Article(id=1210516652299522637, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0525, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1651161600000, receivedDateStr=2022-04-29, revisedDate=1655827200000, revisedDateStr=2022-06-22, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766539260220, onlineDateStr=2025-12-24, pubDate=1662912000000, pubDateStr=2022-09-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766539260220, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766539260220, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539260220, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210516638089212895, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2022', volume='57', issue='9', pageStart='1', pageEnd='2888', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766539256832, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539546411, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210517852726096743, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210517852726096744, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2622, endPage=2641, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210516652844782197, articleId=1210516652299522637, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Metabolic regulation of innate immunity in cancer, columnId=1210516639267812321, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Special Reports: Therapeutic interventions and strategies for cancer immunotherapy, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Innate immune system, a non-specific defense system formed after birth, is body's first line of defense against pathogens. Innate immunity also plays a key role in the tumor immunosurveillance. With the clinical success of cancer immunotherapy, the regulatory mechanism of innate immune cells in antitumor response has begun to draw increasing attention. Recently, it has been recognized that metabolic regulation plays a vital role in innate immunity, in particular in the tumor microenvironment where the metabolic reprogramming in cancer increases the complexity of immunometabolism yet also provides therapeutic vulnerabilities. This review summarizes the recent progress in understanding the metabolic regulation of the innate immune response. We discuss how metabolites of glucose, amino acids, lipid and nucleotide metabolism regulate the function of innate immune cells. We pay the special attention to the metabolic crosstalk between immune cells or tumor-immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. With the review, we hope to get a better understanding of metabolic regulation of antitumor immunity and provide basis for metabolism-targeted immunotherapy.

, correspAuthors=Min HUANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2022 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yi-ze LI, Min HUANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1210516654778356479, articleId=1210516652299522637, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=代谢调控肿瘤微环境固有免疫应答机制研究进展, columnId=1210516639397835747, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

固有免疫是与生俱来的非特异防御体系, 是机体抵御外来病原体入侵的第一道防线。固有免疫在肿瘤免疫应答中扮演重要角色。随着肿瘤免疫的治疗潜力在临床得到证实, 固有免疫细胞在肿瘤免疫应答中的功能及调控机制成为肿瘤免疫研究的热点领域。近年来的研究认识到, 细胞的代谢通路在固有免疫应答中发挥重要的调控作用, 特别是肿瘤微环境独特的代谢重塑的特点, 在赋予免疫细胞更加复杂的代谢特征同时, 也提供了新的治疗机会。本文总结了固有免疫细胞的代谢调控领域的最新进展, 概述了糖、脂、氨基酸、核酸代谢中的关键代谢物调控固有免疫应答的新机制, 特别关注了肿瘤微环境中免疫细胞之间及肿瘤-免疫细胞代谢互动的机制, 旨在加深代谢调控固有免疫应答的机制认识, 为通过干预代谢的免疫治疗策略提供理论依据。

, correspAuthors=黄敏, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*黄敏, Tel: 86-21-50806722, E-mail:
