Article(id=1210516749347320271, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0656, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1653580800000, receivedDateStr=2022-05-27, revisedDate=1655308800000, revisedDateStr=2022-06-16, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766539283358, onlineDateStr=2025-12-24, pubDate=1665504000000, pubDateStr=2022-10-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766539283358, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766539283358, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539283358, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210516741998907791, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2022', volume='57', issue='10', pageStart='1', pageEnd='3258', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766539281606, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539576214, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210517977762500872, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210517977762500873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2921, endPage=2931, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210516751234757173, articleId=1210516749347320271, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress on the G protein modulators, columnId=1210516743097815441, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Special Reports Ⅰ: New Targets, New Strategies for Drug Discovery and Advances in Antiviral Drug Research, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Heterotrimeric G proteins are classes of signal-transducing proteins that bind to guanine nucleotides and possess GTP hydrolase activity. G proteins are composed of three subunits α, β, and γ, and are considered as the "molecular switch" in the GPCR signaling pathway. The abnormal activation of G protein is strongly related to diseases such as uveal melanoma, asthma, et al., making directly targeting G protein as an promising strategy for combating diseases. In this review, the classification and physiological functions of G protein are briefly described, and the research progress of G proteins in diseases, G protein modulators are reviewed.

, correspAuthors=Xiao-feng XIONG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2022 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yi-fan YANG, Zhuo-rui HU, He LIU, Yi-xian LI, Lu LIU, Xiao-feng XIONG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1210516753034113728, articleId=1210516749347320271, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=G蛋白调节剂的研究进展, columnId=1210516743232033171, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道Ⅰ:药物发现的新靶标、新策略与抗病毒药物研究, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

