Article(id=1198624303114712035, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0755, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1655740800000, receivedDateStr=2022-06-21, revisedDate=1657728000000, revisedDateStr=2022-07-14, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763703903225, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1676131200000, pubDateStr=2023-02-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763703903225, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763703903225, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763703903225, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198624302414263267, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='2', pageStart='235', pageEnd='468', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763703903058, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763704055811, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198624943157116946, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198624943161311251, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=235, endPage=245, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198624303362175973, articleId=1198624303114712035, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=The research of liver-targeted drugs based on asialoglycoprotein receptor, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) is highly expressed on the surface of parenchymal liver cells. It can specifically recognize and bind to desialylated glycoproteins which contain terminal galactose or N-acetylgalactosamine residues, and endocytosed by clathrin-mediated endocytosis, transported and then degraded in lysosome. Based on this character, ASGPR mediated liver-targeted drug delivery is likely to increase drug distribution, reduce potential side effects and lower dose. This article reviewed the expression, structure, ligand binding and endocytosis of ASGPR, and summarized the design and optimization of ASGPR ligands and the release strategies. Finally, we put forward some expects about the clinical drug development for ASGPR.

, correspAuthors=You-hong HU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Guo-zhang LONG, Zhuo ZHANG, Wu-hong CHEN, You-hong HU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198624307690696813, articleId=1198624303114712035, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=基于去唾液酸糖蛋白受体的肝靶向药物的研究, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

去唾液酸糖蛋白受体(asialoglycoprotein receptor, ASGPR) 是一种在肝实质细胞表面高度表达的受体, 它可以特异性识别和结合末端带有半乳糖或N-乙酰基半乳糖胺残基的分子, 通过网格蛋白介导其内吞并转运至溶酶体中降解。基于这一特性, ASGPR介导的肝靶向药物递送会增加药物在肝脏中的分布、减少药物潜在不良反应并降低给药剂量。本文全面综述了ASGPR的表达、组成与结构、结合及内吞, 系统总结了基于ASGPR的配体设计、优化及其释放策略, 并展望该受体在药物开发中的应用。