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Cell, 2020, 182: 655-671.e22., articleTitle=Molecular pathways of colon inflammation induced by cancer immunotherapy, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1210516659144626205, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, awardId=20XD1424800, language=CN, fundingSource=上海市青年优秀学科带头人项目(20XD1424800), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1210516655059374868, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1210516655067763476, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, companyId=1210516655059374868, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1. State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1210516655076152086, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, companyId=1210516655059374868, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.中国科学院上海药物研究所, 新药研究国家重点实验室, 上海 201203)]), AuthorCompany(id=1210516655168426784, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1210516655176815393, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, companyId=1210516655168426784, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100009, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1210516655185204002, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, companyId=1210516655168426784, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.中国科学院大学, 北京 100009)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1210516657416573890, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=NSPFgyJ5txPXlgI+YYLBdg==, figureFileBig=/3k65CCmo1VoVBkLzYglWA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516657525625805, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=CN, label=Figure 1, caption= Innate immune cells and their interaction with cancer cells in innate immunity. A: Functions of innate immune cells in the immune response; B: Cancer cells reprogram innate immune cells to promote the pro-tumorigenic phenotype in tumor microenvironment. DC: Dendritic cells; NK cells: Natural killer cells; MSDC: Myeloid-derived suppressor cells; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; iNOS: Inducible nitric oxide synthase; TNF<i>α</i>: Tumor necrosis factor <i>α</i>; IFN<i>γ</i>: Interferon <i>γ</i>; IL: Interleukin; ARG1: Arginase 1; MHCII: Major histocompatibility complex Ⅱ; IL10: Interleukin 10; IDO1: Indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase 1; TGF<i>β</i>: Transforming growth factor <i>β</i>; GZMB: Granzyme; CSF1: Colony-stimulating factor 1; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor; EGF: Endothelial growth factor; CXCL2: C-X-C motif ligand 2; GM-CSF: Granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor , figureFileSmall=NSPFgyJ5txPXlgI+YYLBdg==, figureFileBig=/3k65CCmo1VoVBkLzYglWA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516657836004320, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=QiKA7nlJPTDeGQnWJi50uA==, figureFileBig=X1YMKGlr17hIB+cmk2kYNQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516657957639142, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= Glycolysis and innate immune response. Glucose imported by GLUTs is mainly catabolized <i>via</i> glycolysis and the intermediate metabolites are branched into multiple related pathways to support the function of the immune cells in the innate immune response. Lactate, the ultimate metabolite of glycolysis, activates intracellular signaling cascades by binding to proteins or affecting intracellular pH. Extracellular lactate in the tumor microenvironment could also activate intracellular signaling <i>via</i> binding to membrane GPCRs. GLUTs: Glucose transporters; G-6-P: Glucose-6-phosphate; F-6-P: Fructose-6-phosphate; 3-PG: Phosphoglycerate; PEP: Phosphoenolpyruvate; SAM: <i>S</i>-Adenosylmethionine; MCTs: Monocarboxylate transporters; GPR132: G protein coupled receptor 132; GPR65: G protein coupled receptor 65; GPR81: G protein coupled receptor 81; NFAT: Nuclear factor of activated T cells; PHD2: Prolyhydroxylase 2; HIF1<i>α</i>: Hypoxia-induced factor 1<i>α</i>; ICER: Inducible cAMP early repressor; IL2R: Interleukin-2 receptor; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; CALN: Calcineurin phosphatase , figureFileSmall=QiKA7nlJPTDeGQnWJi50uA==, figureFileBig=X1YMKGlr17hIB+cmk2kYNQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516658049913834, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=ab4J15f76J05SLwGPyhyRw==, figureFileBig=pYL3dKx5zFtEJrPG5zeaag==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516658150577133, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= Regulation