Article(id=1198624306633736538, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0670, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1653753600000, receivedDateStr=2022-05-29, revisedDate=1663689600000, revisedDateStr=2022-09-21, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763703904063, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1676131200000, pubDateStr=2023-02-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763703904063, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763703904063, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763703904063, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198624302414263267, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='2', pageStart='235', pageEnd='468', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763703903058, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763704055811, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198624943157116946, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198624943161311251, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198624302414263267, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=285, endPage=297, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198624306897977705, articleId=1198624306633736538, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Structural characteristics and antitumor activity of polysaccharides from Cordyceps species, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Polysaccharides is one of the main bioactive components of Cordyceps species, because of the potential clinical value with stronger anti-tumor, such as anti-neuroblastoma, anti-melanoma, anti-lung cancer, anti-colon cancer and so on, its have received widespread attention in biomedical field and increasing research in last decades. According to structural elucidation, this review gives a systematic literature overview on antitumor mechanism of Cordyceps species-derived polysaccharides from three aspects, including inhibition of tumor cell growth, enhancement of immunomodulatory activity and reduction of tumor metastasis. Finally, it also puts forward some scientific problems for follow up research.

, correspAuthors=Zhong-gen ZHAN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Zhong-gen ZHAN, Su-dan YE, Wei-su HUANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198624307812336025, articleId=1198624306633736538, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=虫草多糖的结构特征及其抗肿瘤活性, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

多糖是虫草的主要生物活性成分之一, 具有较强的抗肿瘤活性, 能抑制神经母细胞瘤、黑色素瘤、肺癌、结肠癌等多种癌症。最近几十年来, 虫草多糖已引起生物医学领域的极大关注, 并吸引了众多学者开展相关研究。文章在分析虫草多糖结构特征的基础上, 从增强免疫调节作用、抑制肿瘤细胞生长、降低肿瘤转移风险等3个方面综述了虫草多糖的抗肿瘤作用机制, 并提出未来亟待深入研究的科学问题, 以期为后续研究提供参考。

, correspAuthors=詹忠根, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*詹忠根, Tel: 86-571-81062694, E-mail:
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NK cells: Natural killer cells; INF: Interferon; TNF: Tumor necrosis factor; IL: Interleukin; M1/2: Macrophages 1/2; NO: Nitric oxide; Th1/2: Helper T lymphocyte 1/2 , figureFileSmall=K8U3h8sRUZ/xzVM5kbv1Xg==, figureFileBig=iDBslUMxqIRiZVLXlnK9Sw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702061685670118, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624306633736538, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=x9UFp3AGElt9g/cSeO3swQ==, figureFileBig=BJeCAZ62TsAfs9R99NOVdw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198702061815693555, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198624306633736538, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= The immunomodulatory activity and antitumor effect of polysaccharides in <i>Cordyceps</i> species. Purple arrows represent <i>Cordyceps</i> species-derived polysaccharides bind to TLR2, <i>via</i> up-regulation of the MAPK/NF-<i>κ</i>B pathway, including phosphorylation of ERK, JNK and p38. Red and blue arrows indicate it also increases immunomodulatory activity and shows anti-tumor activity indirectly by TLR4/MyD88/p38 axis and TLR4/TRAF6/NF-<i>κ</i>B p65 axis. 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虫草多糖的结构特征及其抗肿瘤活性
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詹忠根 * , 叶素丹 , 黄伟素
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(2): 285-297
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药学学报 | 综述 2023, 58(2): 285-297
虫草多糖的结构特征及其抗肿瘤活性
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詹忠根* , 叶素丹, 黄伟素
作者信息
  • 浙江经贸职业技术学院, 生物制药教研室, 浙江 杭州 310018

通讯作者:

*詹忠根, Tel: 86-571-81062694, E-mail:
Structural characteristics and antitumor activity of polysaccharides from Cordyceps species
Zhong-gen ZHAN* , Su-dan YE, Wei-su HUANG
Affiliations
  • Biopharmaceutical Laboratory, Zhejiang Institute of Economics and Trade, Hangzhou 310018, China
出版时间: 2023-02-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0670
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多糖是虫草的主要生物活性成分之一, 具有较强的抗肿瘤活性, 能抑制神经母细胞瘤、黑色素瘤、肺癌、结肠癌等多种癌症。最近几十年来, 虫草多糖已引起生物医学领域的极大关注, 并吸引了众多学者开展相关研究。文章在分析虫草多糖结构特征的基础上, 从增强免疫调节作用、抑制肿瘤细胞生长、降低肿瘤转移风险等3个方面综述了虫草多糖的抗肿瘤作用机制, 并提出未来亟待深入研究的科学问题, 以期为后续研究提供参考。

虫草多糖  /  结构特征  /  抗肿瘤活性  /  免疫调节  /  细胞凋亡

Polysaccharides is one of the main bioactive components of Cordyceps species, because of the potential clinical value with stronger anti-tumor, such as anti-neuroblastoma, anti-melanoma, anti-lung cancer, anti-colon cancer and so on, its have received widespread attention in biomedical field and increasing research in last decades. According to structural elucidation, this review gives a systematic literature overview on antitumor mechanism of Cordyceps species-derived polysaccharides from three aspects, including inhibition of tumor cell growth, enhancement of immunomodulatory activity and reduction of tumor metastasis. Finally, it also puts forward some scientific problems for follow up research.