, correspAuthors=胡有洪, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*胡有洪, Tel: 86-21-50806600, E-mail:
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Biomaterials, 2011, 32: 4118-4129., articleTitle=N-Acetylgalactosamine-functionalized dendrimers as hepatic cancer cell-targeted carriers, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1198702066668503621, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, awardId=81872725, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金面上项目(81872725), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1198702066840470103, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, awardId=TM2021H012, language=CN, fundingSource=上海市市级科技重大专项“糖类药物研究关键技术发展及原创品种研发”(TM2021H012), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1198702058657383383, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198702058665771993, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, companyId=1198702058657383383, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1198702058678354907, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, companyId=1198702058657383383, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=中国科学院上海药物研究所, 上海 201203)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1198702063820570957, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=tJb2Z19qTr7LN3FOyG3oRQ==, figureFileBig=3AHGBThIyPOr4CDOZa99XQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702064013508962, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=CN, label=Figure 1, caption= (A) Schematic representation of human asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) composed of two H1 and one H2 subunits, each one contains four domains. The geometric relationship of ASGPR binding sites is indicated. Adapted with permission from Ref. 10. Copyright © 2017 American Chemical Society. (B) Ribbon diagram of H1-CRD. The N and C terminus are on the bottom of the image. The two <i>α</i>-helices are shown in magenta, the <i>β</i>-strands in blue, the calcium ions in green and the three disulphide bridges in yellow. Adapted with permission from Ref. 27. Copyright © 2000 Academic Press. All rights reserved. (C) GalNAc binds to the CRD of QPDWGH. Coordination, hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions are represented by blue, green and red dashed lines, respectively. Apolar face of GalNAc is depicted in orange. Adapted with permission from Ref. 10. Copyright © 2017 American Chemical Society , figureFileSmall=tJb2Z19qTr7LN3FOyG3oRQ==, figureFileBig=3AHGBThIyPOr4CDOZa99XQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702064328081782, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=7urnSi6qBl48D2y0Wg7t/w==, figureFileBig=0RQAM5YRnlpQjDsPt+31WQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702064521019778, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= Delivery