异源三聚体G蛋白是一类能与鸟嘌呤核苷酸结合, 具有GTP水解酶活性的信号转导蛋白。G蛋白由αβγ三个亚基组成, 是GPCR信号通路中“分子开关”。异常活化的G蛋白与葡萄膜黑色素瘤、哮喘等疾病直接相关, 直接靶向G蛋白是上述疾病有前景的治疗策略。本文将简述G蛋白的分类及生理功能, 并综述G蛋白与疾病的关系以及G蛋白调节剂的研究进展。

, correspAuthors=熊小峰, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*熊小峰, Tel: 86-20-39943032, E-mail:
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#共同第一作者.

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Subfamily Subtype Receptor Effect Second messenger Expression localization
Gαs αs β-AR AC↑, open Ca2+ channels cAMP↑ Distribute widely
αolf Odor receptors AC↑ MP↓ Olfctory receptor neurons
Gαi αi1, αi2, αi3 Somatostatin receptors AC↓, open K+ channels cAMP↓ Distribute widely
αoA, αoB mAChR PI↓, close Ca2+ channels MP↑ Cranial nerves
αz Unknown AC↓ cAMP↓ Cranial nerves, platelets
αt1 Rhodopsin PDE↑ cGMP↓ Rod cells
αt2 Opsin PDE↑ cGMP↓ Cone cells
αgust Gustatory sense PDE↑ Unknown Taste bud cells
Gαq/11 αq, α11 mAChR PI↑, PLC-β IP3↑, DAG Distribute widely
α14 mAChR PI↑, PLC-β IP3↑, DAG Kidneys, liver, lungs
α15, α16 mAChR PI↑, PLC-β IP3↑, DAG Hematopoietic stem cells
Gα12/13 α12, α13 Receptors of LPA, AT I Regulate Na+/K+ ion exchange, Ca2+ Unknown Distribute widely
), ArticleFig(id=1210516760655163632, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516749347320271, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Functions of Gα subtypes[2, 3]. β-AR: β-Adrenergic receptors; mAChR: Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors; AT I: Angiotensin I; AC: Adenylyl cyclase; PI: Phosphatidyl inositol; PDE: Phosphodiesterase; PLC-β: Phosphalidase C-β; cAMP: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate; MP: Membrane potential; IP3: Inositol triphosphate; DAG: Diacylglycerol; LPA: Lysophosphatidic acid

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Subfamily Subtype Receptor Effect Second messenger Expression localization
Gαs αs β-AR AC↑, open Ca2+ channels cAMP↑ Distribute widely
αolf Odor receptors AC↑ MP↓ Olfctory receptor neurons
Gαi αi1, αi2, αi3 Somatostatin receptors AC↓, open K+ channels cAMP↓ Distribute widely
αoA, αoB mAChR PI↓, close Ca2+ channels MP↑ Cranial nerves
αz Unknown AC↓ cAMP↓ Cranial nerves, platelets
αt1 Rhodopsin PDE↑ cGMP↓ Rod cells
αt2 Opsin PDE↑ cGMP↓ Cone cells
αgust Gustatory sense PDE↑ Unknown Taste bud cells
Gαq/11 αq, α11 mAChR PI↑, PLC-β IP3↑, DAG Distribute widely
α14 mAChR PI↑, PLC-β IP3↑, DAG Kidneys, liver, lungs
α15, α16 mAChR PI↑, PLC-β IP3↑, DAG Hematopoietic stem cells
Gα12/13 α12, α13 Receptors of LPA, AT I Regulate Na+/K+ ion exchange, Ca2+ Unknown Distribute widely