of innate immunity by TCA-related intermediate metabolites. A: <i>α</i>-KG, as a co-substrate of dioxygenases such as PHD and JMJDs, is required for their catalyzed enzymatic reactions; B-D: TCA-related intermediate metabolites, including succinate and <i>D</i>-2-HG, can competitively inhibit the enzymatic activity of dioxygenases due to structural similarity with <i>α</i>-KG. Some metabolites, such as fumarate and itaconate, also affect various signal molecules <i>via</i> direct binding proteins or forming post-translational modifications. KDM5: Lysine demethylase 5; GSDMD: Gasdermin D; NF-<i>κ</i>B: Nuclear factor kappa-B; SDH: Succinate dehydrogenase; KEAP1: Kelch like ECH-associated protein 1; Nrf2: NF-E2-related factor 2; TET: Ten-eleven translocation enzymes; NLRP3: NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain 3; JAK1: Janus kinase 1; JMJDs: Jumonji C domain-containing protein 3; <i>α</i>-KG: <i>α</i>-Ketoglutarate; 2-HG: 2-Hydroxyglutarate; SUCNR1: Succinate receptor 1 , figureFileSmall=ab4J15f76J05SLwGPyhyRw==, figureFileBig=pYL3dKx5zFtEJrPG5zeaag==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516658263823345, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=SBn17pvRNMrLhQL/tWeNZQ==, figureFileBig=dILPkSAaoFAFXa87zkVsvw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516658402235382, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=CN, label=Figure 4, caption= Amino acid metabolism in innate immune cells. A: Glutamine and arginine are differentially metabolized in polarized macrophage; B: Myeloid cells deplete tryptophan and arginine to arrest CD8<sup>+</sup> T cell cycle or inhibit NK cell function. Kynurenine, product of tryptophan metabolism, activates AHR to regulate immune functions. GLS: Glutaminase; IKK<i>β</i>: Inhibitor of kappa B kinase <i>β</i>; eIF5A: Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A; AHR: Aryl hydrocarbon receptor; Treg: Regulatory T cell; NKp46: Natural killer cell p46-related protein; PD1: Programmed cell death protein 1 , figureFileSmall=SBn17pvRNMrLhQL/tWeNZQ==, figureFileBig=dILPkSAaoFAFXa87zkVsvw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516658486121467, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=nExYUxCSJNSVBOSBJ6q5CA==, figureFileBig=nazHTgzviJgpYGyOjuxDQw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516658553230335, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=CN, label=Figure 5, caption= The regulation of innate immune cells by lipid metabolism. A: Cancer cells promote FAO in myeloid cells to improve pro-tumorigenic phenotype of myeloid cells; B: PGE<sub>2</sub> produced by COX2-positive myeloid cells promotes immune suppression <i>via</i> activating EP signaling; C: Cancer cells upregulate cholesterol efflux into macrophage to enhance immunosuppressive phenotype. Cholesterol engages pro-tumorigenic phenotype <i>via</i> affecting ER composition. FZD: Frizzled; IL4R: Interleukin 4 receptor; PAPR: Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma; EP: Prostaglandin E<sub>2</sub> receptors; PGE<sub>2</sub>: Prostaglandin E<sub>2</sub>; cAMP: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate adenosine; PKA: Protein kinase A; ER: Endoplasmic reticulum; CSF1R: Colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor; ABCA1: ATP binding cassette subfamily A member; Mincle: Macrophage-inducible C-type lectin; GlcCer: Glucosylceramides , figureFileSmall=nExYUxCSJNSVBOSBJ6q5CA==, figureFileBig=nazHTgzviJgpYGyOjuxDQw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516658645504007, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=J3Tpalzib4JXHBLel0ODEA==, figureFileBig=RRmufCrt2Xpqlx2ki/H/Ew==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516658754555915, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=CN, label=Figure 6, caption= Nucleotide-related metabolites in innate immune response. A: NAD<sup>+</sup> produced by salvage pathway and <i>de novo</i> synthesis pathway promotes M1 polarization <i>via</i> facilitating DNA repair and glycolysis. NAD<sup>+</sup> also promotes MDSC differentiation <i>via</i> SIRT1-regulated transcription; B: Extracellular NAD<sup>+</sup> and ATP can be catabolized into adenosine, which activates A2AR signaling and reshapes immune suppression phenotypes of multiple types of immune cells. NAD<sup>+</sup>: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; SITR1: Sirturin 1; PARP: Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase; ADO: Adenosine; eADP: Extracellular adenosine diphosphate; ADPR: ADP-ribosylation; AMP: Adenosine monophosphate , figureFileSmall=J3Tpalzib4JXHBLel0ODEA==, figureFileBig=RRmufCrt2Xpqlx2ki/H/Ew==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516658897162258, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
PathwayTargetRepresentative drug
GlycolysisHK2-DG
LDHANCI-737
NCI-007
Glutamine metabolismGLSCB839
BPTES
Glutamine analogueJHU083
DON
Tryptophan metabolismIDOEpacadostat
Indoximod
Navoximod
Arginine metabolismARG1CB1158
ODCDFMO
FAOCAPT1aEtomoxir
Fatty acid transporterCD36ABT-511
FATP2Lipofermata
Fatty acid synthesisFASNTVB2640
ACC1TOFA
PGE2 metabolismCOX2Celecoxib
Adenosine pathwayCD73Oleclumab
A2ARAZD4635
CD39SRF617
CD38Daratumumab
NAD+ metabolismNAMPTFK866
), ArticleFig(id=1210516658993631254, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516652299522637, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

The summary of metabolic inhibitors with the potential of regulating innate immunity. FAO: Fatty acid oxidation; HK: Hexokinase; LDHA: Lactic dehydrogenase; GLS: Glutaminase; ODC: Ornithine decarboxylase; FATP2: Fatty acid transporter protein 2; FASN: Fatty acid synthase; ACC1: Acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1; COX2: Cyclooxygenase 2; A2AR: Adenosine receptor; NAMPT: Nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
PathwayTargetRepresentative drug
GlycolysisHK2-DG
LDHANCI-737
NCI-007
Glutamine metabolismGLSCB839
BPTES
Glutamine analogueJHU083
DON
Tryptophan metabolismIDOEpacadostat
Indoximod
Navoximod
Arginine metabolismARG1CB1158
ODCDFMO
FAOCAPT1aEtomoxir
Fatty acid transporterCD36ABT-511
FATP2Lipofermata
Fatty acid synthesisFASNTVB2640
ACC1TOFA
PGE2 metabolismCOX2Celecoxib
Adenosine pathwayCD73Oleclumab
A2ARAZD4635
CD39SRF617
CD38Daratumumab
NAD+ metabolismNAMPTFK866
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代谢调控肿瘤微环境固有免疫应答机制研究进展
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李易泽 1, 2 , 黄敏 1, 2, *
药学学报 | 专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预 2022,57(9): 2622-2641
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药学学报 | 专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预 2022, 57(9): 2622-2641
代谢调控肿瘤微环境固有免疫应答机制研究进展
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李易泽1, 2, 黄敏1, 2, *
作者信息
  • 1.中国科学院上海药物研究所, 新药研究国家重点实验室, 上海 201203
  • 2.中国科学院大学, 北京 100009

通讯作者:

*黄敏, Tel: 86-21-50806722, E-mail:
Metabolic regulation of innate immunity in cancer
Yi-ze LI1, 2, Min HUANG1, 2, *
Affiliations
  • 1. State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
  • 2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100009, China
出版时间: 2022-09-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0525
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固有免疫是与生俱来的非特异防御体系, 是机体抵御外来病原体入侵的第一道防线。固有免疫在肿瘤免疫应答中扮演重要角色。随着肿瘤免疫的治疗潜力在临床得到证实, 固有免疫细胞在肿瘤免疫应答中的功能及调控机制成为肿瘤免疫研究的热点领域。近年来的研究认识到, 细胞的代谢通路在固有免疫应答中发挥重要的调控作用, 特别是肿瘤微环境独特的代谢重塑的特点, 在赋予免疫细胞更加复杂的代谢特征同时, 也提供了新的治疗机会。本文总结了固有免疫细胞的代谢调控领域的最新进展, 概述了糖、脂、氨基酸、核酸代谢中的关键代谢物调控固有免疫应答的新机制, 特别关注了肿瘤微环境中免疫细胞之间及肿瘤-免疫细胞代谢互动的机制, 旨在加深代谢调控固有免疫应答的机制认识, 为通过干预代谢的免疫治疗策略提供理论依据。

肿瘤微环境  /  固有免疫  /  免疫代谢  /  代谢物  /  免疫治疗