polysaccharides from Cordyceps species  /  structural characteristics  /  antitumor activity  /  immunomodulatory  /  apoptosis
詹忠根, 叶素丹, 黄伟素. 虫草多糖的结构特征及其抗肿瘤活性. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (2) : 285 -297 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0670
Zhong-gen ZHAN, Su-dan YE, Wei-su HUANG. Structural characteristics and antitumor activity of polysaccharides from Cordyceps species[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (2) : 285 -297 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0670
虫草是一类寄生于昆虫、少数真菌或植物体的一类真菌的总称, 隶属于虫草菌科(Cordycipitaceae)、麦角菌科(Clavicipitaceae)、线虫草菌科(Ophiocordycipitaceae) 等, 目前已鉴定出750余种, 主要分布于亚洲、欧洲和北美[1]。冬虫夏草(C. sinensis)、蛹虫草(C. militaris) 等药用虫草作为传统的名贵滋补中药已有数百年的历史, 且随着研究的深入, 越来越多的虫草被证明具有较高的药用价值, 如蝉花虫草(C. cicadae)、粉被虫草(C. spruinosa)、大团囊虫草(C. ophioglossoides)、九洲虫草(C. kyushuensis)、古尼虫草(C. gunnii) 等至少35种虫草被报道含有药理活性成分, 并从中分离出核苷、多糖、生物碱和酚类等200多种活性物质[2]
多糖是虫草重要的生物活性物质之一, 含量丰富, 是虫草产品开发和质量控制的主要目标。通常, 从虫草子实体、僵虫体、菌丝体中提取的多糖称为胞内多糖, 从发酵液中提取的多糖称为胞外多糖, 两类多糖均具有免疫调节、抗肿瘤、降血糖、抗氧化、抗纤维化、抗疲劳、肾脏保护和辐射防护等多种药理作用[2]。近年来, 多位学者[1, 3-6]分别从不同角度综述了蛹虫草、冬虫夏草等多糖的提取、纯化、化学结构及其生物活性, 但除Lee等[7]对蛹虫草多糖的免疫调节活性进行专题综述外, 鲜有学者就虫草多糖的抗肿瘤活性单独进行归纳整理。鉴于虫草多糖生产周期短、易于分离纯化, 抗肿瘤活性较强, 对肺癌、神经母细胞瘤、结肠癌、乳腺癌、黑色素瘤、宫颈癌等均有抑制作用[8-13], 且具有毒性小、作用广、靶点多, 以及明显的化疗增敏作用、降低化疗药物不良反应等优势, 已在生物医学领域引起了极大关注, 并取得显著进展。为此, 本文在分析虫草多糖结构特征的基础上, 从增强免疫调节作用、抑制肿瘤细胞生长、降低肿瘤转移风险等3个方面综述虫草多糖的抗肿瘤作用机制, 以期为后续研究提供参考。
根据结构表征, 已分离的虫草多糖既有均多糖, 也有杂多糖。均多糖以葡聚糖为主, 大部分主链结构为(1→4)-α-D-吡喃葡萄糖(glucopyranose, Glcp) (如野生冬虫夏草中提取的多糖NCSP-50[14]、菌丝体中提取的OSP[15]), 少部分为(1→3)-β-Glcp (如冬虫夏草胞外多糖EPS1[16]) 或(1→4)-β-Glcp (如冬虫夏草菌丝体提取的UM01-S1[17]) 等其他结构。杂多糖的单糖组成可分为两类, 一类仅由甘露糖(mannose, Man)、葡萄糖(glucose, Glc) 和半乳糖(galactose, Gal) 组成, 如蛹虫草多糖CMP-W1、CMP-S1, 其Man∶Glc∶Gal = 2.84∶1.00∶1.29和2.05∶1∶1.09[18]; 另一类除Man、Glc、Gal外, 还含有鼠李糖(rhamnose Rha)、阿拉伯糖(arabinose, Ara)、木糖(xylose, Xyl) 等其他单糖, 如冬虫夏草菌丝体多糖HSP-III, Rha∶Ara∶Xyl∶Man∶Glc∶Gal = 1.00∶2.44∶13.11∶74.13∶13.80∶54.39[19]
虫草多糖的平均分子量相差较大, 介于~1 kDa到~103 kDa之间, 低分子量多糖仅为1 kDa (如野生冬虫夏草中提取的多糖P3[20]), 高分子量多糖达5 442 kDa (如冬虫夏草UM01中提取的多糖UM01-S1[17]), 而蝉花虫草菌丝体中提取的多糖CCP分子量更是高达6 907.26 kDa[13]
虫草多糖的主链大多含有(1→4)-α-D-糖苷键。Wu等[21]采用聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳(PACE) 结合高效薄层色谱(HPTLC) 法分析了包括冬虫夏草在内的7种虫草的野生个体、人工培养子实体和菌丝体共36个样品的多糖, 发现野生和人工培养的冬虫夏草、人工培养的蛹虫草、野生黑槌虫草和蝉花虫草中分离的多糖均含有(1→4)-α-D-糖苷键、(1→4)-β-D-糖苷键和(1→4)-α-半乳糖苷键。连续分析39批人工培养的蛹虫草子实体也证实(1→4)-α-D-糖苷键、(1→4)-β-D-糖苷键是其多糖的共同特征[22]。最近, Li等[23]通过分析250个样品, 从中分离到一种可作为标记物的特异生物活性葡聚糖CCP, 主链为α-(1→4)-D-Glcp。虽然虫草多糖的主链结构有一定的相似性, 但是不同的虫草多糖, 其侧链结构通常相差较大, 即便是同一种虫草, 其野生和人工培养个体中分离的多糖也存在较大差异。如P1、P2和P3是从野生冬虫夏草分离的多糖, 由不同比例的Man、Glc、Gal三种单糖组成, 结构相似, 主链为(1→4)-α-Glc, 侧链为(1→3)-α-Glc和(1→2)-α-Man。而从其菌丝体中分离的多糖P4, 虽然主链也含有(1→4)-α-Glc和(1→4)-α-Gal, 但侧链含有1→2、1→6、1→2, 6和1→4, 6连接的Man残基, (1→5) 连接Ara残基, (1→3) 和(1→4, 6) 连接的Glc残基[20]