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G蛋白调节剂的研究进展
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杨一帆 # , 胡卓睿 # , 刘鹤 , 李一贤 , 刘璐 , 熊小峰 *
药学学报 | 专题报道Ⅰ:药物发现的新靶标、新策略与抗病毒药物研究 2022,57(10): 2921-2931
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药学学报 | 专题报道Ⅰ:药物发现的新靶标、新策略与抗病毒药物研究 2022, 57(10): 2921-2931
G蛋白调节剂的研究进展
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杨一帆#, 胡卓睿#, 刘鹤, 李一贤, 刘璐, 熊小峰*
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  • 中山大学药学院, 广东 广州 510006

通讯作者:

*熊小峰, Tel: 86-20-39943032, E-mail:
Research progress on the G protein modulators
Yi-fan YANG, Zhuo-rui HU, He LIU, Yi-xian LI, Lu LIU, Xiao-feng XIONG*
Affiliations
  • School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
出版时间: 2022-10-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0656
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异源三聚体G蛋白是一类能与鸟嘌呤核苷酸结合, 具有GTP水解酶活性的信号转导蛋白。G蛋白由αβγ三个亚基组成, 是GPCR信号通路中“分子开关”。异常活化的G蛋白与葡萄膜黑色素瘤、哮喘等疾病直接相关, 直接靶向G蛋白是上述疾病有前景的治疗策略。本文将简述G蛋白的分类及生理功能, 并综述G蛋白与疾病的关系以及G蛋白调节剂的研究进展。

G蛋白  /  疾病  /  调节剂  /  抑制剂

Heterotrimeric G proteins are classes of signal-transducing proteins that bind to guanine nucleotides and possess GTP hydrolase activity. G proteins are composed of three subunits α, β, and γ, and are considered as the "molecular switch" in the GPCR signaling pathway. The abnormal activation of G protein is strongly related to diseases such as uveal melanoma, asthma, et al., making directly targeting G protein as an promising strategy for combating diseases. In this review, the classification and physiological functions of G protein are briefly described, and the research progress of G proteins in diseases, G protein modulators are reviewed.

G protein  /  disease  /  modulator  /  inhibitor
杨一帆, 胡卓睿, 刘鹤, 李一贤, 刘璐, 熊小峰. G蛋白调节剂的研究进展. 药学学报, 2022 , 57 (10) : 2921 -2931 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0656
Yi-fan YANG, Zhuo-rui HU, He LIU, Yi-xian LI, Lu LIU, Xiao-feng XIONG. Research progress on the G protein modulators[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2022 , 57 (10) : 2921 -2931 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0656
G蛋白偶联受体(G protein‐coupled receptor, GPCR) 是存在于细胞膜表面最大的蛋白质超家族, 目前在人类基因组中已鉴定出超过800个GPCR相关基因。GPCR介导多种胞外信号转导并参与多种生理过程, 如嗅觉的产生、肌肉收缩、免疫功能等。由于在多种生理功能中的重要作用, GPCR成为目前最重要的药物靶点之一, 已上市药物中有超过1/3的药物以GPCR为靶点[1]
当GPCR与化学信使结合后, 将信号传递给下游的G蛋白, Gα亚基与GTP结合并释放GDP, 导致Gα和Gβγ二聚体解离, 产生两个功能性亚基, 分别进一步激活下游的信号通路, 引发复杂的生理效应[2]。由此可见, G蛋白在GPCR激活和信号传导中起着“分子开关”的作用。
G蛋白是一类能与鸟嘌呤核苷酸结合的蛋白, 具有GTP水解酶活性。G蛋白由αβγ亚基组成, 其中βγ亚基紧密相连, 可以视为一个功能单元。