of ASGPR ligands into hepatocyte. The Gal/GalNAc conjugates (ligands) are specifically recognized by ASGPR abundantly expressed on the cell surface. The receptor-ligand complexes are then internalized and transported to the lysosome. ASGPR dissociate from the complexes in the acidic environment, the conjugates are degraded by various enzymes in lysosome , figureFileSmall=7urnSi6qBl48D2y0Wg7t/w==, figureFileBig=0RQAM5YRnlpQjDsPt+31WQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702064697180560, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=5mcOqIfr+HvQZxJuHVkTWA==, figureFileBig=sWTvt9nijuWvqFuymzMhOw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702064839786909, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= (A) Structural diagram of glycoconjugates. (B) Structures of synthetic oligosaccharides. (C) Structure diagrams of trivalent ligand and geometry of the sugar moieties. Adapted with permission from Ref. 10. Copyright © 2017 American Chemical Society , figureFileSmall=5mcOqIfr+HvQZxJuHVkTWA==, figureFileBig=sWTvt9nijuWvqFuymzMhOw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702064944644519, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=0SOg0YMXniZmWpvs7B5XEw==, figureFileBig=1P1iLcv+xx/DgOtGkvLthA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702065070473645, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=CN, label=Figure 4, caption= (A) The catalytic mechanisms of these two classes of <i>β</i>-<i>N</i> acetylglucosaminidase<sup>[<a href="javascript:;" class="mag_content_a" onclick="piaofuRef(this,'b45')" rid="b45">45</a>]</sup>. (B) Cleavage of DNA by deoxyribonuclease Ⅱ (DNase Ⅱ) , figureFileSmall=0SOg0YMXniZmWpvs7B5XEw==, figureFileBig=1P1iLcv+xx/DgOtGkvLthA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702065242440124, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=tD0uPrOsFEsUKy+rdpP6tg==, figureFileBig=aezhIJpiGadaI9J6cSb0/Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702065380852166, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=CN, label=Figure 5, caption= (A) The structures of three approved GalNAc-siRNA drugs, AZD8233 and 5-FdU-GalNAc conjugates. (B) The structures of W-105, W3-8 and W-4. (C) The structures of L2 and its GalNAc conjugate. (D) The structure of paclitaxel-GalNAc conjugate , figureFileSmall=tD0uPrOsFEsUKy+rdpP6tg==, figureFileBig=aezhIJpiGadaI9J6cSb0/Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702065557012949, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=2O/28ctwgsZzfLRVZaC9hg==, figureFileBig=QU4h0MBbgsVJAKKOlp9fiQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702065720590824, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=CN, label=Figure 6, caption= (A) The structure of Ctx-GalNAc and PIP-GalNAc LYTACs. (B) The structure of DNP-GalNAc and MIF-GalNAc LYTACs , figureFileSmall=2O/28ctwgsZzfLRVZaC9hg==, figureFileBig=QU4h0MBbgsVJAKKOlp9fiQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702065863197172, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