虫草多糖的化学结构受多种因素的影响, 变化较大。Huang等[24]分别以1/5、2/5、1、2和5体积比的乙醇梯度沉淀冬虫夏草发酵液, 相应得到47 400、4 700、2 870、630和16 kDa等5种分子量相差巨大的胞外多糖。Yan等[25]比较了热水提取和碱提取的两种冬虫夏草多糖的结构和药理活性差异。虽然两种多糖分子量相近(分别为1 180和1 150 kDa), 均为(1→4)-α-D-Glcp结构的葡聚糖, 不同的是热水提取的多糖具有(1→6)-α-D-Glcp的短支链, 而碱提取的多糖是线性葡聚糖, 但该多糖具有更强的抗癌和免疫刺激作用。而从冬虫夏草菌丝体分离的两种多糖CPS1和CPS-2, 仅纯化条件存在差异, 但两者在单糖组成、分子量和主链结构等方面存在很大差异。用规格为2.5 cm × 28 cm的DEAE-52纤维素柱, 0~1 mol·L-1 NaCl溶液分步洗脱分离的CPS1, Glc∶Man∶Gal = 2.8∶2.9∶1, 分子量为8.1 kDa, 主链为(1→2) 和(1→4)-Man、(1→3)-Gal、(1→) 和(1→3, 6)-Glc[26]。用规格为4.5 cm × 30 cm的DEAE-52纤维素柱, 0.05 mol·L-1 NaCl溶液以30 mL·h-1速率洗脱分离得到的CPS-2分子量为43.9 kDa, 主链为(1→4)-α-D-Glc和(1→3)-α-D-Man[27]。另外, 分别从培养在大米培养基和蚕蛹上的蛹虫草分离的两种酸性多糖, CM-jd-CPS2的葡萄糖含量高, Man∶Glc∶Gal = 1.52∶8.53∶1.00, 是一种α-糖苷键连接含有乙酰胺基的硫酸化酸性多糖。而CM-jd(Y)-CPS2中Man含量高, Man∶Glc∶Gal = 3.11∶1.00∶2.12, 通过β-糖苷键相连, 是一种羧化多糖, 免疫调节活性更强[28]。上述研究表明, 提取方法、纯化条件、培养基质等多种因素均可对虫草多糖的化学结构产生显著影响。
虫草多糖的抗肿瘤活性与(1→4)-α-D-Glcp糖基密切相关。具有(1→4)-α-D-Glcp糖基的葡聚糖CCP在低浓度下即可促进RAW264.7巨噬细胞产生一氧化氮(nitric oxide, NO) 和白细胞介素(interleukin, IL)-6、肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor, TNF)-α等细胞因子[23], 主要由(1→4)-α-D-Glcp、(1→6)-β-D-Glcp和(1→4)-β-D-Glcp糖基构成的C. militaris多糖CMP-1在体外能抑制多种肿瘤细胞增殖[29]。分别从C. militaris菌丝体和子实体中提取的多糖CMPS II、CBPS II, 均具有三螺旋结构、分子量相近、化学结构主链/侧链均为(1→4)-α-D-Glcp/(1→3)-半乳甘露聚糖。然而, 由于CMPS II葡萄糖含量更高, 比CBPS II拥有更多的(1→4)-α-D-Glcp), 显示出更强的抗肿瘤作用[30, 31]。除含有(1→4)-α-D-Glcp糖基的多糖外, 含(1→6)-α-D-Glcp和(1→3)-α-D-Glcp的蛹虫草多糖CMPB90-1[32], 含(1→2)-α-D-吡喃甘露糖(mannopyranose, Manp) 和(1→6)-Manp的葡萄糖半乳甘露聚糖, 以及其他多种结构的多糖也能通过增强免疫调节活性, 间接发挥抗肿瘤作用[33, 34]
分子量、单糖组成是影响虫草多糖抗肿瘤活性的另一重要因素。CMPS-4和CMPS-80是从蛹虫草中提取的具有相同单糖组成和α-糖苷键, 仅分子量(分别为188和308 kDa) 有差异的两种多糖, 但在相同的实验条件下, CMPS-4对人食管癌细胞Eca-109的抑制效果优于CMPS-80[35]。而用碱水提取的蛹虫草多糖CMPB90-1 (5.8 kDa, Man∶Gal∶Glc = 3.04∶1.00∶1.45) 与用热水提取的蛹虫草多糖CMP-1 (4.3 kDa, Rha∶Glc = 0.89∶22.5), 平均分子量相近, 但单糖组成差异较大。有趣的是, CMP-1对脾淋巴细胞增殖能力的免疫刺激活性比CMPB90-1更强, 刺激浓度分别为0.97~62.5 μg·mL-1和31.2~500 μg·mL-1 [29, 32]
有文献[36]表明, 化学修饰可提高虫草多糖的抗肿瘤活性。两种蛹虫草多糖CPS和SeCPS-I, 具有相似单糖组成和化学结构, 但SeCSP-I在体外表现出更强的清除羟基和超氧自由基活性。且硒含量分别为541.3、863.7和623.3 μg·g-1的3种硒多糖SeCPS-I、SeCPS-II、SeCPS-III, 其抗肿瘤活性依次为SeCPS-II > SeCPS-III > SeCPS-I, 与硒含量一致[37]。此外, 硫酸化也可增强虫草多糖的细胞毒性, 蛹虫草子实体多糖CMPA90-1 [Ara∶Man∶Gal = 1.00∶2.89∶2.03, 主链为(1→3)-α-D-Gal], 化学改性前该多糖的超微结构显示表面粗糙, 呈片状, 由许多小块状颗粒和不规则孔隙组成, 对A549细胞的IC50为39.08 μg·mL-1。将其硫酸化后, 表面变得光滑, 有孔隙, 主要由直径约为2 μm随机分布的单个球形颗粒组成, 细胞毒性显著增强, 对A549细胞IC50提高为17.33 μg·mL-1 [38]
免疫治疗被喻为最有希望治愈癌症的新兴医疗手段, 已临床应用的PD-1单抗疗法不良反应远低于传统化疗药物。虫草多糖本身细胞毒性不强, 但可触发和/或增强自然杀伤(natural killer, NK) 细胞、细胞毒性T淋巴细胞(cytotoxic T lymphocyte, CTL) 和巨噬细胞的肿瘤细胞杀伤能力, 刺激巨噬细胞、T淋巴细胞和B淋巴细胞分泌IFN-γ、TNF-α和IL-2等细胞因子增强免疫调节作用, 间接发挥抗肿瘤活性, 是一种理想的免疫调节剂(图 1), 分子机制如图 2所示。
单核-巨噬细胞是连接先天性和适应性免疫应答的桥梁, 能吞噬、消化凋亡细胞和病原体, 单核细胞分化为巨噬细胞是早期免疫反应的关键步骤。虫草多糖具有促进单核细胞分化的作用, 可上调单核细胞表面分化抗原(cluster of differentiation, CD) 协同刺激分子表达, 促进其分化为树突状细胞、巨噬细胞, 进而提高抗原提呈能力。研究表明, 含10 μg·mL-1冬虫夏草子实体多糖PSCS的条件培养基能促进外周血单核细胞(PSCS-MNC-CM) 分泌免疫调节因子IFN-γ、TNF-α、IL-1, 并以IFN-γ、TNF-α为主协同抑制白血病细胞U937的增殖(抑制率为78%~83%), 同时上调U937细胞表面抗原CD11b、CD14、CD68和非特异性酯酶表达, 诱导约50%的U937细胞分化为具有吞噬和产生超氧化物活性的单核细胞/巨噬细胞[39]。1~100 μg·mL-1蛹虫草阿拉伯半乳聚糖型酸性多糖APS [Gal∶Ara∶Xyl∶Rha = 9.1∶4.3∶1.2∶1, 主链为1→呋喃阿拉伯糖(arabinofuranose, Araf)、(1→5)-Ara、(1→4)-Galp和(1→4)-半乳糖醛酸(galacturonic acid, GalAp)] 处理48 h后, THP-1人单核细胞(TIB202) 细胞表面特征分子CD36表达上调, 吞噬能力增强, TNF-α、IL-12 p40、IL-8及TLR2、TLR4的mRNAs水平提高, 诱导TIB202向巨噬细胞分化[40]。50~250 μg·mL-1蛹虫草菌体多糖PS-MCM在单核细胞中发挥M1样诱导作用, 促进IL-1β和IFN-γ等细胞因子产生, 提高EL-4 T细胞和THP-1单核细胞免疫活性, 减弱化疗药物多柔比星对单核细胞的细胞毒作用[41]。15 μg·mL-1冬虫夏草菌丝体多糖UM01 PS [Glc∶Man∶Gal = 100∶59∶17, 由(1→6)-α-D-糖苷键连接] 处理小鼠单核巨噬细胞RAW264.7 24 h后, 协同刺激因子CD80/D86, 树突状细胞(dendritic cells, DCs) 表面特征分子CD11c和主要组织相容性复合体(major histocompatibility complex, MHC) II显著提高, 诱导RAW264.7分化为DC-like细胞[42]。上述研究表明, 虫草多糖能有效促进单核细胞分化及其免疫活性。