Gα可结合GDP或GTP: 当Gα结合GDP时处于失活状态, 结合GTP时处于活化状态。目前Gα可分为4个亚家族Gαs、Gαi、Gαq/11和Gα12/13及其亚型(具体亚型及功能见表 1[2, 3]), 各亚型间具有高度的序列和结构相似性。除此之外, G蛋白还包括Gβγ亚基。在人类基因组中, 共有5个编码Gβ的基因和12个编码Gγ的基因[2]。不同的Gβ和Gγ亚型组合也导致了Gβγ二聚体具有结构多样性, 以及潜在的功能多样性[4]。Gβγ二聚体可以调节多种下游效应因子, 包括磷脂酶、AC、G蛋白偶联受体激酶(GRKs) 等[5]。除此之外, Gβγ二聚体可以与G蛋白门控的内向整流钾通道(G protein gated inwardly rectifying K, GIRK) 及钙离子门控通道等离子通道蛋白相互作用, 从而调节神经元及心血管的兴奋性[6, 7]
G蛋白在多种信号传导中起着重要作用, 参与多种疾病发生和发展过程, G蛋白的结构改变、异常激活或过表达往往会导致特定疾病的发生。随着对G蛋白的深入研究, 肿瘤、心血管疾病和哮喘等疾病与G蛋白信号通路间的关联也逐渐被阐明。因此, 靶向G蛋白可能为治疗这些疾病提供新的思路。
肿瘤是最复杂的人类疾病之一, 因其较高的发病率和死亡率严重威胁人类的健康。随着对G蛋白与肿瘤关系研究的不断深入, 越来越多的证据表明, G蛋白介导的信号转导在肿瘤发生、免疫逃逸和肿瘤转移等方面发挥重要作用, 如G蛋白的异常突变常会诱发肿瘤[8]
Gαs蛋白由GNAS基因编码, 是肿瘤中最常发生突变的G蛋白之一, 在COSMIC数据库中收录的486个肿瘤序列中, 其中4.4%存在GNAS突变[9]。有关研究显示[10], 阑尾癌、垂体瘤、子宫腺癌和胃腺癌等癌症的发生均与该基因突变有关。其中, 大多数Gαs突变发生在R201和Q227位点, 这种突变可以通过抑制GTP水解从而影响信号转导[11]
此外, GNAL同样可以编码Gαs, 据统计, 近7%的肾上腺皮质癌和大多数胰腺腺癌与该基因突变有关。由此可见, GNASGNAL基因的突变在PKA、Wnt和MAPK通路的阻断和激活中起着关键作用[8]
Gαi亚族可以通过激活包括MAPK、PI3K在内的多种传导通路传递信息。Pace等[12]研究发现, Gαi的组成型激活突变体具有转化细胞的能力。而当编码Gαi的GNAO1基因产生癌源性突变, 则会诱导细胞的癌转化及锚定依赖性生长[13]。由此说明Gαi的突变与肿瘤转移关系密切, 靶向Gαi的抑制剂可能通过抑制肿瘤转移从而治疗肿瘤。
根据目前已有的研究显示, 由GNAQGNA11GNA14GNA15编码的Gαq/11亚族受GPCR激活后可传递多种有丝分裂信号[14]。90%以上葡萄膜黑色素瘤(uveal melanoma, UM) 患者存在GNAQGNA11突变, 这种突变可异常激活JNK、P38及AP-1介导的基因转录, 是葡萄膜黑色素瘤发生的直接驱动力。此外, 研究发现大部分眼部黑色素瘤和部分皮肤黑色素瘤中也存在着GNAQGNA11的突变[15-17]。R183和Q209为Gαq/11常见突变位点之一, 该突变会诱发同侧枕叶软脑膜血管瘤及葡萄膜黑色素瘤[18]。而由T96S或Y101残基突变引起的Gαq/11表达缺失及复发性功能缺失则会诱发T淋巴细胞瘤[19]。由此可见, Gαq/11突变与葡萄膜黑色素瘤、同侧枕叶软脑膜血管瘤及T淋巴细胞瘤等肿瘤的发生密切相关, 靶向Gαq/11对以上肿瘤的治疗有着广阔前景。
GNA12GNA13分别编码Gα12/13亚族的两种亚型(Gα12和Gα13)。Chan等[20]在肿瘤衍生的cDNA文库筛选中发现, Gα12不发生突变, 仅过度表达就足以促进NIH/3T3细胞的转化。此外, Gα12/13或Gα12/13连接的GPCR (如PAR1或TXA2受体) 的过表达已被证明具有转化性, 并可以显著提高包括乳腺癌、前列腺癌和肝细胞癌在内的许多肿瘤的侵袭能力[21-23]。以上的发现均表明了Gα12/13突变在肿瘤发生及发展中发挥重要作用。
综上所述, G蛋白各亚型与肿瘤的发生和发展紧密相关, 进一步研究肿瘤与G蛋白及信号转导通路之间的联系, 有望揭示未知的癌变过程并发现新的治疗靶点。
心血管疾病作为全球的头号死因, 是威胁当代人们健康的首要疾病。它主要包括心脏病和血管病, 常见疾病有血栓、高血压、心律失常、心力衰竭和冠心病等。在早期研究中研究者们已发现G蛋白在心脏和血管相关细胞中广泛存在[24], 随着对G蛋白研究的深入, 研究者们发现其在高血压、心力衰竭等心血管疾病中发挥着重要作用。
血栓是止血过程异常造成的病理现象, 主要特征是血管内血栓形成和血管阻塞, 癌症[25]等疾病都会直接或者间接导致血栓, 其中最重要的原因是凝血和血小板活化异常[26, 27]
研究发现, G蛋白在血小板活化过程中起着关键作用: 如TXA2受体是一种Gαq/11偶联的GPCR, 它在激活Gαq/11信号通路并进一步启动下游PLC-β信号通路后, 导致血小板活化。同时Kim等[28-30]注意到, Gαq/11和Gαi的共活化参与了ADP诱导的血小板凝集, 这说明Gαq/11和Gαi的信号转导对这一过程至关重要。此外, Moers等[31]的研究表明, Gα12/13亚家族也与血栓形成有关。因此, G蛋白是血栓形成过程中血小板活化的关键介质, 并可能成为开发抗血小板凝集药物的新靶点。
高血压是一种常见的多因素疾病, 是诱发卒中和心肌梗死等心血管疾病的主要危险因素[32], 它可以分为原发性高血压和继发性高血压, 其中原发性高血压最为常见。目前研究证明, 环境和遗传因素都与原发性高血压的发病有关[33], 同时迄今发现涉及原发性高血压的相关基因已达数十个, 其中多项研究表明Gβ3亚单位基因C825T与原发性高血压的发病有着显著关联[34]
Siffert等[35]首先发现在一些培养的原发性高血压患者的淋巴细胞中, 百日咳毒素敏感的G蛋白信号传导增强, 并在编码Gβ3亚单位的基因第10外显子中检测到一多态位点C825T, C825T的第498~620位核苷酸缺失使得Gβ3亚单位缺失41个氨基酸和1个WD重复区, 从而造成Gβ过度活化。当过度活化的Gβ与Gα、Gγ亚单位结合后, 会导致G蛋白过度活化, 从而使得血管活性物质及生长因子的反应增强, 促使血管强烈收缩及平滑肌增生, 同时引起Na+/H+交换、Ca2+等离子运输发生紊乱[36]