No. ASO-GalNAc conjugate n L ASGPR Ki/nmol·L-1
1 20.7 8.0
2 1 12.1 6.8
3 3 14.5 7.0
4 5 17.0 6.1
5 11 24.5 23.0
6 1 18.4 10.0
7 2 20.9 10.3
8 1 9.8 26.0
9 3 12.2 8.4
10 5 14.7 6.2
11 8.8, 14.6 10.0
12 11.8, 14.1 6.3
13 1 8.6 12.0
14 7 17.3 40.0
), ArticleFig(id=1198702066030969345, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

ASGPR binding affinities of ASO-GalNAc conjugates with different linkers. The length of the linker (L) was estimated by ChemBio3D 14.0 software

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
No. ASO-GalNAc conjugate n L ASGPR Ki/nmol·L-1
1 20.7 8.0
2 1 12.1 6.8
3 3 14.5 7.0
4 5 17.0 6.1
5 11 24.5 23.0
6 1 18.4 10.0
7 2 20.9 10.3
8 1 9.8 26.0
9 3 12.2 8.4
10 5 14.7 6.2
11 8.8, 14.6 10.0
12 11.8, 14.1 6.3
13 1 8.6 12.0
14 7 17.3 40.0
), ArticleFig(id=1198702066165187090, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
No. GalNAc/Gal conjugate L ASGPR Ki / nmol·L-1
15 20.7 93
16 19.9 200
17 20.7 200
18 19.1 2
), ArticleFig(id=1198702066328764962, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624303114712035, language=CN, label=Table 2, caption=

ASGPR binding affinities with different Gal/GalNAc conjugates. The length of the linker (L) was estimated by ChemBio3D 14.0 software

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
No. GalNAc/Gal conjugate L ASGPR Ki / nmol·L-1
15 20.7 93
16 19.9 200
17 20.7 200
18 19.1 2
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基于去唾液酸糖蛋白受体的肝靶向药物的研究
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龙国璋 , 张卓 , 陈五红 , 胡有洪 *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(2): 235-245
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药学学报 | 综述 2023, 58(2): 235-245
基于去唾液酸糖蛋白受体的肝靶向药物的研究
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龙国璋, 张卓, 陈五红, 胡有洪*
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  • 中国科学院上海药物研究所, 上海 201203

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*胡有洪, Tel: 86-21-50806600, E-mail:
The research of liver-targeted drugs based on asialoglycoprotein receptor
Guo-zhang LONG, Zhuo ZHANG, Wu-hong CHEN, You-hong HU*
Affiliations
  • Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
出版时间: 2023-02-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0755