Innate immune system, a non-specific defense system formed after birth, is body's first line of defense against pathogens. Innate immunity also plays a key role in the tumor immunosurveillance. With the clinical success of cancer immunotherapy, the regulatory mechanism of innate immune cells in antitumor response has begun to draw increasing attention. Recently, it has been recognized that metabolic regulation plays a vital role in innate immunity, in particular in the tumor microenvironment where the metabolic reprogramming in cancer increases the complexity of immunometabolism yet also provides therapeutic vulnerabilities. This review summarizes the recent progress in understanding the metabolic regulation of the innate immune response. We discuss how metabolites of glucose, amino acids, lipid and nucleotide metabolism regulate the function of innate immune cells. We pay the special attention to the metabolic crosstalk between immune cells or tumor-immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. With the review, we hope to get a better understanding of metabolic regulation of antitumor immunity and provide basis for metabolism-targeted immunotherapy.

tumor microenviroment  /  innate immunity  /  immunometabolism  /  metabolite  /  immunotherapy
李易泽, 黄敏. 代谢调控肿瘤微环境固有免疫应答机制研究进展. 药学学报, 2022 , 57 (9) : 2622 -2641 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0525
Yi-ze LI, Min HUANG. Metabolic regulation of innate immunity in cancer[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2022 , 57 (9) : 2622 -2641 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0525
固有免疫系统(innate immune system) 是生物体与生俱来的非特异性防御体系, 是机体免疫系统的重要组成部分。固有免疫细胞对于机体抵御病原入侵有着重要的作用。在清除病原体和受损细胞的同时, 固有免疫系统还发挥着组织修复的作用, 体现出高度可塑性。作为肿瘤免疫应答的重要环节, 固有免疫应答在肿瘤发生发展的过程中也扮演了重要的角色。在肿瘤发生初期, 肿瘤作为异种物质被固有免疫细胞识别并清除; 随着肿瘤的发展, 肿瘤细胞可以通过多种方式影响肿瘤微环境中的固有免疫细胞, 主要表现为抗肿瘤功能受到抑制, 转变为促肿瘤表型。当前, 激活肿瘤微环境中的固有免疫细胞应答, 已被证明是一种有效的抗肿瘤手段[1]
固有免疫细胞的功能受到精细的调控, 为干预固有免疫应答的疾病治疗提供了理论基础。近年来的研究表明, 代谢通路改变是固有免疫细胞功能调控的重要途径。细胞代谢通过提供能量和生物大分子合成的原料, 维持固有免疫细胞的功能。同时, 代谢分子还能作为信号分子, 直接影响固有免疫细胞的相关信号通路。值得注意的是, 在肿瘤组织中, 肿瘤微环境的独特代谢特点赋予免疫细胞更加多样、动态、复杂的代谢特征; 与此同时, 也赋予了干预肿瘤免疫应答的治疗契机。当下, 固有免疫细胞的代谢调控, 成为肿瘤免疫领域最受关注的热点方向之一, 并在近年来取得了飞速的发展。本文总结了固有免疫细胞的代谢调控领域的最新进展, 主要从糖酵解(glycolysis)、三羧酸循环(tricarboxylic acid cycle, TCA)、氨基酸代谢、脂质代谢、核苷酸代谢5个方面, 阐述了细胞代谢调控固有免疫应答的机制, 特别关注了肿瘤微环境的固有免疫细胞的调控机制, 旨在丰富对固有免疫细胞中代谢调控免疫的机制认识, 为通过干预代谢、激活固有免疫的抗肿瘤治疗策略提供理论依据。
固有免疫系统由多种细胞构成, 包括巨噬细胞(macrophage)、树突状细胞(dendritic cell, DC)、自然杀伤(nature killer, NK) 细胞等。固有免疫细胞对于生物体抵御外来病原入侵发挥重要的作用。其中, 巨噬细胞通过Toll样受体(Toll-like receptor, TLR) 感知脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS) 等病原体相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PAMP), 激活NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B) 信号通路, 促进M1型极化。M1型巨噬细胞体现出促炎表型, 分泌白介素1β (interleukin 1β, IL1β)、肿瘤坏死因子α (tumor necrosis factor α, TNFα) 等促炎因子, 上调诱导型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS) 产生活性氧簇(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 促进炎症反应, 并通过吞噬作用清除病原体和受损的细胞。DC细胞也能够通过TLR受体感知PAMP, 体现出激活表型。激活态的DC细胞除了能分泌促炎因子以外, 能通过抗原交叉呈递作用(antigen cross presentation) 激活适应性免疫(adaptive immunity)。在该过程中, DC细胞能摄取、加工抗原, 加工后的抗原与组织相容复合物(major histocompatibility complex, MHC)、抗原递呈分子CD80或CD86形成复合物, 呈现于细胞表面, 被T细胞识别。NK细胞激活上调NKG2D等杀伤细胞激活受体(killer activated receptor, KAR) 表达, 通过释放颗粒酶素(granzyme) 和穿孔素(perforin) 杀伤被感染细胞。此外, NK细胞也能分泌干扰素γ (interferon γ, IFNγ) 等细胞因子, 调节免疫功能。
固有免疫具有极强的可塑性, 在清除病原体及受损细胞后, 能够及时启动负向调节机制, 避免过度的免疫应答。巨噬细胞会向M2型极化, 通过分泌IL10、转化生长因子β (transforming growth factor β, TGFβ) 等抗炎因子, 上调精氨酸酶1 (arginase 1, ARG1) 的表达等, 发挥免疫抑制功能; 同时, 分泌血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF) 等促进血管等组织的修复。DC细胞能够在TGFβ、IL10等抗炎因子作用下转变为耐受型DC细胞(tolerogenic DC), 分泌IL10等细胞因子抑制免疫激活。NK细胞则在TGFβ等抗炎因子的刺激下, 下调NKG2D和IFNγ的表达, 限制其细胞杀伤功能[2]。此外, 骨髓来源抑制性细胞(myeloid-derived suppressor cell, MDSC) 是一类巨噬细胞和DC细胞的前体细胞, 也能够通过产生IL10、VEGF等抗炎因子, 发挥免疫抑制和组织修复的作用。通过上述机制, 固有免疫应答发挥着清除病原体和受损的细胞及后续的组织修复功能(图 1A)。
作为肿瘤免疫应答的重要环节, 固有免疫应答在肿瘤的发生发展过程中发挥着重要的作用。在肿瘤发生初期, 肿瘤作为异种物质能够激活固有免疫细胞。巨噬细胞通过释放TNFα等炎性因子或吞噬作用, 清除肿瘤细胞[3]。NK细胞通过“丢失自我”的机制, 即能够识别低表达或不表达MHCI的肿瘤细胞, 分泌颗粒酶素和穿孔素等细胞毒分子杀伤肿瘤细胞, 并释放IFNγ促进炎症。死亡的肿瘤细胞释放出的肿瘤相关抗原(tumor associated antigen), 能够被DC细胞加工并递呈, 激活适应性免疫, 发挥抗肿瘤作用。
随着肿瘤的发展, 肿瘤细胞通过多种机制影响免疫微环境中的固有免疫细胞(图 1B)。如肿瘤细胞释放的集落刺激因子1 (colony stimulating factor 1, CSF1)、TGFβ、IL10、IL4等细胞因子, 减弱肿瘤相关巨噬细胞(tumor associated macrophage, TAM) 和DC细胞的抗肿瘤功能。同时, 肿瘤细胞释放趋化因子CXCL2招募外周MDSC迁移至肿瘤微环境[4], 并释放粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulation factor, GM-CSF), 促进MDSC发挥免疫抑制功能。肿瘤细胞还能够释放TGFβ下调NK表达NKG2D和IFNγ, 限制NK细胞的细胞杀伤作用[5]