活化的巨噬细胞能够识别和裂解包括对化疗耐药细胞在内的肿瘤细胞, 在宿主防御和恶性肿瘤方面发挥重要作用。根据活化状态、发挥功能及分泌因子的不同, 可将巨噬细胞区分为M1型和M2型。
M1巨噬细胞由T辅助型1 (Th1) 细胞因子(如IFN-γ、IL-2) 活化, 高表达促炎因子NO、TNF-α和细胞表面特征分子MHC-II、CD86, 在炎症早期承担重要作用, 能杀死病原体和肿瘤细胞。具有(1→4)-α-D-Glcp糖基的葡聚糖HSWP-2a通过激活p38、c-Jun末端激酶(C-Jun N-terminal kinase, JNK) 和NF-κB信号通路, 增强RAW264.7巨噬细胞吞噬作用, 增加NO、IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α分泌[43]。由(1→4)-α-D-Glcp (~70%)、(1→4, 6)-α-D-Manp和(1→2, 6)-α-D-吡喃半乳糖(galactopyranose, Galp) 糖基构成的多糖CMP-Ⅲ可上调MAPK [细胞外信号调节激酶(extracellular-signal-regulated kinase, ERK)、JNK和p38磷酸化]/NF-κB途径促进巨噬细胞提高吞噬能力和分泌NO、TNF-α和IL-6[44]。(1→4)-α-D-Glcp糖基的葡聚糖CCP对TLR4/MyD88/p38信号通路具有高度选择性[45]
M2巨噬细胞通过T辅助型2 (Th2) 细胞因子(如抗炎因子IL-4、IL-13和IL-10及免疫复合物) 活化, 低表达促炎因子而高表达抗炎因子及细胞表面的甘露糖受体(mannose receptor, MR) 和清道夫受体(scavenger receptor, SR), 发挥免疫抑制作用。实体瘤中, M1和M2巨噬细胞同时存在, 但肿瘤相关巨噬细胞(TAM) 大多为M2型, 可促进肿瘤血管生成、肿瘤细胞存活和转移, 抑制T淋巴细胞介导的Th1免疫应答, 并释放免疫抑制因子, 如转化生长因子(transforming growth factor, TGF)-β, 抑制NK细胞的肿瘤毒杀作用。促进巨噬细胞活化, 诱导M2巨噬细胞向M1极化是虫草多糖发挥免疫调节作用的机制之一。从冬虫夏草菌丝体分离的一种酸性多糖APSF (12.5~100 μg·mL-1, Man∶Glc∶Gal=3.5∶1.00∶1.5) 能诱导被小鼠肝癌细胞H22极化为M2型的巨噬细胞(Ana-1) TNF-α、IL-12、iNOS表达增加, 降低IL-10及SR、MR表达, 促进巨噬细胞从M2型向M1型极化[46]。从人工培养的蛹虫草子实体中提取的低分子量多糖CMPB90-1, 31.3~500 μg·mL-1 CMPB90-1处理巨噬细胞RAW264.7 48 h后, 其吞噬活性增加, M1型巨噬细胞表面特征分子CD86和MHC-II表达上调而M2型巨噬细胞表面特征分子CD206表达下调, 并且TNF-α、NO等促炎因子分泌增加, 表明CMPB90-1具有诱导巨噬细胞M1极化, 提高免疫活性的功能[32]。进一步研究表明, CMPB90-1诱导M2巨噬细胞向M1极化是通过抑制TAM细胞表面的程序性死亡配体-1 (programmed death ligand-1, PD-L1) 表达, 从而激活T淋巴细胞对肿瘤细胞的杀伤力[47]。另外, 当RAW264.7置于具有(1→2)-α-D-Manp主链的蛹虫草子实体多糖SDQCP-1 (50~200 μg·mL-1) 48 h后, M1型巨噬细胞表面特征分子CD86比M2型细胞表面特征分子CD206增加更为显著, 表明SDQCP-1也具有诱导巨噬细胞向M1型极化的能力[31]。值得注意的是, 200 μg·mL-1 SDQCP-1刺激产生的NO生成量为23.5 μmol·L-1, 比对照提高37%, 100 μg·mL-1 SDQCP-1刺激产生的IL-10、IL-6和TNF-α分别为189.6、214.0和220.4 pg·mL-1。而另一具有(1→2)-α-D-Manp主链的冬虫夏草菌丝体多糖UM01-S4 (0.6 μg·mL-1) 刺激产生的IL-6、IL-10和TNF-α分别为2 454.6、6 259.1和10 924.2 pg·mL-1 [48], 显著高于1 000 μg·mL-1主链为(1→)-Araf、(1→5)-Araf、(1→4)-Galp和(1→4)-GalAp的蛹虫草酸性多糖APS的NO生成量(低于8.0 μmol·L-1)[49]。上述研究结果可能预示具有(1→2)-α-D-Manp主链结构的虫草多糖具有更强的免疫调节能力。
虫草多糖促进M1巨噬细胞极化与TLR受体、MAPK/NF-κB信号通路密切有关。多项研究表明, 虫草多糖被M2型巨噬细胞识别后, 刺激MAPK信号相关的ERK、JNK和p38磷酸化, 通过IκB-NF-κB信号通路上调M1型巨噬细胞特征分子表达和释放促炎因子、趋化因子, 实现M2型巨噬细胞向M1型极化[32, 46, 47]。其中, CMPB90-1促进M1型巨噬细胞极化的机制研究最为详细, 即虫草多糖在识别M2型巨噬细胞RAW264.7或骨髓源巨噬细胞(bone marrow-derived macrophages, BMMs) 表面的模式识别受体TLR2后被运输进入细胞激活Ca2+信号, 随着Ca2+的释放, p38、Akt和IκB-NF-κB信号通路相关的p65、IκB-α相继被磷酸化, 所释放的NF-κB被转运进入细胞核并作用于DNA, 调节下游基因表达[32, 47]
DCs是功能最强大、最有效的抗原递呈细胞, 成熟的DCs会迁移到次级淋巴器官的T细胞区域, 与MHC-II、协同刺激分子(CD40、CD80/86) 等共同致敏CD8+ T细胞, 发挥监视、杀伤、消灭肿瘤的作用。然而, 肿瘤微环境中的DCs受肿瘤细胞分泌的血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF)、肿瘤生长因子β (tumor growth factor-beta, TGF-β) 等抑制, 大多呈未成熟状态。肿瘤微环境对DCs的抑制作用显著提高了肿瘤的免疫治疗难度, 如何有效诱导DCs成熟, 成为癌症治疗研究的热点之一。目前认为, 包括虫草多糖在内的多种来源的多糖可作为DCs成熟的免疫调节剂候选物。研究表明, 10~100 μg·mL-1蛹虫草菌丝体多糖Cordlan (APS) 处理小鼠未成熟DCs 24 h后, 其表型和功能发生3种变化[49, 50]: ① 细胞表面特征分子MHC-I/II和共刺激分子CD40、CD80/86表达增加, 诱导未成熟DCs表型成熟; ② 抗原递呈能力下降, 内吞功能减弱, 上调Th1免疫反应的主要细胞因子IL-12、IL-1β和TNF-α基因表达, 诱导未成熟DCs功能成熟; ③ cordlan处理的DCs细胞与T细胞混合培养3~5天后, T细胞数量增加, 促进活化后的T细胞产生IFN-γ和IL-2等细胞因子, 活化同种异体T细胞。Huang等[51]用25~100 μg·mL-1冬虫夏草发酵液胞外多糖EPS (Man∶Glc∶Gal: =23∶1∶2.6) 研究了其对人未成熟DCs的影响, 发现通过增加IL-12和降低VEGF水平, 促进人未成熟DCs细胞表面的白细胞抗原DR、共刺激分子表达和增强T细胞刺激能力。此外, Meng等[42]、Song等[52]分别评估了冬虫夏草两种多糖UM01 PS [Glc∶Man∶Gal = 100∶59∶17, 主链为(1→6)-α-D-糖苷键]、EPS (Man∶Glc∶Gal = 23∶1∶2.6) 对小鼠DCs的影响, 也发现其具有促进小鼠DCs表型和功能成熟的能力。