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去唾液酸糖蛋白受体(asialoglycoprotein receptor, ASGPR) 是一种在肝实质细胞表面高度表达的受体, 它可以特异性识别和结合末端带有半乳糖或N-乙酰基半乳糖胺残基的分子, 通过网格蛋白介导其内吞并转运至溶酶体中降解。基于这一特性, ASGPR介导的肝靶向药物递送会增加药物在肝脏中的分布、减少药物潜在不良反应并降低给药剂量。本文全面综述了ASGPR的表达、组成与结构、结合及内吞, 系统总结了基于ASGPR的配体设计、优化及其释放策略, 并展望该受体在药物开发中的应用。

去唾液酸糖蛋白受体  /  肝靶向  /  配体  /  释放策略  /  药物开发

Asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) is highly expressed on the surface of parenchymal liver cells. It can specifically recognize and bind to desialylated glycoproteins which contain terminal galactose or N-acetylgalactosamine residues, and endocytosed by clathrin-mediated endocytosis, transported and then degraded in lysosome. Based on this character, ASGPR mediated liver-targeted drug delivery is likely to increase drug distribution, reduce potential side effects and lower dose. This article reviewed the expression, structure, ligand binding and endocytosis of ASGPR, and summarized the design and optimization of ASGPR ligands and the release strategies. Finally, we put forward some expects about the clinical drug development for ASGPR.

asialoglycoprotein receptor  /  liver-targeted  /  ligand  /  release strategy  /  drug development
龙国璋, 张卓, 陈五红, 胡有洪. 基于去唾液酸糖蛋白受体的肝靶向药物的研究. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (2) : 235 -245 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0755
Guo-zhang LONG, Zhuo ZHANG, Wu-hong CHEN, You-hong HU. The research of liver-targeted drugs based on asialoglycoprotein receptor[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (2) : 235 -245 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0755
肝脏是人体中重要的器官之一, 在机体的代谢、解毒以及免疫应答等方面发挥着关键作用[1]。近年来, 多种肝脏疾病的患者人数在不断增加, 包括病毒性肝炎、肝癌、酒精性与非酒精性脂肪肝、肝纤维化和肝硬化等。针对这些疾病, 传统的治疗药物(小分子药物或基因药物) 缺乏一定的组织特异性和靶点选择性, 会产生明显的不良反应[2]。因此, 将药物靶向递送到肝组织并作用于相关靶点的策略成为提高药物特异性和有效性的新方法, 进而减少相关的毒副作用[3]
去唾液酸糖蛋白受体(asialoglycoprotein receptor, ASGPR) 在肝实质细胞表面特异性高表达, 它可以特异性识别、结合并介导内吞末端具有半乳糖(galactose, Gal) 或N-乙酰基半乳糖胺残基(N-acetylgalactosamine, GalNAc) 的分子[4]。基于此特性, ASGPR成为一种肝靶向药物递送的理想受体, 其在肝靶向药物递送中的应用也受到越来越多的关注。迄今为止, 已有三款基于ASGPR递送策略的小干扰RNA (small interfering RNA, siRNA) 药物被美国食品药品监督管理局(FDA) 批准上市[5], 同时有多个寡核苷酸类药物处于临床研究阶段。本文将重点介绍ASGPR的结构、功能以及基于ASGPR的肝靶向药物的设计及其释放策略。
ASGPR又称为“Ashwell-Morell受体”, 是第一个被鉴定的哺乳动物凝集素或糖结合蛋白[6], 是由Ashwell Morell及其同事在20世纪60年代研究哺乳动物血浆糖蛋白的代谢中发现的[7-9]。ASGPR可以特异性识别和结合末端含有半乳糖(Gal) 和N-乙酰基半乳糖胺(GalNAc) 残基的去唾液酸糖蛋白, 网格蛋白介导其内吞并转运到溶酶体进行降解, 进而维持血浆糖蛋白的稳态[10]。同时, ASGPR对GalNAc的结合亲和力远高于其对Gal的结合亲和力[11]
ASGPR主要分布于肝脏, 在其他器官和组织中的表达较少[4]。肝细胞主要分为肝实质细胞和非实质细胞, 其中肝实质细胞占肝脏总细胞的60%~70%, 或者占肝脏总重量的90%[12]。ASGPR主要表达于肝实质细胞的窦膜和基底外侧膜[4], 每个细胞表面大约有500 000个ASGPR分子。此外, ASGPR在多种体外肝细胞系上均有表达[13], 并且表达数量不同。例如: ASGPR在人肝癌细胞株HepG2细胞表面高表达, 每个细胞约有76 000个ASGPR分子; 而在HuH7细胞上的表达较少, 每个细胞大约3 000个ASGPR分子[14]