肿瘤细胞改造的免疫细胞, 在自身抗肿瘤能力减弱的同时, TAM、DC、MDSC等细胞还能够通过多种方式直接作用于肿瘤细胞或其他免疫细胞, 进一步增强肿瘤细胞的恶性化表型, 形成多细胞组分协同促肿瘤的作用模式。如TAM或MDSC分泌内皮生长因子(endothelial growth factor, EGF) 促进肿瘤增殖; 释放IL6促进肿瘤迁移能力; 分泌VEGF促进血管新生。TAM释放的IL10、TGFβ等细胞因子还能限制T细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫等[6]。肿瘤微环境中的固有免疫细胞的功能调控机制, 成为当前肿瘤免疫领域备受关注的研究方向。
固有免疫细胞高度的可塑性提示其功能受到精细的调控。近年来的研究揭示, 代谢通路对固有免疫细胞的功能调控至关重要。如NK细胞在激活时会增加对糖酵解通路的依赖性, 以满足其快速增殖和分泌颗粒酶素和穿孔素等功能分子所需要的能量[7, 8]。固有免疫细胞功能的转变也与其代谢特征的切换直接相关。如M1型巨噬细胞高度依赖于糖酵解, 而M2型则呈现出依赖脂肪酸氧化(fatty acid oxidation, FAO) 和氧化磷酸化(OXPHOs) 的代谢特征[9]
细胞代谢不仅为免疫细胞提供能量和生物大分子的合成的原料, 用以维持细胞的基本功能, 产生的代谢物还能通过翻译后修饰、竞争性结合等方式直接影响自身细胞信号通路。同时, 代谢分子还能分泌到细胞外, 通过自分泌或旁分泌的方式, 影响邻近细胞。固有免疫细胞既是代谢物产生者, 主动释放代谢物调控邻近细胞功能, 也是代谢物的感知者, 通过表面受体感知代谢物或直接摄取外源代谢物, 影响自身功能。
在肿瘤组织这一复杂的微环境中, 肿瘤细胞与固有免疫细胞乃至其他细胞组分通过细胞因子、代谢物或营养竞争等多种方式互相影响, 加深了固有免疫细胞的代谢特征的复杂性, 并直接影响了肿瘤的恶性化进程及治疗响应。因此, 肿瘤微环境中固有免疫细胞的功能调控机制在近期已经引起了极大关注, 相关的研究已经涉及到糖代谢、氨基酸代谢和脂代谢等各类代谢, 有望为肿瘤免疫提供新的思路(表 1)。
葡萄糖是细胞最重要的能量物质。一般认为, 固有免疫应答的过程, 葡萄糖主要通过糖酵解代谢以保障细胞的功能维持。在固有免疫细胞激活的早期, 巨噬细胞、NK细胞、DC细胞等多种固有免疫细胞中糖酵解相关代谢酶会表达上调[10-13], 提示固有免疫细胞激活过程伴随着糖酵解代谢通路的激活。大量研究表明, 抑制糖酵解通路的限速酶, 如己糖激酶(hexokinase, HK) 等, 能下调多种固有免疫细胞的功能, 包括减弱M1型巨噬细胞极化, 降低IL1β表达[14]; 削弱LPS诱导的DC细胞的抗原递呈能力[13]; 也能减少NK细胞分泌IFNγ并抑制其效应功能[15]。固有免疫细胞为何高度依赖于糖酵解?目前的研究认为, 在固有免疫细胞激活的早期, 固有免疫细胞依赖于糖酵解快速产生ATP, 以供应免疫应答的能量需要[16]。另一方面, 糖酵解产生了大量的中间产物及终产物乳酸, 这些代谢物可以通过多种机制参与调控免疫应答(图 2)。
在肿瘤微环境中, 固有免疫细胞显示出不同的葡萄糖代谢特征。CD11b+髓系细胞大多都呈现出糖酵解通路的高度活跃的特征, 如发挥免疫抑制作用的MDSC和TAM[17]。在多种免疫健全的小鼠肿瘤模型中证实, 干预糖酵解能影响肿瘤微环境中MDSC和TAM的功能。如采用葡萄糖类似物2-脱氧-D-葡萄糖(2-deoxy-D-glucose, 2-DG) 抑制糖酵解能够减弱TAM的促肿瘤效应, 延缓黑色素瘤的生长及胰腺癌的转移[18, 19]; 2-DG还能减少肿瘤微环境中MDSC的数量, 延缓乳腺癌进展[11]。在胰腺癌模型中, 特异性敲除巨噬细胞中GLUT1基因或使用GLUT1抑制剂WZB117, 也能够抑制TAM的促肿瘤作用, 从而限制胰腺癌进展[20]。在肿瘤微环境中, NK细胞的糖酵解相关基因的表达下调, 伴随着IFNγ分泌受到限制; 同时, 糖异生相关代谢酶表达上调, 并伴随着TGFβ的产生增加。干预糖异生限速酶果糖-1, 6-二磷酸酶1 (frutose-1, 6-bisphosphatase 1, FBP1), 可以提升NK细胞的糖酵解水平, 并恢复其功能[21, 22]
上述研究提示, 肿瘤微环境中固有免疫细胞的葡萄糖代谢特征具有显著的异质性。抑制糖酵解在激活CD11b+髓系细胞抗肿瘤功能的同时, 可能会限制NK细胞的效应功能。因此, 干预糖酵解的免疫治疗策略, 应针对不同肿瘤中发挥主导作用的固有免疫细胞群, 精细地剖析其代谢特征, 才能更好地实现治疗获益。
乳酸是糖酵解的终端代谢产物, 糖酵解激活往往伴随着乳酸的大量生成。乳酸也是最早受到关注的糖代谢产物之一。在肿瘤微环境中, 肿瘤细胞是乳酸的最主要贡献者, 主要源于肿瘤细胞常见的“瓦博格效应” (Warburg effect)[23], 倾向于大量代谢葡萄糖生成乳酸。肿瘤细胞合成的乳酸可以通过质子偶联单羧酸转运体4 (monocarboxylate transporter 4, MCT4) 外排乳酸进入微环境中, 对周围的固有免疫细胞产生影响。微环境中的乳酸能够直接作用于固有免疫细胞膜上受体激活下游信号通路, 并能被转运至细胞内发挥免疫调控作用。
免疫细胞表面的乳酸受体主要通过两种机制感应乳酸变化, 即氢离子依赖型和氢离子非依赖型。氢离子依赖型受体的代表是巨噬细胞表面的G蛋白偶联受体65 (G protein-couple receptor 65, GPR65), 它能感知微环境中氢离子浓度, 增加第二信使环磷腺苷(cyclic adenosine monophosphate, cAMP) 合成, 后者能上调cAMP效应元件结合蛋白ICER表达并促进其转录活性, 促进巨噬细胞的免疫抑制功能[24]。同时, 乳酸盐还能够以氢离子浓度非依赖的机制激活细胞表面的G蛋白偶联受体132 (G protein-couple receptor 132, GPR132) 和GPR81发挥作用。有研究发现, 乳酸盐能激活GPR132, 促进巨噬细胞表达GM-CSF等免疫抑制分子, 并伴随着胞内钙离子浓度的升高, 但具体的分子机制尚不明确[25, 26]。相似地, 乳酸盐可以激活GPR81, 通过下调细胞内cAMP浓度, 同时动员胞内钙离子, 调节下游信号传导及基因转录, 抑制DC细胞的抗原递呈能力及IL12表达。其中, 钙离子抑制钙调神经磷酸酶(calcineurin phosphatase, CALN) 介导的信号传导部分贡献了上述效应[27, 28]。上述GPR受体在不同细胞上的差异表达水平可能决定了乳酸对不同固有免疫细胞的效应差异, 值得深入研究。
除了直接激活相应受体, 乳酸还能通过固有免疫细胞表面的转运体MCT摄取乳酸进入细胞, 发挥免疫调控作用。一方面, 乳酸被摄取后引起胞内环境酸化, 下调活化T细胞核因子(nuclear factor of activated T cells, NFAT) 表达水平, 抑制NFAT介导的NK细胞的IFNγ及白介素2受体(interleukin 2 receptor, IL2R) 的表达, 削弱NK细胞的效应功能[29]。同时, 乳酸也能够直接与蛋白质结合, 影响信号通路。乳酸能够结合活化蛋白c-JUN, 抑制c-JUN与E3泛素连接酶FBW7的结合, 抑制c-JUN降解, 促进c-JUN核转位及其下游基因转录, 提升MDSC免疫抑制能力[30]。此外, 乳酸能够通过抑制脯氨酰羟化酶2 (prolyhydroxylase 2, PHD2) 的酶活, 下调PHD2催化的HIF-1α蛋白的羟基化修饰, 进而阻碍了羟基化HIF-1α招募E3泛素连接酶VHL (Von Hippel-Lindau) 的过程[31], 增加HIF-1α蛋白稳定性, 增强TAM免疫抑制功能[32, 33]。除了与蛋白质结合, 乳酸也能够直接参与对蛋白质的共价修饰。最近的研究发现, 乳酸促进组蛋白发生乳酸化(lactylation) 修饰, 通过转录调控影响细胞表型。巨噬细胞内的乳酸通过促进组蛋白H3第18位赖氨酸乳酸化修饰, 上调ARG1等M2型极化相关基因的表达[34]
目前, 对肿瘤微环境中乳酸的关注主要聚焦肿瘤细胞的贡献。抑制肿瘤细胞的乳酸脱氢酶(lactic dehydrogenase, LDHA) 减少乳酸产生, 被认为可能是一种激活固有免疫的抗肿瘤策略。值得注意的是, 肿瘤微环境中高度依赖糖酵解的CD11b+髓系细胞可能也是乳酸的产生者。有研究发现LPS诱导的M1型巨噬细胞产生的乳酸能以自分泌的方式激活GPR81, 抑制M1型极化[35], 提示肿瘤微环境中的CD11b+髓系细胞也可能存在类似机制。因此, 使用LDHA抑制剂能够同时抑制肿瘤细胞与髓系免疫细胞的乳酸产生, 削弱免疫抑制微环境的产生。值得关注的是, 有研究表明, 敲除LDHA后, NK细胞的抗肿瘤能力受到抑制, 提示了LDHA对于NK细胞的效应功能十分重要[8]。因此, 抑制LDHA对肿瘤免疫微环境产生的影响具有两面性, 需要更系统地探究LDHA抑制剂对不同免疫细胞的影响, 以帮助LDHA抑制剂的开发与治疗获益。