然而, 在温绍君等[37]对于731名高血压患者和673名对照组受试者GNB3基因多态性与原发性高血压的相关研究中, 他们发现GNB3基因多态性与中国北方人群的原发性高血压没有显著相关性。此外, 不少国内外的研究也发现相同结果, 这一点提示Gβ3亚单位基因与原发性高血压可能无关[34]。这些研究结果也表明了高血压的病因复杂多样, 包括遗传因素、人种因素等。
心力衰竭是一种临床综合征, 主要症状为呼吸困难等, 这是由于心脏的结构功能异常, 导致不能向器官和周围组织提供足够的血液和氧气[38]。心力衰竭作为全球性疾病, 其死亡率高于恶性肿瘤。随着人口老龄化的加剧, 心力衰竭发病率有可能进一步提高。
心力衰竭产生的主要原因是: Gαi受体被激活和β-AR被抑制, 从而诱导心脏AC脱敏和β-肾上腺素能通路的亚敏性, 而后心肌对儿茶酚胺敏感性下降, 最终导致心脏收缩力下降。Rau等[39]在研究Gαi2过表达对心肌细胞中AC的影响中发现:当Gαi2的表达量比对照组高约90%时, AC的活性降低了17%, cAMP的积累量降低了40%。这一研究结果揭示, Gαi2与cAMP的积累量密切相关。因此, 通过靶向抑制Gαi2使cAMP的积累量恢复至正常水平, 可能对心力衰竭有积极作用。
除Gαi对心力衰竭的发生有着调节作用外, D'Angelo等[40]和Jiang等[41]的研究表明, 激活的Gαq/11通过PLC-β信号通路调节细胞内Ca2+浓度, 进而调节心肌收缩力, 这提示Gαq/11在心力衰竭的发生发展中起着关键作用。此外, Kamal等[42, 43]和Lymperopoulos等[44]发现, Gβγ调节的G蛋白偶联受体激酶2 (GRK2) 在心衰模型中过表达, 导致α2-ARs脱敏, 从而使得血浆肾上腺素水平降低, 说明可以通过抑制Gβγ从而抑制α2-ARs的脱敏, 提高血浆肾上腺素水平, 进而减缓心力衰竭的发展。
以上研究都说明了G蛋白在心力衰竭的发生和发展中起着重要作用, 也提示了可以抑制G蛋白的过度活化从而治疗心力衰竭, 为进一步开发治疗心力衰竭的药物提供一种新的策略。
哮喘是一种复杂的呼吸综合征, 也是最常见的慢性疾病之一, 其临床主要表现为气管平滑肌收缩引起气道阻塞, 从而造成发作性咳嗽、胸闷及呼吸困难[45]。GPCR和G蛋白可以引起炎症、气道高反应性等, 从而在哮喘的发生中起着关键作用[46]。例如, 信号分子通过乙酰胆碱刺激M3毒蕈碱受体, 或通过白三烯B4 (LTB4) 刺激BLT1/BLT2受体, 激活Gαq; Gαq激活的PLC-β产生IP3, 并与内质网受体结合, 诱导内质网中的钙离子释放, 从而导致气道平滑肌收缩[47]。另外, 利用β2肾上腺素能受体激动剂或刺激前列腺素E2受体会激活Gαs, 进而激活AC, 导致细胞内cAMP增多, PKA被激活。PKA则会使包括肌球蛋白调节轻链激酶(MLCK) 在内的多种蛋白磷酸化, 降低其与钙调素的亲和力, 导致气道平滑肌收缩减少; PKA也可作用于钙依赖性钾离子通道, 使平滑肌去极化及松弛[48]。此外, 也有研究表明, 用乙酰胆碱处理大鼠支气管平滑肌可以激活RhoA并引发钙离子的致敏作用。当利用抗原刺激大鼠支气管平滑肌时, 发现Gα12、Gα13和RhoA的表达均增加[49, 50]。这一发现说明Gα12和Gα13也在平滑肌收缩中发挥作用。
传统的哮喘治疗方案通常靶向单一的毒蕈碱受体、肾上腺素能受体、半胱氨酸白三烯1受体或内皮素受体[51, 52], 但当疾病同时涉及多个受体时, 则治疗效果不佳, 且会引起不良反应。因此, 直接作用于G蛋白的调节剂可能减轻这些不良反应, 为哮喘的治疗提供新的策略。
狼疮性肾炎是一种慢性炎症性疾病, 是系统性红斑狼疮的重要临床组成部分, 主要的临床表现为肾脏受累性损伤, 出现蛋白尿、红细胞尿、白细胞尿、肾小球及肾小管功能衰退等症状。目前已有大量数据表明, 狼疮性肾炎的进展过程与多种趋化因子和趋化因子受体有关[53], 趋化因子受体通过将信号传导至Gαi从而进一步激活下游反应。此外, Rossi等[54]已经证实Gβγ二聚体在趋化因子受体信号传导中发挥主导作用。Rangel-Moreno等[55]用Gβγ抑制剂M119处理患病小鼠, 发现抑制Gβγ信号传导可改善狼疮小鼠模型中的病理性肾炎, 其肾脏中的炎性细胞浸润明显消失, 这证实了G蛋白在狼疮性肾炎发病过程中发挥的重要作用, 为治疗狼疮性肾炎及其他慢性炎症性疾病提供了新思路。
G蛋白与肿瘤、心血管疾病和哮喘等疾病的发生密切相关, 因此开发靶向G蛋白的抑制剂可以调控疾病的进展, 从而达到治疗疾病的目的。此外, 以G蛋白为靶点开发药物具有以下优势: 首先, 由于G蛋白的突变是某些疾病发生的直接驱动力, 直接靶向突变的G蛋白可以起到“对因治疗”的效果; 另外, 由于GPCR有800多种, 因此很难开发出对所有GPCR都有治疗效果的药物, 而G蛋白只有4种, 靶向下游的G蛋白可以作为靶向GPCR的补充策略; 此外, 在哮喘或癌症等多因素所致疾病中涉及多条GPCR信号通路, 单独靶向某种GPCR达不到理想的治疗效果, 靶向下游的G蛋白可以达到同时靶向多种GPCR的目的[56]。但目前, 尚无靶向G蛋白的药物上市。因此, 靶向G蛋白的抑制剂具有作为药物的开发前景。
霍乱毒素是一种由霍乱弧菌产生的细菌外毒素, 由一个A亚单位和5个相同的B亚单位组成, 分子质量为84 kDa。B亚单位可与小肠黏膜上皮细胞的GM1神经节苷脂受体结合, 介导A亚单位通过内吞作用进入宿主细胞, 并选择性地靶向Gαs, 通过ADP-核糖基化导致Gαs的持续激活[57]。一般来说, Gαs蛋白中201位的精氨酸残基和209位的谷氨酰胺残基以互补的方式稳定GTP水解过渡态构象。然而, CTX可以催化NAD+中的ADP-核糖转移到Gαs蛋白201位的精氨酸残基上, 抑制GTP酶活性, 使Gαs一直处于GTP结合的活化状态[58], 进而导致AC持续激活和cAMP的积累。