虫草多糖诱导DC成熟可能涉及TLR4信号通路和STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) 磷酸化。Cordlan诱导C3H/HeN小鼠Tlr4+/+ DCs成熟, 但不诱导C3H/HeJ小鼠Tlr4-/- DCs成熟, 表明TLR4信号通路参与Cordlan诱导DCs成熟。Cordlan与TLR4受体结合后, 促进下游信号分子ERK、p38和JNK磷酸化以及NF-κB p50/p65核易位[51]。而冬虫夏草胞外多糖EPS在提升细胞核内NF-κB p65的同时, 下调p-JAK2 (Janus kinase 2)、p-STAT3和细胞质中NF-κB p105水平[51-53]。以上研究提示, 虫草多糖通过抑制JAK2/STAT3信号通路和促进TLR4/NF-κB信号途径诱导DCs成熟。虫草多糖对DCs成熟的诱导作用在慢性粒细胞白血病(CML) 疫苗制备方面有一定的应用潜力, 与多糖孵育的CML-DC可通过产生CD86和HLA-DR, 增强异基因混合淋巴细胞反应(MLR) 中IL-12的表达和刺激能力, 提高T细胞免疫应答能力[54]
NK细胞对病毒和肿瘤有很强的清除能力, 能分泌IFN-γ等细胞因子促进其他免疫细胞的分化、激活和募集, 以调节天然免疫和适应性免疫, 能抑制肿瘤生长和转移。NK细胞可被活化的巨噬细胞或DCs分泌的IL-12激活, 也可由细胞因子IL-2诱导T细胞分泌的IFN-γ来活化。多糖可通过促进其他免疫介质或细胞成分间接激活NK细胞, CMPB90-1 (31.2~500 μg·mL-1) 处理后, 促进T淋巴细胞分泌IL-2, 提升NK细胞对小鼠淋巴瘤细胞YAC-1的杀伤力, 增强对肿瘤细胞的非特异性和特异性细胞溶解作用[32]。给予每只小鼠20~500 μg冬虫夏草菌丝体胞外多糖EPS, 能刺激巨噬细胞活化并分泌IL-12、TNF-α, 并激活NK细胞抑制结肠癌细胞26-M3.1肺转移[55]。500 mg·kg-1古尼虫草多糖PPS处理后, 通过TLR4/TRAF6/NF-κB p65信号通路促进IFN-γ、IL-2、IL-12、IgG分泌, 抑制TGF-β产生, 提升环磷酰胺(cyclophosphamide, CTX) 免疫抑制小鼠的NK细胞和CTL活力, 恢复免疫抑制小鼠的免疫应答能力[56]。相似的, 50~200 mg·kg-1蝉花虫草孢子多糖CCSP-2 (Man∶Glc = 5.73∶94.27) 具有增加脾脏和胸腺指数, 增强巨噬细胞吞噬活性, 刺激脾细胞增殖, 激活巨噬细胞, 刺激T、B淋巴细胞增殖, 增强NK细胞毒性, 上调TNF-α、IL-1β表达和IgA、IgG、IgM分泌, 改善CTX诱导的免疫抑制, 具有良好的免疫调节作用[57]
Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型免疫的相互平衡对身体健康至关重要。Ⅰ型免疫与细胞毒功能有关, 包括NK细胞、Th1细胞和CD8+ T细胞的活性, 主要具有清除肿瘤细胞或病原体细胞的作用。Ⅱ型免疫与TGF-β的免疫抑制功能相关, 主要具有抗细菌和抗病毒活性。研究表明, 虫草多糖通过促进淋巴细胞增殖和调节辅助性T淋巴细胞Th1/Th2平衡等促进Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型免疫保持平衡。
淋巴细胞增殖是反映细胞免疫的重要指标, 常用于检测多糖的免疫增强活性。50~200 μg·mL-1蛹虫草酸性多糖CM-jd-CPS2和CM-jd(Y)-CPS2能促进小鼠脾细胞分裂, 对ConA和LPS诱导的小鼠T、B淋巴细胞具有协同促进作用[28], 10~100 μg·mL-1冬虫夏草多糖Cordysinocan (Glc∶Man∶Gal = 2.4∶2∶1) 在诱导T淋巴细胞增殖的同时, 还分泌IL-2、IL-6、IL-8等细胞因子, 诱导ERK磷酸化, 增加巨噬细胞吞噬活性和酸性磷酸酶活性[58]; 由(1→4)-α-D-Glcp组成的酸性胞外多糖AESP-II通过促进ERK、p38和JNK的磷酸化, 诱导T淋巴细胞分泌IL-2、IL-4、干扰素(interferon, IFN)-γ等细胞因子和B淋巴细胞分泌IgG、IgM、IgA免疫球蛋白, 发挥免疫调节功能[59]。5~250 μg·mL-1蛹虫草多糖CP2-c2-s2 (β-吡喃多糖, 含有1→2、1→4、1→6糖基) 通过上调巨噬细胞释放NO/活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 和分泌细胞因子(IL-1β、IFN-γ和TNF-α) 刺激T、B淋巴细胞增殖, 相同浓度的CP2-c2-s2对T、B淋巴细胞增殖作用强于香菇多糖[60, 61]。此外, 31.2~500 μg·mL-1 CMPB90-1能通过上调CD4+ T辅助淋巴细胞亚群, 提高CD4+/CD8+淋巴细胞比值, 改善T淋巴细胞免疫功能[32]。可见, 虫草多糖促进淋巴细胞增殖的研究是多层面的, 既有T/B淋巴细胞的增殖及淋巴细胞亚群调控, 也有细胞因子分泌及抗体表达研究, 但系统的分子机制解析还报道不多, 其免疫应答信号通路仍未明晰。
Th1细胞和Th2细胞是CD4+ T细胞的两种效应表型, Th细胞亚群的免疫应答可通过释放不同类型的细胞因子来调节。其中, Th1免疫应答产生IL-2、TNF-α、INF-γ、IL-2、IL-12等细胞因子, Th2免疫应答产生细胞因子IL-6、IL-9、IL-10、IL-13。调节Th1/Th2细胞平衡是虫草多糖发挥免疫调节作用的重要机制, 研究表明, 50~200 mg·kg-1古尼虫草多糖PS通过上调IFN-γ和TNF-α, 下调IL-4等关键因子表达来维持Th1/Th2平衡[62]。适当剂量的冬虫夏草多糖PS (Glc∶Man∶Ara∶Gal = 8∶90∶1∶1) 能上调血清IgG1和IgG2b水平, 以调节Th1/Th2比值[63]。25~100 μg·mL-1 Fr.A可诱导外周血释放促炎因子TNF-α、IL-6和抗炎因子IL-10, 促进Th1/Th2平衡[64]。50~100 mg·kg-1 CS-PS (Man∶Rha∶Ara∶Xyl∶Glc∶Gal = 38.37∶2.51∶2.21∶5.22∶27.44∶24.25) 则通过下调IL-17和IL-4的表达, 上调IL-5表达, 促进B淋巴细胞增殖, 维持Th1/Th2平衡, 以保护机体免受60Co辐照[65]