与乳酸不同, 糖酵解的中间产物与糖酵解的多条分支通路及线粒体内的TCA循环紧密连接, 因此很难在细胞内形成代谢物的累积。但是, 这一系列中间产物能够作为原料参与一碳代谢等其他代谢通路, 对于细胞的功能调控具有重要的作用。目前, 对于糖酵解中间代谢产物如何调控固有免疫细胞的功能的认识主要聚焦于相关的代谢通路。如葡萄糖代谢中间产物6-磷酸葡萄糖进入糖酵解分支通路磷酸戊糖途径(pentose phosphate pathway, PPP), 能够产生还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, NADPH), 维持M1型巨噬细胞的氧化还原平衡。该通路还能进一步供给一碳代谢, 生成S-腺苷甲硫氨酸(S-adenosylmethionine, SAM)。SAM是细胞内甲基化修饰的甲基供体。该代谢途径通过促进组蛋白H3的36位赖氨酸甲基化, 上调IL1β等促炎基因表达, 促进M1型巨噬细胞的极化。与上述机制类似, 糖酵解的中间产物3-磷酸甘油酸通过丝氨酸合成通路, 也能够参与一碳代谢, 通过影响组蛋白修饰促进M1型巨噬细胞相关基因的转录[36, 37]。糖酵解的另一中间产物6-磷酸果糖参与己糖胺生物合成途径(hexosamine biosynthesis pathway, HBP), 生成尿苷5-二磷酸-N-乙酰氨基葡糖(uridine 5′-diphopho-N-acetylglucosamine, UDP-GlcNAc), 促进M2型相关细胞因子的糖基化, 对于维持巨噬细胞M2型极化发挥重要功能[12]。此外, 有研究报道磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸(phosphoenolpyruvate, PEP) 能够作为抗氧化物质, 防止MDSC受到ROS引起的损伤[11]。糖酵解的其他中间产物对于固有免疫细胞的功能是否具有调控作用, 在不同类型的固有免疫细胞中是否存在类似的作用, 及这些代谢物影响免疫功能的分子机制等一系列问题, 目前仍不明晰。此外, 在肿瘤微环境中, 糖酵解分支通路对固有免疫细胞的功能的影响, 尚缺乏系统性认识。
TCA循环在线粒体中发生, 是连接细胞合成代谢和分解代谢间的重要桥梁[38]。TCA循环不仅为固有免疫细胞提供能量及生物大分子合成所需的原料, TCA循环中间产物如α-酮戊二酸(α-ketoglutarate, α-KG)、2-羟基戊二酸(2-hydroxyglutarate, 2-HG)、琥珀酸(succinate)、衣康酸(itaconate)、富马酸(fumarate) 等, 还能通过不依赖于代谢的机制, 对于固有免疫细胞功能产生重要影响。这些代谢物能够通过竞争性抑制、翻译后修饰等方式影响细胞内信号通路和表观修饰, 也能够作为信号分子, 直接激活细胞膜表面受体, 发挥免疫调节作用(图 3)。
α-KG是TCA循环的重要中间产物, 由异柠檬酸脱氢酶(isocitrate dehydrogenase, IDH) 催化异柠檬酸氧化脱羧生成。此外, α-KG也能由谷氨酰胺代谢产生。α-KG重要的功能之一是作为羟基供体参与了双加氧酶的酶促反应, 这一功能能够调控固有免疫细胞的功能。如α-KG促进DNA去甲基化酶JMJD3介导的组蛋白H3第27位赖氨酸去甲基化修饰, 通过上调ARG1、CD206等基因表达促进M2巨噬细胞极化。α-KG还能促进PHD介导多种蛋白的羟基化修饰。如通过促进kappa B抑制因子激酶(inhibitor of kappa B kinase, IKKβ) 的羟基化, 抑制NF-κB通路, 限制M1型巨噬细胞极化[39]; 通过促进HIF1α的羟基化, 促进其降解, 下调M1型极化的相关基因转录[40]。此外, α-KG也是许多转氨反应中的底物和产物。但是, α-KG参与的转氨作用是否调控了固有免疫的功能, 目前尚不明晰。
2-HG根据其构型分为L-2-HG和D-2-HG。其中, L-2-HG可以由苹果酸脱氢酶(malate dehydrogenase, MDH) 催化α-KG产生, 但是其催化效率远低于该酶主要催化反应(即催化苹果酸生成草酰乙酸) 的效率[41], 而D-2-HG主要由突变的IDH催化生成。因此, 在正常情况下固有免疫细胞中两种构象的2-HG的含量均非常低。
目前研究最多的是D-2-HG, 主要来源于IDH突变的肿瘤细胞。在脑胶质瘤、胆管癌、急性髓细胞白血病等多种肿瘤中均存在IDH突变, 其中实体瘤以IDH1突变为主。突变型的IDH1/2与野生型IDH形成二聚体发挥作用, 催化α-KG转变为D-2-HG。D-2-HG具有促进肿瘤发生发展的能力, 是公认的癌代谢物, 得到广泛研究。近年来的研究发现, D-2-HG除了作用于肿瘤细胞自身, 也能释放到肿瘤微环境中。微环境中的D-2-HG能被固有免疫细胞摄取, 发挥着免疫调控的作用。如巨噬细胞摄取的D-2-HG能够上调中性氨基酸转运体1 (large amino acid transporter 1, LAT1) 的表达水平, 并且诱导色氨酸-2, 3-双脱氧酶2 (tryptophan 2, 3-dioxygenase 2, TDO2) 变构激活, 从而促进色氨酸的摄取及分解代谢生成犬尿氨酸(kynurenine, KYN)。KYN与巨噬细胞胞质的芳烃受体(aryl hydrocarbon receptor, AHR) 结合, 促进AHR转位进入细胞核与异源生物响应元件XRE等形成转录复合体, 转录上调IL10、TGFβ的表达, 进而发挥免疫抑制作用[42]。此外, D-2-HG能够抑制脑胶质瘤细胞条件培养基处理的小胶质细胞中TNFα、IL6等基因的表达, 但分子机制尚不明确[43]。这一系列研究提示了D-2-HG能够调控固有免疫细胞的功能, 但是具体的分子机制有待进一步的探索。
值得注意的是, D-2-HG在巨噬细胞中的作用机制似乎与其在肿瘤细胞中的机制不尽相同。在IDH突变肿瘤内, D-2-HG主要通过竞争性抑制α-KG依赖的双加氧酶家族发挥作用, 包括DNA去甲基化酶、组蛋白去甲基化酶、羟化酶等。而在免疫细胞中, D-2-HG似乎更倾向于通过α-KG竞争非依赖的方式发挥癌代谢物功能, 且这种作用机制很有可能在IDH突变微环境细胞中普遍存在[44]。最新的研究表明, D-2-HG在IDH突变肿瘤和微环境细胞中作用机制的不同, 很可能与细胞中D-2-HG的浓度差异有关[45]。由于微环境细胞摄取D-2-HG的水平受转运体的转运效率所限, 细胞摄取的D-2-HG水平远低于IDH突变肿瘤自身产生的D-2-HG水平, 从而无法达到与α-KG有效竞争的浓度, 这使得微环境细胞摄取的D-2-HG可能更偏好以α-KG竞争非依赖的方式发挥作用。
琥珀酸也是TCA循环中研究较多的中间代谢物。目前琥珀酸对固有免疫调控机制认识主要聚焦于巨噬细胞。有研究发现, LPS激活巨噬细胞后, TCA循环会发生重塑, 出现两个“断点”, 其中一个“断点”是IDH的表达下调, 并且伴随顺乌头酸脱羧酶IRG1 (immune response gene 1) 的表达上调[46, 47]。后者促进异柠檬酸转化为衣康酸, 衣康酸通过竞争性抑制SDH酶活, 形成第二个“断点”, 导致琥珀酸的累积[48, 49]
琥珀酸的累积能促进巨噬细胞M1型极化, 相关的机制主要涉及以下方面: ①因为结构的相似性, 累积的琥珀酸能够竞争性抑制α-KG依赖的双加氧酶的酶活。如琥珀酸能抑制PHD酶活[50], 进而抑制PHD依赖的HIF1α泛素化降解, 促进HIF1α介导的IL1β转录[51]。琥珀酸同样也能竞争性抑制组蛋白去甲基化酶JMJD的酶活, 促进促炎因子的转录[39]; ②琥珀酸能通过自分泌和旁分泌的方式激活巨噬细胞表面的琥珀酸受体1 (succinate receptor 1, SUCNR1), 上调IL1β表达[52]。SUCNR1是一类GPCR受体, 通过激活下游的信号传导来进行功能调控。在另一项研究中发现, SUCNR1下游通路激活也能促进DC细胞迁移能力和抗原递呈能力, 并伴随着细胞内的钙离子浓度升高[53], 提示了SUCNR1激活钙离子依赖的相关信号通路可能贡献于上述表型改变。考虑到SUCNR1在多种固有免疫细胞表面均有表达, 琥珀酸对其他固有免疫细胞可能也有影响, 但目前还未见相关的报道。
在肿瘤微环境中, 肿瘤细胞来源的琥珀酸对于固有免疫细胞的功能也能发挥调控作用。在黑色素瘤、肺癌等多种肿瘤中会发生SDH突变, 导致细胞内的琥珀酸累积, 并常常伴随着琥珀酸的释放。有研究证实, TAM的膜受体SUCNR1能感知微环境中的琥珀酸, 后者通过激活HIF1α通路, 促进巨噬细胞向肿瘤微环境浸润并促进IL6产生; IL6反过来能作用于肿瘤细胞促进肿瘤细胞转移, 形成了琥珀酸介导的肿瘤-免疫细胞互动促肿瘤的作用模式[54]。此外, 肿瘤微环境中的琥珀酸能否被固有免疫细胞的摄取, 通过SUCNR1非依赖的方式调控免疫功能, 有待进一步探索。
衣康酸是近年来颇受关注的抗炎代谢物。衣康酸并非TCA的中间代谢物, 而是TCA循环中间代谢物顺乌头酸被IRG1代谢产生。有研究发现LPS诱导增加了巨噬细胞糖酵解对TCA循环的供给, 同时上调IRG1表达, 产生大量的衣康酸。