不耐热肠毒素是另一个Gαs蛋白亚家族选择性毒素, 由肠产毒性大肠埃希菌产生。LT同样由1个A亚单位和5个B亚单位组成, 分子质量为88 kDa。LT的机制类似于CTX: LT的B亚单位介导A亚单位进入宿主细胞, A亚单位催化Gαs的GTP酶结构域的ADP-核糖基化, 进而持续激活AC, 导致cAMP的积累。
除了细菌毒素外, 苏拉明也可以调节Gαs的活性。苏拉明是由拜耳公司开发的用于治疗非洲昏睡病的药物[1]。Freissmuth等[60]发现苏拉明与Gαs特异性结合, 可以有效抑制GDP的释放(EC50 = 240 nmol·L-1), 另外苏拉明还能抑制Gαi的GDP/GTP交换。后续研究证实, 苏拉明能通过阻断Gα和Gβγ的结合来干扰GPCR与G蛋白的偶联[61]
但是, 苏拉明对G蛋白亚族的选择性不理想, 可以同时抑制Gαs和Gαi[62]。为了提高苏拉明对G蛋白亚家族的选择性, 人们开发了苏拉明类似物。在这些类似物中, NF449和NF503 (图 1) 可以选择性抑制Gαs的GDP/GTP交换。鸟苷γ-硫代磷酸(GTPγS) 为一种不可水解的GTP类似物, 这两种化合物能降低GTPγS与Gαs的结合速率, 进而抑制AC的活性。然而, 由于其存在结构复杂性高、细胞通透性差等问题, 阻碍了这类分子的进一步应用和发展[56, 62]
百日咳毒素是一种来自百日咳杆菌的外毒素。与CTX类似, PTX可以发挥单ADP-核糖基转移酶活性, 将ADP-核糖基从NAD+不可逆地转移到Gαi蛋白保守碳原子末端的Cys残基[63]。但是, 与CTX的作用不同, PTX阻止了Gαi与同源GPCRs的耦合, 进而使得Gαi亚基保持在一个与GDP结合的非活性状态[63]。最终, Gαi无法抑制腺苷酸环化酶的活性, 导致cAMP的积累从而引发各种病理效应。但是, 由于PTX会引起呼吸道疾病, 这使得PTX无法用于临床。尽管如此, PTX已在许多研究中用于分析Gαi特异性效应[56, 64]
神经肽、激素、毒液肽和多元胺等多种阳离子、两亲性物质对G蛋白表现出活化特性, 它们具有强疏水性和大量碱性基团, 可以凭借两亲性α-螺旋结构穿过细胞膜[65]。黄蜂毒液14聚体肽乳腺素(H-INLKALAALAKKIL-NH2) 和蜂毒26聚体肽蜂毒肽(H-GIGAVLKVLTTGLPALISWIKRKRQQ-NH2) 均属此类, 这两种毒素都能够破坏细胞膜磷脂并导致细胞裂解[66]
黄蜂毒素和相关类似物以类似鸟苷酸交换因子(GMP exchange factor, GEF) 的方式促进G蛋白与GTP的结合以及提高Gαi亚族中Gαi和Gαo的GTP酶活性, 但对Gαs和Gαi亚族的Gαt无显著影响(除mastoparan-S、H-INWKGIASM-α-aminoisobutyryl-RQVL-NH2外)。黄蜂毒素可以与Gα的氮原子和碳原子末端结合并竞争GPCR结合位点, 因此已被用作小分子量GPCR模拟物[67]
蜂毒肽分子结构中包含1个疏水的N端和1个亲水的C端, 它可以激活Gαi活性并抑制Gαs活性, 从而影响下游信号转导。此外, 神经激肽物质P、合成多胺组分、肥大细胞脱颗粒肽等阳离子两亲物质均具有激活G蛋白及其GTP酶活性的效应。因此, 这些化合物被认为是具有潜在治疗应用的药理学工具和候选物。但作为Gα调节剂, 蜂毒肽和乳杆菌素等化合物具有剂量和细胞类型依赖性以及非特异性靶向性, 因此可能影响机体正常生理功能, 从而导致它们的应用受到限制[56]
综上, 天然化合物主要通过与Gα相互作用, 使GPCR-G蛋白解偶联。PTX具有不可逆抑制Gαi的作用, 而阳离子两亲肽则导致G蛋白发生GPCR非依赖性激活并引起下游的信号转导。阳离子两亲肽因可以起到模拟多种疾病中GPCR的作用而对于G蛋白水平药物分子的开发具有重要价值。
虽然Gαi是最大的G蛋白亚家族之一, 但目前还没有一种具有良好的选择性和抑制活性的小分子抑制剂。Appleton等[68]通过对Gαi1-GDP-Mg、Gαi1-GTP-Mg和Gαq/11-GDP-Mg的对接和筛选, 在28万个化合物中, 筛选出15个化合物, 并验证它们对Gαi1和Gαq/11亚基的作用。构效关系分析证实了这类具有喹唑啉骨架的化合物在抑制Gαi和Gαq/11与GDP解离中具有重要作用, 且具有不同的选择性, 其中0990和4630 (图 2) 具有抑制Gαi的选择性, 但遗憾的是并没有达到预期的抑制活性。
到目前为止, Gα四个亚家族中, 只有Gαq/11亚家族有良好选择性和高抑制活性的抑制剂。环状脱脂肽YM-254890 (IC50 = 95 nmol·L-1) 和FR900359 (IC50 = 33 nmol·L-1) (图 3) 在体内和体外模型中都能特异性抑制Gαq/11介导的信号通路[62]。YM-254890与Gαq/11蛋白结合的X射线晶体结构表明, YM-254890与一个位于连接Gαq/11螺旋结构域和GTP酶结构域的两个连接体之间的疏水腔结合, 从而稳定了Gαq/11与GDP结合的非活性状态, 抑制Gαq/11中GDP的释放, 进而特异性地抑制Gαq/11的GDP/GTP交换[69, 70]。YM-254890通过靶向抑制Gαq/11, 影响血小板的活化, 因而具有抗血栓作用和溶栓活性。进一步的研究表明, YM-254890是治疗外周动脉疾病的有效分子; 此外, 在Gαq/11突变的HEK293细胞中, YM-254890显著抑制了血清应答因子介导的基因转录, 这表明YM-254890在肿瘤(如葡萄膜黑色素瘤) 治疗中存在潜在的应用前景[15, 71]