无序生长的肿瘤细胞将破坏周围组织(组织间隙、淋巴管或血管), 甚至经循环、淋巴系统转移到身体其他部位。虫草多糖通过抑制肿瘤细胞增殖、诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡、自噬和细胞周期阻滞等抑制肿瘤细胞生长, 其作用机制如图 3所示。
抑制细胞内核酸、蛋白质合成或葡萄糖跨膜转运是药物呈现细胞毒作用的机制之一。大量研究表明, 绝大多数虫草多糖的细胞毒性很低, 可以忽略不计, 但也有报道认为虫草多糖具有一定的细胞毒性, 可抑制肿瘤细胞增殖。如经大团囊虫草蛋白多糖SN-C处理后, Meth-A肿瘤细胞的葡萄糖跨膜转运受到抑制[66, 67]。该多糖由β-(1-3)-D-葡聚糖和α-(1-4)-半乳糖氨基两部分组成, 因其含有氨基糖组分, 更易黏附于带有较多负电荷的肿瘤细胞表面, 降低细胞膜通透性, 从而抑制葡萄糖跨膜转运[68, 69]。最近研究表明, 蛹虫草多糖CMPS-II、CBPS-II通过降低评估细胞增殖的指标性蛋白——核抗原(nuclear antigen, PCNA) 的mRNA水平和蛋白表达, 抑制人非小细胞肺癌细胞H1299增殖[31]。虫草多糖的细胞毒性可能与其分子量有一定关系, 一种高分子量(3 720 kDa) 的古尼虫草菌丝体多糖CPS (Rha∶Ara∶Xyl∶Man∶Glu∶Gal = 3.0∶2.6∶1.0∶1.3∶106.0∶2.8, 主链为α-(1→4)-Glc), 400 μg·mL-1时对K562细胞的肿瘤抑制率为56.65%[70], 而另一种低分子量(4.3 kDa) 的蛹虫草多糖CMP-1对HT-29、HeLa、HepG2和K562细胞增殖的IC50值分别为137.66、162.59、176.29和364.01 μg·mL-1 [29], 显示出比CPS更强的抑制增殖能力。
细胞凋亡异常是肿瘤生长的主要机制之一, 靶向诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡是化疗、放疗、免疫治疗或自杀基因治疗的基本策略, 也是抗癌药物开发的重要依据[21]。现已发现多种虫草多糖具有诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡或协同化疗药物增强细胞凋亡的作用。真核生物细胞凋亡有两条主要途径[即死亡受体(death receptor, DR) 介导的外源性凋亡通路和线粒体介导的内源性凋亡通路] 和两条次要途径[即穿孔素/颗粒酶(perforin/granzyme) 或内质网应激(endoplasmic reticulum stress, ERS) 介导的凋亡通路)]。1 200 μg·mL-1蝉花虫草(C. cicadae) 菌丝体多糖CCP处理人宫颈癌细胞HeLa 48 h, 细胞凋亡率为73.17%。经检测, 该多糖促进死亡受体(TNF-R1、DR3、Fas、DR5)、死亡配体(FasL) 和cleaved Casp-8表达上调, 以及促进Bak、Bax、Casp-3/7/9、Puma、Cyt c表达上调, 下调Bcl-2、Bcl-xl和PARP, 表明该多糖既可通过死亡受体介导的外源性途径诱导HeLa细胞凋亡, 也可通过线粒体介导的内源性途径诱导HeLa细胞凋亡[13]。线粒体介导的内源性途径可能是虫草多糖诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡的主要途径, 江西虫草(C. jiangxiensis) 菌丝体多糖MPCJ和蜂头虫草(C. Sphecocephala) 菌丝体胞外多糖肽PPC也通过降低Bcl-2/Bax比值, 诱导胃腺癌细胞SGC-7901、肝癌细胞HepG2和神经母细胞瘤细胞SK-N-SH凋亡[71, 72]。此外, 50~400 μg·mL-1古尼虫草菌丝体硒多糖SeCPS-Ⅱ [Rha∶Man∶Glu∶Gal = 4.33∶12.62∶27.50∶18.99, 主链为α-(1→4)-D-Glc] 处理SKOV-3、H1299、HepG2和H1299细胞48 h, p-p53、Bax、cleaved Casp-3/9、cleaved-PARP蛋白水平上调[73], 以及300~500 μg·mL-1蛹虫草多糖菌丝体多糖CMPS Ⅱ和子实体多糖CBPS Ⅱ能上调Casp-3/9、p53蛋白水平[31], 表明p53在虫草多糖诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡过程中起重要作用, 可通过p53-Bax-Casp途径参与细胞凋亡诱导。对于穿孔素/颗粒酶或ERS介导的凋亡通路是否参与虫草多糖诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡, 目前未见详细报道。但虫草多糖药理研究中既有抑制/促进Ca2+释放和ROS产生的报道[47, 74], 也有活化CTL和促进JNK、c-Jun磷酸化, 激活JNK/c-Jun通路, 诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡的研究[75, 76]。由于这些因子与上述两条凋亡通路密切相关, 是否参与虫草多糖的凋亡诱导仍需作进一步的研究。
自噬是细胞对内部受损的细胞器、错误折叠的蛋白质和侵入机体的病原体等进行降解的过程, 能使更多处于“复制危机”的细胞死亡, 降低肿瘤发生风险。自噬失调将产生包括癌症在内的多种疾病, 以调节细胞自噬活性为目的的肿瘤治疗方法已成为热点策略。但自噬在癌症治疗中是把双刃剑, 对肿瘤存在具有促进与抑制双重作用, 即在正常情况下, 自噬能在肿瘤发展的不同阶段抑制其产生和转移, 促进肿瘤细胞程序性死亡或凋亡; 另一方面, 在饥饿、缺氧、能量不足等不利环境中, 自噬可以保护细胞并为细胞生存提供能量, 提高肿瘤细胞对应激的耐受能力, 维持其生存[77]。多糖主要通过两条途径调节肿瘤细胞自噬, 一是上调自噬相关基因表达, 增加肿瘤细胞自噬量; 二是抑制自噬, 阻断细胞获取能量, 进而诱导细胞凋亡(自噬与凋亡是既相互独立又相互联系的两种生物学现象, 两者通过Bcl-2家族蛋白和Beclin-1相互联结)。研究靶点主要集中在磷脂酰肌醇3激酶(phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase, PI3K)/蛋白激酶B (protein kinase B, Akt)/哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin, mTOR)、MAPK和腺苷一磷酸激活蛋白激酶(adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase, AMPK) 等信号通路[78]