ASGPR由两个不同基因编码的主要亚基和次要亚基组成[6]。在人体中, 主要亚基H1和次要亚基H2的大小分别为46和50 kDa, 比例约为3︰1[15, 16]。兔的ASGPR由两个亚基组成, 分别为主要亚基R1和次要亚基R2, 其大小约为40和48 kDa, 比例约为2︰1[17]。小鼠的ASGPR同样也由两个亚基组成, 分别为主要亚基MHL1和次要亚基MHL2[18]。大鼠的ASGPR由3种亚基组成, 分别为主要亚基RHL1、次要亚基RHL2和次要亚基RHL3, 其中次要亚基RHL2和RHL3由同一个基因编码, 3种亚基大小分别约为42、49和54 kDa, 比例约为(2.5~8)︰1︰1[8, 19, 20]。所有亚基的结构都是类似的, 以人主要亚基H1为例, H1是一种Ⅱ型单跨膜蛋白, 主要包括一个40个氨基酸组成的细胞质结构域、一个约20个氨基酸组成的单跨膜结构域、一个约80个氨基酸组成的胞外茎区和一个约140个氨基酸组成的糖类识别结构域(carbohydrate recognition domain, CRD)[21]。人主要亚基H1与小鼠主要亚基MHL1的氨基酸序列有79%的同一性, 次要亚基H2与小鼠次要亚基MHL2的氨基酸序列有65%的同一性[18]。人主要亚基H1和大鼠主要亚基RHL1的氨基酸序列有80%的同一性, 人次要亚基H2与RHL2/3的氨基酸序列有62%的同一性[22]。人主要亚基H1和次要亚基H2的区别, 主要是在H2的细胞质结构域中存在18个氨基酸的插入, 而在小鼠和大鼠的次要亚基MHL2和RHL2/3的细胞质结构域中是19个氨基酸的插入[22]
功能性的ASGPR主要是由细胞膜上两种亚基共同组成的异寡聚复合物, 主要亚基对于ASGPR功能的作用大于次要亚基[4, 6]。研究发现大鼠和人的ASGPR的大小分别约为104和140 kDa[23, 24], 表明活性ASGPR可能是三聚体。在人体中, 由两个主要亚基H1和一个次要亚基H2组成三聚体形式的ASGPR是最丰富的, 并且对去唾液酸糖蛋白的结合亲和力最高(图 1A)[25]。该三聚体糖基结合位点的空间几何关系显示两个主要亚基H1之间的距离为15 Å, 与次要亚基H2之间的距离分别为22和25 Å[4]。大多数由两个亚基组成的同源低聚体都不能与配体有效结合。但是在不表达次要亚基H2的COS-7细胞中, 主要亚基H1的高度表达的同源低聚体对去唾液酸糖蛋白同样具有亲和力, 其亲和力比功能性ASGPR低4倍[26]。对该结果比较合理的解释是足够高密度的主要亚基H1会弥补次要亚基H2的缺失, 同样与配体结合。
ASGPR的糖类识别结构域(CRD) 属于钙离子依赖性(C型) 凝集素超家族[28], 其对GalNAc或Gal的识别和结合依赖于Ca2+。以人主要亚基H1为例, 其晶体结构显示CRD是一个球形蛋白, 由147~290位氨基酸形成六条β链和两条α螺旋链, 其中两条α螺旋链分别由10和11个氨基酸组成(图 1B)[27]β链排列在弯曲的平面上, 形成蛋白质的核心, 两条α螺旋链分别位于平面的两侧。糖基结合位点由氨基酸Gln239、Asp241、Trp243、Glu252、Asp253和Asn264组成[29, 30]。CRD结构中存在3个二硫键和3个Ca2+结合位点(位点1、2、3, 图 1B中绿色球体)。Ca2+结合位点1和位点2的位置很接近, 都与氨基酸Glu250存在配位作用, 位点3位于蛋白质的N端和C端附近。位点1和位点2的结合力明显高于位点3的结合力, 而且结合后每个Ca2+都与8个氧原子(氨基酸和水分子) 配位[27, 31]
在QPDWGH (模拟ASGPR的甘露糖结合蛋白突变体) 与GalNAc的共晶结构中(图 1C)[10, 30], Ca2+与CRD中的氨基酸Gln185、Asp187、Glu198、Asn210和Asp211配位, 还与GalNAc的3-OH和4-OH配位。GalNAc的3-OH和4-OH与氨基酸Gln185、Asp187、Glu198、Asn210和Asp211形成氢键相互作用。GalNAc的极性面(C3、C4、C5和C6) 与色氨酸Trp189的侧链面形成疏水相互作用。GalNAc的2-乙酰氨基通过范德华力与组氨酸His202直接接触。
ASGPR对GalNAc的结合亲和力远高于Gal, 主要原因在于GalNAc的2-乙酰氨基中的甲基与组氨酸His202的咪唑环之间可有效地形成范德华力[30, 32]。若将组氨酸突变为其他氨基酸, ASGPR对GalNAc与Gal的结合亲和力相似。
在pH > 6和Ca2+存在的情况下, ASGPR首先与末端带有GalNAc或Gal的配体结合形成复合物, 然后通过网格蛋白介导的小窝内化[33, 34]。在完全内化后, 被包被的小窝从质膜上脱离, 网格蛋白被膜分离并可以重复使用, 未被包被的小窝融合形成更大的早期核内体[35]。许多这样的核内体融合形成多个管状室和小泡后, 它们被分选为循环核内体或晚期核内体。其中, 晚期核内体与含有溶酶体酶的囊泡融合形成成熟的溶酶体[33]。溶酶体的酸性环境(pH约为5.4) 会降低Ca2+与配体的结合亲和力, 使得ASGPR被释放出来并通过循环核内体回到细胞膜表面, 而配体会在溶酶体酶或酸性环境的作用下进一步被降解。即使在pH接近中性的核内体中, 部分复合物也可以释放出Ca2+和配体[31]。但是也有一部分仍然与配体结合的ASGPR回到细胞膜表面, 这可能发生在核内体的分化和酸化之前[4]。在有或没有结合配体的情况下, ASGPR都会进行内吞和循环, 一次大约15 min[36]。ASGPR的代谢半衰期大约为20 h, 单个受体可在其生命周期内循环250~1 000次[37] (图 2)。
近20年来, 有很多关于ASGPR配体的研究。由于ASGPR对GalNAc的结合亲和力远远高于对Gal的亲和力, 大部分研究都是基于GalNAc的衍生物。其结构主要由3部分组成, 分别是糖簇、连接子和活性药物(图 3A)。糖簇是指所有糖基到糖链交叉原子或基团的结构, 根据糖基的个数可由1~4条糖链组成。连接子是指交叉原子或基团与活性药物之间的连接链, 负责连接糖簇和活性药物。
相比于单糖基(单价) 的配体, 多糖基(二价、三价、四价) 配体对ASGPR表现出更高的亲和力[10]。兔的ASGPR与不同低聚糖配体的结合实验显示, 四价、三价、二价和单价配体的半抑制浓度(IC50) 分别为1$ \times $10-9、5$ \times $10-9、1$ \times $10-6和1$ \times $10-3 mol·L-1 [38, 39] (图 3B)。相比三价配体, 四价配体并没有明显地提高亲和力, 这表明三价配体就可以满足ASGPR的结合需求。这可能是因为由3个亚基组成的三聚体ASGPR是丰度最高的存在形式。除了糖基数目外, 糖缀合物对ASGPR的结合亲和力同时受到很多其他因素的影响, 包括空间构型、糖链长度和亲水疏水性质等。
