点受体酪氨酸激酶抑制剂, 这类抑制剂虽然在临床试验过程中有很好的FLT3抑制活性, 但经常因为选择性不高而导致较强的不良反应, 从而限制了临床治疗效果。相比之下, 第二代FLT3抑制剂对FLT3具有更强的选择性, 在临床上对FLT3-ITD突变的AML患者有很好的治疗效果, 但这些FLT3抑制剂使用一段时间后会因为耐药而导致疾病复发。患者对可逆FLT3抑制剂产生耐药主要有以下几种原因: ①在使用可逆FLT3抑制剂治疗的过程中, AML患者会演化出新的FLT3酪氨酸激酶结构域突变(TKD突变) 导致患者对FLT3抑制剂耐药; ② FLT3过度表达和骨髓微环境中FLT3配体(FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand, FL) 浓度升高, 促进两者的结合, 进而重新激活FLT3信号通路导致耐药; ③ CYP3A4代谢, 骨髓基质细胞中的CYP3A4可以将游离的FLT3抑制剂快速代谢, 降低药物浓度导致耐药; ④其他信号旁路的激活以及新的基因突变是产生FLT3耐药的重要因素。综上所述, 患者对可逆FLT3抑制剂产生耐药是由于FLT3突变、细胞微环境变化等多种因素共同作用的结果。可逆FLT3抑制剂难以达到理想的治疗效果, 亟需开发新的克服耐药的治疗药物。
开发双重抑制剂是避免激酶抑制剂耐药的有效策略和常用方法。FLT3与其他激酶的双重抑制剂是克服信号旁路激活导致的抑制剂耐药的有效方法。该类FLT3抑制剂的研究进展较快, gilteritinib是首个上市的FLT3/AXL双重抑制剂。目前与FLT3联合研究的双重抑制剂涉及的靶点有造血细胞激酶(hematopoietic cell kinases, HCKs)、细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶(cyclin-dependent kinases, CDKs)、Mer、极光激酶(aurora kinases, AURKs)、AXL、莫洛尼小鼠白血病病毒前病毒插入位点(proviral integration site of murine leukemia virus, Pim)、TOPK等多个靶点, 而且已经有多个化合物进入临床研究中。
另外, 以现有的FLT3抑制剂为基础设计开发结构新颖、分子作用机制不同的FLT3抑制剂和FLT3降解剂也是增强药物作用效果、克服药物耐药的有效策略。不可逆抑制剂和靶蛋白通过共价键结合, 一旦结合上去就可以持续抑制靶蛋白的活性, 完全“杀死”靶蛋白, 从而使该靶点永久性失活, 正是由于其独特的作用机制, 不可逆抑制剂可以有效地解决可逆抑制剂选择性差、药效不够强烈和持久以及易引发耐药性等缺点, 这也是开发强效、克服FLT3抑制剂耐药的有效方法。
传统的抑制剂是以占用驱动(occupancy-driven) 的作用模式, 特异性结合于靶蛋白的空腔内。这种模式需要较高的药物浓度, 以维持对靶蛋白的占用水平, 进而发挥药理活性, 获得临床应用价值。相反, PROTAC是事件驱动(event-driven) 的作用模式, 其不受均衡占有率(equilibrium occupancy) 的影响, 在较低浓度就能够实现超90%的靶蛋白降解, 这对占用驱动模式是难以实现的。经过近20年的发展, PROTAC在克服肿瘤耐药性方面已获得显著性进展, 且通过引入PROTAC技术可以将泛抑制剂转变成选择性降解剂, 从而提高选择性和靶向性。
开发FLT3双重抑制剂、不可逆FLT3抑制剂及FLT3降解剂是目前研究较多的克服经典FLT3抑制剂耐药的主要手段, 并且已经取得了一定的效果。相信通过这些不同策略的研究和应用, 联合多种治疗方法, 在未来可以显著改善靶向FLT3的抗AML药物的临床治疗效果, 减少耐药性, 延长药物响应时间, 为FLT3信号通路异常的AML患者带来福音。
作者贡献: 贾会亚论文撰写与修改; 杨波、张晓梦文献检索及整理; 支燕乐、吴亚、弓建红确定选题、修订论文并定稿。
利益冲突: 本文内容没有利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金青年基金(82003566)
  • 河南省科技攻关资助项目(192102310408)
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2023年第58卷第3期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0818
  • 接收时间:2022-07-05
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-03-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-07-05
  • 修回日期:2022-07-28
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国家自然科学基金青年基金(82003566)
河南省科技攻关资助项目(192102310408)
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    河南中医药大学, 河南 郑州 450000

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
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genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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