此前, 虽有虫草及其菌丝发酵液、虫草素等诱导肿瘤细胞自噬的少量报道[79, 80], 但虫草多糖的相关研究还不够深入, 仅见具1, 4-Glc和1, 4-Gal主链的冬虫夏草菌丝体多糖CSP (100~800 μg·mL-1) 诱导结肠癌细胞(HCT116) 自噬的报道。该研究表明, CSP (P4) 可通过抑制PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路和激活AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 (UNC-51-like kinase 1) 信号通路, 促进微管相关蛋白轻链3积聚, 诱导HCT116结肠癌细胞自噬和凋亡, 两者共同抑制肿瘤细胞增殖[10]。但该研究对CSP诱导细胞自噬和凋亡分子机制的探究, 还缺乏基因敲除技术的验证, 而且关于CSP诱导细胞凋亡和自噬之间的关系研究, 仅选用自噬抑制剂而没有使用凋亡抑制剂检测细胞凋亡和生存率的变化, 也需作进一步完善。
癌症被认为是一种细胞周期调控异常、正常细胞增殖失控的疾病。细胞周期阻滞有利于细胞损伤修复, 避免肿瘤的发生和发展, 是癌症治疗的重要手段。Xiao等[71]用流式细胞术检测了经50 μg·mL-1江西虫草菌丝体多糖MPCJ 4和MPCJ 5分别处理人胃腺癌细胞SGC-7901 8~72 h, 发现该细胞被阻滞在分裂周期的S期, 尤其是MPCJ 5能长时间阻滞细胞分裂。Zhu等[81]检测了0.8 mg·mL-1蛹虫草粗多糖处理人肺癌细胞A549 48 h后, 细胞周期主要调控蛋白—细胞周期蛋白(cyclins) 和细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶(cyclin-dependent kinases, CDKs) 基因的mRNA转录水平, 认为该多糖诱导A549细胞S期阻滞的主要原因可能是抑制了cyclin A、CDK4的表达。Xu等[13]以600和1 200 μg·mL-1蝉花虫草菌丝体多糖CCP处理HeLa细胞, 进一步研究了虫草多糖处理后肿瘤细胞S期的3种主要调控蛋白(cyclin A、cyclin E、CDK2) 和细胞周期相关因子(Akt/p-Akt、p27、p21、p53、survivin) 的变化情况。结果显示, CDK2、survivin、p27、cyclin E1、cyclin A2和p-Akt表达下调, p21、p53和Akt上调表达。由于survivin能阻断S期关键蛋白cyclin、CDK基因表达, 磷酸化的Akt (p-Akt) 能使Bad、Casp-9等失活, 促进细胞存活, p53能激活下游基因p21, 阻断cyclin A2/CDK2和cyclin E1/CDK2表达, 表明CCP诱导HeLa细胞S期阻滞。而蛹虫草子实体多糖CMP-1 (110 mg·mL-1)、CMP-2 (156 mg·mL-1)、CMP-3 (323 mg·mL-1)处理肝癌细胞(SMMC-7721)、胃癌细胞(BGC-823) 和乳腺癌细胞(MCF-7) 72 h后, 发现浓度低于IC50时, 诱导肿瘤细胞G0/G1期阻滞; 浓度高于IC50时, 将肿瘤细胞G2/M期阻滞[82]。虽然相关作用机制还未见报道, 但虫草提取物阻滞细胞周期的相关研究为其作用机制探讨提供了相应的思路。一是检测虫草多糖对细胞周期调控蛋白及相关因子的变化, 厘清作用机制。如蛹虫草正丁醇提取物将结肠癌HT-29细胞阻滞于G2/M期, 检测到cyclin B1和Cdc25基因表达下降[83]。蛹虫草片段CMF诱导口腔鳞状细胞癌G2/M期阻滞, 降低cyclin B1、Cdc2、Cdc25c和p-Rb表达, 诱导p21和CHK2蛋白水平升高, 但对p53的表达无明显影响。表明CMF增强p21的表达, 通过p53非依赖性途径诱导G2/M期阻滞[76]; 二是利用组学方法分析虫草多糖阻滞细胞周期的作用机制。如蝉花虫草水提物处理肝癌MHCC97H细胞后, 降低CDK1基因表达, 但对cyclin B影响不大。利用2-DE和MALDI-TOF-MS/MS技术发现与G2/M期相关的9个蛋白表达上调和13个蛋白表达下调[84], 该方法为解释蝉花虫草水提物是通过细胞周期阻滞而不是细胞凋亡导致细胞死亡提供了帮助。
肿瘤细胞从原发部位侵袭局部组织和跨越组织屏障是肿瘤恶化转移的标志, 也是肿瘤治疗的最大障碍和肿瘤患者死亡的主要原因。虫草多糖抑制肿瘤细胞侵袭、转移主要通过抑制TGF-β诱导肿瘤上皮细胞向上皮间质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition, EMT), 抑制基质金属蛋白酶(matrix metalloproteinases, MMPs) 水解基底膜和细胞外基质蛋白, 调控转移相关基因表达和抑制肿瘤新生血管形成等作用, 降低肿瘤细胞浸润和转移机会。
肿瘤侵袭转移是肿瘤-宿主之间一系列复杂步骤相互作用的连续过程, 细胞外基质(extracellular matrix, ECM) 降解和基底膜重塑是该过程的关键环节。MMPs是降解ECM的主要蛋白酶, 几乎能降解ECM中的各种蛋白成分, MMPs表达下调意味着ECM成分降解减少, 组织侵袭能力减弱。MMPs家族有多个成员, MMP-1能降解ECM中最丰富的蛋白质(I型和III型胶原蛋白), 在侵袭性黑色素瘤中高表达。Jayakumar等[12]以250~800 μg·mL-1冬虫夏草菌丝体多糖CME-1 [Man∶Gal = 4∶6, 主链为(1→4)-Man] 处理黑色素瘤细胞B16-F10 24 h, MMP-1最多下降46.3%, 并抑制ERK1/2磷酸化和p38丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, p38 MAPK) 表达, 恢复B16-F10细胞中IκB-α的降解能力。鉴于MAPK (ERK、p38 MAPKs) 能激活MMP基因表达, NF-κB在MAPK调节MMP表达中扮演重要角色, 以及NF-κB的解离和核转移促进细胞增殖、血管生成和转移, 提高肿瘤侵袭性。推测CEM-1可能通过抑制ERK/p38 MAPK信号通路实现MMP-1表达下调, 从而抑制B16黑色素瘤转移。MMP-2和MMP-9也是MMP家族的重要成员, 高表达MMP-2、MMP-9可促进乳腺癌细胞转移[85], 以80 mg·kg-1蛹虫草粗多糖CMP腹腔注射乳腺癌肺转移小鼠15天, 病理切片显示肺转移肿瘤结节数减少39.79%, 转移灶体积明显变小, ELISA检测血清中MMP-2、MMP-9含量分别下降44.71%、45.10%, 表明蛹虫草多糖抑制乳腺癌肺转移作用可能与抑制MMP-2和MMP-9的表达有关[86]
EMT过程是上皮肿瘤细胞失去黏附能力、获得间充质细胞迁移能力的过程, 是上皮细胞来源的恶性肿瘤发生侵袭和转移的重要途径。研究表明, 以0.1~10 μmol·L-1 MHP-1 [Man∶Gal∶Glc = 5∶2∶3, 主链为(1→2)-β-D-Manp、(1, 6)-β-D-Glcp和(1→3)-β-D-Manp] 处理乳腺癌细胞(MDA-MB-231、MCF-7和MDA-MB-468) 48 h, 发现大部分间质样细胞表型发生改变, 特征分子(波形蛋白和纤维连接素) 表达显著降低, 驱动乳腺癌EMT必需的转录因子Snail和Slug表达下调, EMT相关的TGF-β信号被选择性抑制, 但上皮特征分子(E-钙黏蛋白和闭锁小带蛋白1) 表达增加, 并逆转耐药细胞EMT样表型, 降低拓扑替康(topotecan, TPT) 化疗引起的耐药性[11]。表明MHP-1通过下调TGF-β信号传导和EMT相关通路显著抑制乳腺癌转移并恢复TPT耐药细胞的药物敏感性。