以三价配体为例, 根据空间构型常见的配体可分为两类, 一类配体的空间结构是触角构型, 另一类的空间结构是平行构型, 类似于刷子形状(图 3C)。对比两类配体与ASGPR的结合亲和力, 触角构型配体的结合亲和力略优于相同数目糖基的平行构型配体[40, 41]。根据糖链连接位置的差异, 三触角构型的配体分为两类。一类配体的3条糖链连接在同一个原子或基团上(表 1, 偶联物1~10), 另一类配体的3条糖链通常连接在氨基酸骨架上的不同位置(表 1, 偶联物12)。两类三触角构型的配体与ASGPR的结合亲和力没有显著的差异。
由于ASGPR的3个糖基结合位点呈现出一定的空间分布特征, 则配体的3个糖基也必须具有相应的空间距离与受体结合, 即3条糖链的长度需要保持在一定的范围类。表 1列举了多个反义寡核苷酸(ASO) 与GalNAc的偶联物对ASGPR的结合亲和力评价, 抑制常数Ki越小表明偶联物与ASGPR的结合亲和力越高[40]。对于触角构型的三价配体, 当糖链过长或过短(表 1, 偶联物5和8) 都不利于配体与ASGPR的结合。只有糖链长度保持在一定的范围之内, 也就是12~21 Å, 配体才能有效地与ASGPR结合。对于平行构型的三价配体(表 1, 偶联物13和14), 过长的糖链同样不利于配体与ASGPR的结合。因此, 糖链的长度对配体与ASGPR的结合亲和力至关重要, 过长或过短的糖链都不利于结合。
除了糖链的长度外, 分子的亲疏水性质也同样影响其与ASGPR的结合活性。如表 2所示, 偶联物15中的二酰胺链替换为同样长度的亲水性的乙二醇链时, 偶联物16对ASGPR的结合亲和力明显降低[42], 调整偶联物15中酰胺键的方向(表 2, 偶联物17) 基本不影响结合亲和力。把偶联物15中Gal替换为GalNAc, 同时将糖基到第一个酰胺键的亚甲基链替换为水溶性好乙二醇链时, 偶联物18对ASGPR表现出显著增强的亲和力[43]。亲水性或疏水性较强的糖链可能会聚集或发散从而影响配体的空间构型, 进而影响配体与ASGPR的结合。因此, 配体必须保持亲水性和疏水性的平衡才能较好地与ASGPR结合。
要使基于ASGPR递送的肝靶向药物发挥疗效, 药物就必须在机体内有效释放, 其释放可通过以下途径。
配体中的糖基(GalNAc) 会在数十分钟内被溶酶体水解酶(β-N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶) 逐渐水解[44]。根据酶水解的机制, 水解酶可分为两类: 3-β-N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶和20-β-N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶(图 4A)[45]。在3-β-N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶水解机制中, 首先酶羧基负离子作为亲核试剂进攻糖苷键形成共价糖基酶中间体, 脱除与糖基相连片段, 然后水分子进攻中间体形成游离的GalNAc。在20-β-N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶水解机制中, 在酶的作用下, 首先糖基2位乙酰氨基上的羰基作为亲核试剂进攻糖苷键, 形成噁唑啉中间体, 脱除与糖基相连片段, 然后水分子破环噁唑啉环, 游离出GalNAc。当GalNAc-ASO偶联物(ION-681257, 图 5A) 与β-N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶共孵育30 min后, 质谱监测到分别丢失1、2及3个糖基的化合物片段[46]
药物得以被释放的关键在于连接子与药物的连接方式, 该连接方式必须在溶酶体酶或者酸性环境下断裂。目前对该连接方式的设计包括磷酸酯键、二硫键和羧酸酯键等。
磷酸酯键主要应用于寡核苷酸类药物和核苷类似物, 可以被脱氧核糖核酸酶水解。根据水解位置的不同, 脱氧核糖核酸酶水解可分为两类[47]。脱氧核糖核酸酶1 (DNase Ⅰ) 作用于脱氧核糖3′端的磷酸酯键, 需要钙离子和镁离子参与才能发挥作用, 并在pH 6.5~8时酶的活性较高。脱氧核糖核酸酶2 (DNase Ⅱ) 作用于脱氧核糖5′端的磷酸酯键, 不需要钙离子和镁离子激活, 并在pH 4.8~5.2时酶的活性较高。寡核苷酸和GalNAc偶联物中的磷酸酯键主要被溶酶体DNase Ⅱ水解(图 4B)。目前已有3种基于ASGPR递送的siRNA药物被FDA批准上市, 均采用了磷酸酯连接链, 分别是givosiran、lumasiran和inclisiran[5] (图 5A)。siRNA可以通过RNA诱导沉默复合体(RISC) 切割降解互补配对的mRNA, 从而抑制mRNA的翻译和蛋白质的合成[48]。Givosiran靶向氨基乙酰丙酸合成酶1 (ALAS1) mRNA, 用于治疗急性肝卟啉症; lumasiran靶向羟基酸氧化酶1 (HAO1) mRNA, 用于治疗原发性高草酸尿症1型; inclisiran靶向前蛋白转化酶枯草溶菌素9 (PCSK9) mRNA, 用于治疗成人原发性高胆固醇血症或混合型血脂异常。临床在研GalNAc-ASO偶联药物ION-863633 (AZD8233, 图 5A), 同样采用了磷酸酯连接链, 靶向PCSK9 mRNA, 通过核糖核酸水解酶H (RNase H) 切割降解mRNA, 进而抑制PCSK9的合成, 而且该偶联物具有口服给药的潜力[49]。体外酶共孵育实验和大鼠与猴的代谢评价表明, ASO-GalNAc偶联药物(ION-681257) 中的磷酸酯键可以在DNase Ⅱ的作用下断裂释放出未结合的ASO[46]。小鼠模型皮下给药后, ION-681257迅速从血浆中分布到肝脏组织, 在肝脏中游离的ASO占肝脏总暴露量的97%[50]。此外, ION-681257经皮下给药后, 大鼠和猴子的代谢物相同; 在大鼠和食蟹猴模型中, givosiran代谢性质评价未表现出种属差异[46, 51]。此外, 核苷类似物5-氟-2′-脱氧尿苷(5-FdU) 也采用了磷酸酯键连接(图 5A)[52], 该偶联物在37 ℃下共孵育72 h对HepG2细胞表现出与活性药物5-FdU相当的细胞毒性。