另一种环状肽FR900359是YM-254890的类似物, 也可以选择性地靶向Gαq。2015年Schrage等[72]报道了FR900359对Gαq/11具有高效选择性抑制作用的分子机制。在体外模型中, 对接和分子动力学模拟表明, FR900359和Gαq的结合与YM-254890类似, 通过阻止GDP解离来抑制GDP/GTP交换。此外, 该研究显示, FR900359诱导了黑色素瘤细胞系阻滞于G1期, 迫使黑色素瘤细胞分化, 并抑制了细胞迁移, 这提示该化合物可能通过作用于细胞周期从而治疗肿瘤。受Schrage等[72]开创性工作的启发, 研究人员对FR900359进行了相关研究, 揭示了该分子在包括肥胖、哮喘和葡萄膜黑色素瘤等多种病理生理过程中的治疗潜力[73-75]。此外, Klepac等[73]研究结果表明, FR900359可以抑制Gαq/11信号通路, 进而促进体内模型中棕色/米色脂肪组织的形成, 并增加了能量消耗。Matthey等[74]发现吸入的FR900359会在小鼠肺部积累, 阻止支气管收缩反应, 并触发持续的气道松弛, 而不会对血压和心率产生急性影响。此外, FR900359用药可预防过敏原致敏小鼠模型中的气道高反应性。最近, Onken等[75]的研究结果显示, FR900359能使发生Q209L突变的Gαq转变为与GDP结合的失活状态, 并导致对下游信号通路的抑制。这些结果还表明, 用FR900359处理可以抑制Q209L突变体的增殖和分化, 从而进一步阻止其驱动的葡萄膜黑色素瘤细胞系的形成。
作为为数不多的Gαq/11选择性抑制剂, 环状脱脂肽YM-254890和FR900359是研究Gαq/11介导的信号通路和涉及Gαq/11的病理生理过程的有效工具。然而, 这两种化合物不易从天然产物中分离, 由于其结构复杂, 其化学合成存在困难。2012年, 发起了一场合成1mg YM-254890的全球竞赛, 奖金高达10万美元, 数百名研究人员参加了竞赛, 但无人成功。2015年, 其结构简化类似物被全合成, 但其抑制活性大大降低, 说明该分子的结构完整性对其生物活性至关重要[76]。2016年, 本课题组[77]通过使用固相合成和液相合成相结合的策略, 实现了两个环状脱脂肽的首次全化学合成。这种合成策略不仅揭示了这类化合物设计和合成的可能性, 而且也为直接比较YM-254890和FR900359的活性提供了可能, 并发现合成的YM-254890与自然分离的YM-254890的抑制活性完全相同。最近, 通过在E. coli表达frs基因, 实现了FR900359的生物合成和异源FR900359的生产。
对YM-254890和FR900359进行构效关系研究, 发现改变氨基酸侧链中的烷基基团, 其抑制活性略有下降。其他的尝试, 包括使用具有相反构型的氨基酸, 用其他氨基酸取代N-甲基脱氢丙氨酸等, 都导致其抑制能力的丧失[78], 说明需要对这些复杂化合物进行更系统的SAR研究, 才能在简化其结构的同时提高抑制活性。
咪唑并哌嗪衍生物BIM-46174和BIM-46187 (图 4) 是分别于2006年和2009年推出的小分子抑制剂, 具有抗增殖和镇痛作用, 因此已被提议作为备选抗癌药物[79]。BIM-46187通过改变Gα的关键性GTP结合位点开关区域的构象, 以及螺旋结构域和GTP酶结构域的分离来发挥抑制作用: 它可以与Gα-GDP可逆结合, 并在GDP解离后阻止GTP与Gα的结合。进一步的研究发现, BIM-46187对于Gαq/11的选择性最高[79]
Prévost等[80]在基于细胞的筛选实验中, 发现BIM-46174特异性作用于Gαs介导的cAMP通路: 通过抑制Gαs从而选择性抑制CTX诱导的cAMP积累, 但不抑制毛喉素激活膜AC促进cAMP积累。此外, 他们进一步研究发现BIM-46174可抑制GPCR-Gαs偶联途径介导的cAMP积累。虽然BIM-46174作用的确切机制尚不清楚, 但BIM-46174对CTX和GPCR介导的cAMP积累的抑制是完全可逆的[80]。这表明BIM-46174对Gαs亚基上的核苷酸交换具有可逆抑制作用。
Ayoub等[79]揭示了BIM-46187对COS-7细胞GPCR和G蛋白相互作用模式的影响, 并阐明了其在体外纯化和重组的GPCR-G蛋白系统中的作用机制。他们观察到, BIM-46187阻断了GPCR-G蛋白介导的下游信号传导, 抑制了cAMP和IP1产生, 并下调COS-7细胞中不同GPCR介导的血清反应元件的基因表达。这些现象表明, BIM-46187具有对多个G蛋白(Gαs、Gαi、Gαq/11和Gα12/13) 广泛的抑制作用。进一步的机制研究表明, BIM-46187通过直接结合Gα, 抑制GDP/GTP交换, 从而抑制Gα的激活。此外, Schmitz等[81]通过分子动力学模拟和体外细胞实验, 提出了BIM-46187的功能机制: BIM-46187允许GDP释放, 但阻止GTP结合, 从而将Gα稳定在一个具有空核苷酸结合口袋的中间构象中。
虽然BIM-46174和BIM-46187对多种G蛋白均有抑制活性, 但其抑制作用对于细胞类型依赖的机制尚不清楚。随着更深入的研究, BIM可能将作为开发选择性G蛋白抑制剂的先导结构[62]
本课题组[82]以BIM-46174和BIM-46187为先导化合物进行构效关系研究, 创新性地改造出咪唑并哌嗪衍生物GQ127 (图 4)等小分子化合物, 并且通过生物学研究表明GQ127在体外也表现出良好的Gαq/11抑制活性, 在诱导葡萄膜黑色素瘤细胞凋亡、迁移和侵袭中均表现出有效的抗肿瘤活性, 且安全性更佳。更重要的是, GQ127在体内实验中表现出良好的葡萄膜黑色素瘤治疗效果。
由于GQ127中的伯胺电子云密度较高, 在体内易被氧化代谢, 半衰期较短(t1/2 = 1.2 h) 且GQ127对Gαq/11的抑制效果有待提高(IC50 = 22.6 ± 1.4 μmol·L-1)[82]。因此, 本课题组以GQ127为基础, 进行构效关系研究时发现(结构通式见图 4)[83]: 苯基取代的R对于维持对Gαq/11和UM细胞的抑制活性具有重要作用; 通过将酰胺还原为胺来增加分子的灵活性, 可以提高Gαq/11的抑制能力和抗UM细胞的能力; R1为环叔胺基时不仅对Gαq/11有更好的抑制效果, 而且可以使化合物更稳定; 此外, R1和R2的正确组合对化合物保持Gαq/11的抑制作用和抗UM的活性至关重要。以SAR为依据对GQ127进行结构优化得到GQ262和GQ352 (图 4), 通过体外研究发现: GQ262和GQ352通过直接作用于Gαq/11并参与调节ERK和YAP, 抑制UM细胞的增殖、诱导凋亡并且阻止其迁移侵袭。此外, GQ262和GQ352细胞毒性小、代谢稳定性有所改善, 同时在小鼠体内也展现出显著的抗UM效果(GQ262: IC50 = 5.1 ± 0.6 μmol·L-1, GQ352: IC50 = 8.9 μmol·L-1)[83, 84]