肿瘤转移受不同类型的肿瘤转移基因序贯而协调的调控。肿瘤转移相关基因包括转移促进基因和转移抑制基因, 如促凋亡基因Bax、Bak、Bad、Bid、Bim, 抑癌基因p53, 促转移基因Myc、Ras、Mos、Raf、Fes、Fms、Ser、Fos、p53突变、erbB2等。体内研究表明, 隔天腹腔注射30~120 mg·kg-1冬虫夏草胞外多糖EPSF 14次, 能有效下调B16荷瘤小鼠(C57BL/6) 肺、肝组织中c-Myc、c-Fos、Bcl-2基因表达水平[87, 88]。原癌基因c-Myc、c-Fos参与调节细胞有丝分裂, 通常在细胞静止期不表达或表达量非常低, 表达增加则促进肿瘤细胞增殖和浸润。Bcl-2有抑制细胞凋亡的作用, 其过表达使细胞抵抗正常凋亡, 从而具有致癌作用。EPSF治疗显著降低小鼠的肺和肝脏中c-Myc、c-Fos、Bcl-2表达的强度和密度, 提示该多糖具有控制肿瘤的发生和生长的作用, 可以作为癌症治疗的潜在辅助剂, 但其上调/下调相关基因表达水平的作用机制还需进一步研究。
血管生成是实体瘤生存、增殖和转移的前提。通常认为, 肿瘤细胞只能在距离血管100~200 μm的范围内生长, 如果没有新血管生成, 实体瘤将进入休眠, 不会转移, 抑制血管生成是预防肿瘤生长和转移的重要方法。VEGF可促进血管化和细胞增殖, 与肿瘤的生长、侵袭和转移密切相关, 控制VEGF的表达能有效控制肿瘤的转移。虫草多糖具有较强的抑制肿瘤新生血管生长的作用, 在降低肿瘤细胞浸润和转移方面显示出良好的应用前景。120 mg·kg-1 EPSF通过抑制VEGF基因表达显著降低小鼠黑色素瘤细胞B16向小鼠肝、肺组织转移[87], 在一种NaCl诱导的蛹虫草菌丝体多糖P5的抗血管生成研究中也发现, 其通过下调VEGF的表达以抑制人脐静脉内皮细胞(HUVEC) 的血管生成与细胞转移[89]。碱性成纤维细胞生长因子(bFGF) 与VEGF相似, 能促进内皮细胞分裂, 是血管生成的有效诱导因子及影响肿瘤血管通透性的主要因素, 在恶性肿瘤中普遍存在。在非小细胞肺癌转移研究中发现, 与顺铂单独治疗相比, 0.1~0.5 μg·mL-1冬虫夏草多糖CS [Man∶Glc = 1∶9, 主链为(1→4)-Glc和(1→3)-Glc] 与顺铂联合治疗效果更好, 能有效地降低细胞活力, 促进肺癌细胞的死亡, 抑制VEGF和bFGF蛋白及其mRNA表达水平, 表明CS在顺铂诱导的细胞死亡和抗血管生成中起辅助作用, 可能是非小细胞肺癌治疗的潜在辅助化疗药物[8]
多糖作为药用虫草的主要活性成分具有多种药理作用, 尤其在抗肿瘤方面具有明显的抑制肿瘤生长和转移, 诱发肿瘤细胞凋亡, 刺激淋巴细胞发挥免疫效应, 提高巨噬细胞、NK细胞的肿瘤细胞吞噬、毒杀能力, 有效降低化疗药物的毒副作用和耐药性等功效, 是一种安全性高、毒副作用小的抗肿瘤天然产物, 可应用于临床或辅助治疗。然而纵观虫草多糖抗肿瘤机制研究, 还需要在以下三方面继续深入: ① 虽然部分虫草多糖的药理活性已在细胞或动物模型中予以证实, 并研究了相关信号通路及关键基因的表达, 但还未能准确定位关键基因的上下游信号, 需要广泛运用基因沉默、基因敲除等技术, 以便更加完整地揭示整个信号通路, 为多糖抗癌药物的研发提供基础理论支撑; ② 虽然已从药用虫草中分离出多种抗肿瘤活性多糖, 但虫草多糖大多是由半乳糖、葡萄糖和甘露糖组成的杂多糖, 其化学结构比β-葡聚糖更复杂。由于单糖组成、分子量、糖苷键类型与连接位置、空间构象等均能影响其活性发挥, 且现有研究结果存在一定的交叉或相互矛盾之处。如有研究认为, 仅含有β-(1→3)-D-葡聚糖、半乳糖胺聚糖或蛋白多糖结构的虫草多糖才具有抗肿瘤活性[90]。但也有研究发现具有α-糖苷键连接的蛹虫草多糖比β-糖苷键连接的多糖具有更强的免疫调节活性和抗肿瘤能力[28, 30, 31]。虫草多糖的构效关系不清晰将影响抗肿瘤机制的阐明, 并限制抗肿瘤多糖药物的开发; ③ 不同来源、分离纯化方法、生长环境等均会影响虫草多糖的活性, 建立系统、稳定的虫草多糖获得方法是深入开展抗肿瘤机制研究和临床应用的前提。虽然前期已相继获得4 ℃下提取的蛹虫草多糖CMPs-4比80 ℃提取的CMPs-80具有更强的抗肿瘤活性[35], 碱性条件下培养的蛹虫草菌丝体多糖β-(1→6) 葡聚糖含量更高, 抗氧化性更强[91], 在培养液中添加硫酸钠或氯化钠, 可改变虫草多糖合成方式, 分离到具有抗血管生成功能的新型虫草多糖等多项研究成果[89], 但这些研究离实际需求还有较大差距, 有必要建立一套标准的多糖生产、提取和制备方法来解决这一问题。总之, 虫草多糖的结构特征与抗肿瘤活性之间的构效关系仍处于初步讨论阶段, 大多数研究仅限于体外和动物实验, 尚缺乏临床相关研究。继续深入开展虫草多糖的化学结构解析, 构效关系探讨、抗肿瘤机制研究和提高临床应用对人类抵抗肿瘤具有极其重要的意义。
作者贡献: 詹忠根负责获取经费资助、文献调研和手稿撰写, 并指导整个研究; 叶素丹、黄伟素参与文献调研及论文修改。
利益冲突: 本文的发表不存在任何利益冲突。
  • 浙江省省属高校基本科研业务费项目(21SBYB08)
  • 浙江省自然科学基金(LGN18C200026)
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2023年第58卷第2期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0670
  • 接收时间:2022-05-29
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-02-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-05-29
  • 修回日期:2022-09-21
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浙江省省属高校基本科研业务费项目(21SBYB08)
浙江省自然科学基金(LGN18C200026)
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    浙江经贸职业技术学院, 生物制药教研室, 浙江 杭州 310018

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*詹忠根, Tel: 86-571-81062694, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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