基于二硫键的链接是抗体偶联药物中常见的连接方式, 它在生理pH下和血浆中都是稳定的, 但是容易受到硫醇等强亲核性分子的进攻, 因此其对谷胱甘肽(glutathione, GSH) 较敏感[53]。GSH在肿瘤细胞中高度表达, 其胞内浓度高于细胞外液和正常细胞[54]。化合物W-105通过上调半胱氨酸天冬氨酸蛋白酶3 (caspase-3) 的活性导致细胞凋亡, 其通过二硫键与三价糖簇片段连接形成偶联物W-3-8 (图 5B)[55]。与W-105相比, W-3-8可以显著增加肝细胞对化合物的摄取并表现出增强的细胞毒性。体外细胞实验表明, 化合物W-3-8与GSH共孵育发生二硫键的断裂, 产生活性化合物W-4。此外, 一种高亲和力的Cu螯合剂(L2, 图 5C) 通过二硫键与糖簇片段连接, 可以选择性地进入肝细胞并结合Cu以维持体内正常Cu的浓度, 其二硫键在肝细胞内还原介质(例如GSH) 的作用下有效断裂[56]
抗肿瘤药物紫杉醇(paclitaxel) 通过羧酸酯键与三价糖簇片段连接, 连接位置在其2′-OH (图 5D), 该位置反应活性最高而且酯化不影响紫杉醇的细胞毒性[57]。体外活性评价表明紫杉醇与GalNAc偶联物对HepG2细胞表现出与紫杉醇相当的细胞毒性。多烯紫杉醇在其2′-OH通过酯键与糖簇片段连接形成GalNAc偶联物, 同样表现出与活性药物相当的细胞毒性[58]
目前, ASGPR已成功应用于内吞-溶酶体途径的蛋白质降解。基于ASGPR的溶酶体靶向嵌合体(lysosome-targeting chimeras, LYTACs) 由糖簇、连接子与靶向目标蛋白的抗体、多肽或小分子三部分组成。GalNAc-LYTACs在细胞外或膜上结合目标蛋白后通过ASGPR识别并内吞至溶酶体, 目标蛋白在溶酶体内被降解[59, 60]。已报道, 靶向表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor receptor, EGFR) 的西妥昔单抗(cetuximab, Ctx) 中赖氨酸残基被NHS-(PEG)4-N3无特异性标记, 然后通过叠氮-炔基环加成反应与三价糖簇片段形成偶联物Ctx-GalNAc (图 6A), 可降解Hep3B、HepG2和HuH7细胞膜上的EGFR, 降解率均达到70%以上。类似地, 整合素结合肽(integrin-binding peptide, PIP) 的衍生物通过叠氮与含炔基的三价糖簇片段形成偶联物PIP-GalNAc (图 6A), 可以降解HepG2细胞膜上的整合素。将巨噬细胞迁移抑制因子(migration inhibitory factor, MIF) 或α-二硝基苯酚(α-dinitrophenol, α-DNP) 抗体结合的分子与三价糖簇片段连接形成偶联物MIF-GalNAc和DNP-GalNAc (图 6B), 均使胞外目标蛋白进入溶酶体内降解[61]。此外, PAMAM-NH2树枝状聚合物[polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer] 表面的氨基被GalNAc片段修饰后, 可以成为一种靶向载体, 将其表面共价结合的化疗药物靶向递送到肝细胞内[62]
基于ASGPR的药物递送已成为一种具有应用前景的递送策略。该受体可以特异性识别并以较好的亲和力结合GalNAc偶联物, 并在网格蛋白介导的内吞下进入肝细胞。目前已上市的3种基于该策略的寡核苷酸类药物都是注射给药, 口服给药仍然具有挑战性。寡核苷酸类药物通常是高电荷的亲水性分子, 肠道通透性差, 口服给药后生物利用度不佳。目前处于II期临床研究的AZD8233是由限制性乙基修饰的16个核苷酸与三价糖簇(GalNAc) 片段偶联形成的药物, 因其较高的肝脏暴露量从而具有口服给药的潜力[49]。其与一种瞬时渗透增强剂(癸酸钠) 制成片剂, 犬每天口服给药该制剂, 肝脏暴露量大约是血浆的5倍。进一步研究表明, 食蟹猴每天口服给药, AZD8233片剂可明显降低血浆中PCSK9和低密度脂蛋白胆固醇的水平。基于动物评价结果, 预计人每天口服15 mg的剂量可使PCSK9水平降低80%。
已报道的基于ASGPR递送的小分子药物在肝脏的选择性分布已经完全证明, 该策略可以明显增加药物在肝脏的暴露量。但是针对小分子药物递送的研究仍然存在一些问题和挑战。例如, 偶联物是否具有血浆稳定性及在肝细胞内如何有效地水解释放原形药物等。随着研究的深入, 势必会有更多基于ASGPR递送技术的药物成功开发, 并有可能实现口服给药。
作者贡献: 龙国璋负责文献资料的查阅和文章的撰写; 张卓和陈五红负责文章修改和内容完善; 通讯作者胡有洪负责指导综述框架的设计和文章修改。
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  • 国家自然科学基金面上项目(81872725)
  • 上海市市级科技重大专项“糖类药物研究关键技术发展及原创品种研发”(TM2021H012)
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2023年第58卷第2期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0755
  • 接收时间:2022-06-21
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-02-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-06-21
  • 修回日期:2022-07-14
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国家自然科学基金面上项目(81872725)
上海市市级科技重大专项“糖类药物研究关键技术发展及原创品种研发”(TM2021H012)
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    中国科学院上海药物研究所, 上海 201203

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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