GQ127、GQ262和GQ352的发现提供了一种通过直接靶向Gαq/11蛋白并用于葡萄膜黑色素瘤的治疗思路, 但它们的Gαq/11抑制效力、代谢稳定性、正常细胞与UM细胞的选择性和心脏毒性等还需进一步优化; 尽管如此, 它们的发现仍为开发Gαq/11抑制剂提供了活性更佳的小分子先导化合物和思路。
近年来, Gβγ亚基在GPCR和G蛋白信号转导和病理生理中的作用被广泛研究, 许多多肽及小分子已经发展成为Gβγ的调节剂。Gβγ最常用的药理学工具是GRK2ct, 它由GRK2的C端194氨基酸肽组成, 其中包含Gβγ结合域, 已知GRK2ct通过破坏Gβγ介导的膜转位来竞争性抑制GRK2的活性[85]。因此, GRK2ct可以干扰Gβγ的功能而不影响Gα的激活及其下游信号转导[86]。这为开发多种选择性Gβγ调节剂奠定了分子基础, 这些分子可以抑制Gβγ介导的信号通路, 而不破坏其他GPCR/G蛋白依赖的信号通路。
Bonacci等[87]通过对大量化合物的虚拟筛选, 发现了几种选择性的Gβγ抑制剂, 其代表性分子为M119、gallein、M119B、M119K、M158C和M201 (图 5)。作为对Gβ1γ2亲和力最强的分子, M119选择性地阻断了Gαi1-Gβγ相互作用与GRK2膜易位, 它还抑制Gβγ介导的PLCβ2/3和PI3γ K的激活。除M119外, M158C也可以阻断Gβγ介导的PI3γ K激活, 从而抑制下游信号传导。如前所述, 几种Gβγ的小分子抑制剂(M119、gallein、M119B、M119K、M158C和M201) 可以通过干扰不同的效应因子来抑制Gβγ的下游信号通路[1, 87]。因此, M119和其他调节剂不仅可以作为研究Gβγ及其相关信号通路的有力工具, 还可以作为开发治疗高选择性和高效G蛋白抑制剂的先导化合物。
异源三聚体G蛋白在GPCR激活和信号传导中起着“分子开关”作用, 参与人体中众多重要的生理和病理过程。G蛋白与癌症、心血管疾病、糖尿病和哮喘等疾病的发生和发展密切相关。此外, G蛋白作为药物开发靶点, 具有多种优势。因此, 靶向G蛋白的抑制剂具有广阔的药物开发前景。
虽然G蛋白是潜在的治疗靶点, 但其位置、功能、信号转导机制等许多重要方面仍有待探索。尽管目前被FDA批准上市的药物中超过30%靶向GPCR, 但是迄今为止还没有批准上市靶向G蛋白的药物[56]。影响靶向G蛋白药物发展最主要的障碍是缺乏有效的和具有选择性的抑制剂, 且工具化合物较少, 在4个G蛋白亚家族中, 仅有Gαq/11被发现有相应的选择性抑制剂YM-254890和FR900359, 并且已在一些临床前实验中显示出巨大的潜力。与此同时, 由泛G蛋白抑制剂BIM-46187改造的GQ127也表现出良好的Gαq/11抑制活性, 并在多项体内、体外实验中表现出突出的抗肿瘤效果, 为通过直接靶向Gαq/11并用于葡萄膜黑色素瘤的治疗提供了先导化合物[82]。而Gαi、Gαs和Gα12/13迄今为止还没有被报道发现有高效选择性抑制剂。G蛋白相关研究滞后的另一个原因是该治疗存在潜在的不良反应, 由于G蛋白分布广泛, 下游多种信号通路均会受到G蛋白抑制剂的影响[62]。因此, 如何规避不良反应是该种治疗策略的另一个挑战。
综上所述, G蛋白是目前尚未被广泛研究的潜在药物靶点, 开发具有选择性和高效性的药物是具有挑战性的。因此, 一方面可对G蛋白中重要的相互作用位点的结构特征进行更深入及更详细的研究和解析:迄今为止, 从文献中已知的所有调节剂都作用于Gα-GPCR、核苷酸结合口袋、Gα-Gβγ、Gα-效应子和Gα-辅助蛋白等5个区域[62], 深入研究这些作用位点能为将来设计、合成“不可成药”蛋白质的抑制剂提供新的思路。另一方面, 针对目前已发现的一些可以调节G蛋白活性的分子, 探索新的合成路线并进行结构优化, 进而促进G蛋白抑制剂的发展。另外, 通过筛选天然化合物获得结构新颖的抑制剂也是一种有价值的策略[56]。通过以上多种策略, 以促进对异源三聚体G蛋白的研究, 开发出靶向G蛋白的高选择性、高活性的抑制剂。
作者贡献: 杨一帆、胡卓睿、刘鹤和李一贤负责查阅文献、论文撰写和修改, 刘璐负责文章的修改, 熊小峰完善了文章思路并修改文章。
利益冲突: 所有作者均无相关利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(22077144)
  • 广东省重点研发计划(2020B1111110003)
  • 广东省杰出青年科学基金(2018B030306017)
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2022年第57卷第10期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0656
  • 接收时间:2022-05-27
  • 首发时间:2025-12-24
  • 出版时间:2022-10-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-05-27
  • 修回日期:2022-06-16
基金
国家自然科学基金资助项目(22077144)
广东省重点研发计划(2020B1111110003)
广东省杰出青年科学基金(2018B030306017)
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    中山大学药学院, 广东 广州 510006

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*熊小峰, Tel: 86-20-39943032, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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