衣康酸调控固有免疫应答的机制, 目前的认识主要集中在两个方面。一方面是衣康酸和琥珀酸及α-KG具有结构相似性, 能够发生竞争性抑制。如衣康酸竞争性抑制SDH的活性, SDH是线粒体复合物Ⅱ的组成部分, 贡献了ROS的产生。衣康酸通过抑制SDH能抑制M1型巨噬细胞中ROS的产生[49]。衣康酸还能通过与α-KG竞争性结合DNA双加氧酶TET2, 限制TET2酶活, 抑制LPS诱导的相关基因表达[55]; 另一方面, 衣康酸能通过翻译后修饰对相关的信号分子的功能直接产生影响。①衣康酸能烷基化KEAP1 (Kelch like ECH-associated protein 1) 蛋白的多个位点的半胱氨酸残基, 抑制KEAP1与激活转录因子NRF2 (NF-E2-related factor 2) 的结合。NRF2与KEAP1解离后, 避免了NRF2的降解, 能转录上调抗氧化基因的表达, 并伴随着M1巨噬细胞中IL1β和IFNβ表达下调[56]; ②衣康酸烷基化3-磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶(glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, GAPDH) 的22位半胱氨酸, 限制GAPDH的酶活, 抑制糖酵解, 限制M1巨噬细胞极化[57]; ③衣康酸还能烷基化Janus激酶1 (Janus kinase 1, JAK1) 的多个半胱氨酸残基, 抑制JAK1信号转导及转录激活蛋白6 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 6, STAT6) 介导的M2型极化相关的基因转录[58]; ④衣康酸还能引发NLRP3的548位半胱氨酸发生“dicarboxypropylated”修饰, 限制NLRP3与NIMA相关激酶7 (NIMA related kinase 7, NEK7) 的相互作用, 抑制NLRP3介导的炎性小体活化, 抑制巨噬细胞释放IL1β[59]。此外, 有文章报道敲除IRG1能够增强DC细胞的抗原递呈能力, 其机制可能与衣康酸抑制DC细胞的OXPHOS相关, 但具体的机制尚不明确[60]
目前仅有一些零星的报道, 探究了衣康酸在肿瘤免疫中的作用。在小鼠黑色素瘤和卵巢癌的腹膜肿瘤模型中发现, TAM产生大量衣康酸, 衣康酸促进了TAM中OXPHOS的水平和ROS产生, 并激活了丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase, MAPK) 通路。干扰TAM中IRG1的表达水平可以限制腹部肿瘤的进展[61]。这一发现与衣康酸抑制SDH酶活产生ROS的机制不同, 可能是由于在肿瘤微环境中, 巨噬细胞代谢模式具有的独特性[62]
富马酸能够由琥珀酸经SDH催化产生, 也是精氨酸合成和酪氨酸代谢的产物[12]。富马酸主要能够通过翻译后修饰或竞争性抑制的方式影响巨噬细胞功能。如细胞焦亡关键执行分子GSDMD (gasdermin-D) 能够被caspase 1切割, 切割后的GSDMD能够寡聚化在细胞膜上打孔, 促进促炎因子IL1β的释放并诱发细胞焦亡。富马酸衍生物(如二甲基富马酸) 能够促进GSDMD蛋白的第191位半胱氨酸琥珀酸酯修饰, 限制GSDMD被caspase 1切割, 抑制细胞焦亡[63]。富马酸和α-KG具有结构相似性, 因而富马酸能够抑制α-KG依赖的双加氧酶活性, 如通过抑制组蛋白去甲基化酶KDM5 (lysine demethylase 5), 促进组蛋白H3第4位赖氨酸甲基化, 促进巨噬细胞上调TNFα和IL6表达[64]。此外, 富马酸还能通过NF-κB通路依赖的方式, 抑制DC细胞的抗原递呈功能[65], 但具体的机制尚不明晰。
目前, 肿瘤微环境中富马酸的免疫调控研究相对较少。考虑到有部分肿瘤, 如肾癌中存在富马酸水合酶(fumarate hydratase, FH) 突变的情况, 提示了肿瘤细胞中存在富马酸的累积[66]。但是富马酸能否被这些肿瘤细胞释放并影响肿瘤微环境中的固有免疫细胞, 目前尚缺少认识。
TCA中间产物对于固有免疫细胞的功能调控及分子机制已有了不少的报道, 但是, 目前的研究主要聚焦于巨噬细胞。考虑到固有免疫细胞种类多样, 并且不同的细胞间免疫功能和代谢模式存在较大的差异。因此, TCA中间产物是如何在其他固有免疫细胞中发挥免疫调控作用, 仍然需要进一步的探索。此外, 肿瘤中存在TCA相关代谢酶突变的情况, 提示了在这些肿瘤组织中, 可能存在TCA中间产物的累积。那么, 后者是否能够作为信号分子促进肿瘤细胞和固有免疫细胞的交互, 目前尚缺乏系统性认识。
氨基酸是合成蛋白质的原料, 也能够作为其他代谢通路的原料调控固有免疫细胞的代谢过程。近来, 越来越多的研究提示, 氨基酸能作为信号分子激活信号通路, 调控固有免疫细胞的功能。此外, 在营养匮乏的肿瘤微环境中, 固有免疫细胞还能够通过氨基酸代谢剥夺特定氨基酸, 影响其他细胞的功能。对于氨基酸代谢调控肿瘤微环境中固有免疫功能, 目前研究比较多的是谷氨酰胺代谢、色氨酸代谢和精氨酸代谢。
谷氨酰胺是血液中含量最丰富的氨基酸[67]。固有免疫细胞通丙氨酸-丝氨酸-半胱氨酸转运体2 (alanine-serine-cystine transporter 2, ASCT2) 摄取环境中的谷氨酰胺。进入细胞的谷氨酰胺主要被谷氨酰胺酶(glutaminase, GLS) 水解为谷氨酸, 并进一步由谷氨酸脱氢酶(glutamate dehydrogenase, GDH) 氧化为α-KG, 进入线粒体代谢促进细胞呼吸能力, 同时也作为双加氧酶的羟基供体。GLS介导的谷氨酰胺代谢对于巨噬细胞极化的调控具有重要作用。采用GLS抑制剂BPTES, 能够显著抑制巨噬细胞M2型极化。其机制是谷氨酰胺代谢受抑制后, α-KG含量减少, 影响组蛋白去甲基化酶JMJD3介导的表观修饰作用, 从而抑制了ARG1、甘露糖受体1 (mannose receptor 1, MRC1) 等M2型相关基因的表达[39]
除了TCA循环, 谷氨酰胺也供给HBP等多个代谢通路, 对于固有免疫细胞的功能具有重要作用(图 4A)。胞内谷氨酰胺能通过谷氨酰胺6-磷酸果糖氨基转移酶(glutamine fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase, GFAT) 供给糖基化通路, 发挥免疫调控作用。IL4诱导的M2型巨噬细胞中观察到谷氨酰胺向糖基化的流向增多, 剥夺谷氨酰胺或抑制糖基化均能够减弱巨噬细胞M2型极化[12, 39], 提示了谷氨酰胺-HBP通路对于M2型巨噬细胞的重要性。此外, 剥夺谷氨酰胺能够限制NK细胞表达颗粒酶素及其细胞杀伤作用, 但BPTES并无该效应, 提示除了GLS通路, 谷氨酰胺参与的其他代谢通路也对固有免疫细胞的功能调控具有重要的意义, 值得进一步的探索[68]
对于肿瘤微环境中固有免疫细胞的谷氨酰胺代谢, 目前的认识相对较少。有研究表明肿瘤微环境中CD11b+髓系细胞对谷氨酰胺的摄取较少[17]。巨噬细胞能够响应乳酸或IL10上调谷氨酰胺合成酶(glutamine synthetase, GS) 表达[69], 在巨噬细胞中特异性敲除GS能够促进TAM抗肿瘤功能。上述结果可能提示微环境中TAM倾向于合成谷氨酰胺。此外, 胶质瘤细胞系NCH82的条件培养基能够上调TAM表达谷氨酸-半胱氨酸逆向转运体(glutamate cysteine antiporter, xCT, 又称为SLC7A11), SLC7A11通过排出谷氨酸, 摄取胱氨酸, 而胱氨酸能够维持细胞内的氧化还原平衡[69], 但是TAM上调SLC7A11表达的生物学意义尚不明确。
综上所述, 谷氨酰胺的多种代谢途径均能影响固有免疫细胞功能。此外, 谷氨酰胺还是多种转氨酶的底物, 细胞利用转氨作用合成氨基酸, 以维持细胞内氨基酸的供给。但是, 谷氨酰胺相关的转氨作用如何影响固有免疫细胞的功能, 还有待进一步揭示。
谷氨酰胺代谢的抑制剂的研发已经受到关注, 如谷氨酰胺酶抑制剂BPTES、CB839及谷氨酰胺类似物6-重氮-5-氧代-L-正亮氨酸(L-6-diazo-5-oxonorleucine, DON) 及其前药JHU083, 均在临床前研究中展现出良好的抗肿瘤活性[70-72]。CB839已经进入了临床研究, 但是对其作用机制的认识仍主要基于肿瘤细胞自身。目前, 仅有零星临床前研究报道了谷氨酰胺抑制剂对免疫功能的调节作用。如在临床前模型中发现, DON能够抑制多个谷氨酰胺相关代谢通路, 直接作用于MDSC能导致其凋亡; 将其前药JHU083用于小鼠乳腺癌肺转移模型治疗, 能够增敏免疫检查点抑制剂[73]
色氨酸是一类必需氨基酸, 从细胞外摄取获得。色氨酸及其相关代谢物的免疫调节作用已有了比较明晰的认识。M2型巨噬细胞、MDSC、耐受型DC细胞、TAM等固有免疫细胞表达的吲哚-2, 3-双加氧酶(indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase 1, IDO1) 和TDO2能代谢色氨酸产生N-甲基犬尿氨酸(N-formylkynurenine)。近年来的研究发现, 这些固有免疫细胞还能表达L型氨基酸氧化酶IL4I1 (interleukin 4-induced gene 1), 将色氨酸代谢产生吲哚-3-丙酮酸。N-甲基犬尿氨酸和吲哚-3-丙酮酸均能进一步代谢为KYN[74]
肿瘤微环境固有免疫细胞代谢色氨酸对于免疫调控发挥着重要的作用(图 4B)。肿瘤微环境中的TAM、DC细胞、MDSC等固有免疫细胞能与CD8+ T细胞竞争色氨酸, 导致CD8+ T细胞可及的色氨酸减少。CD8+ T细胞内色氨酸供给不足导致细胞内游离的tRNA增多, 这些tRNA通过与GCN2 (general control nonderepressible 2) 蛋白结合, 激活下游通路, 导致CD8+ T细胞发生周期阻滞[75, 76]。同时, TAM等细胞产生的色氨酸的代谢产物KYN, 通过激活AHR, 调控多种免疫抑制基因的表达[77], 包括上调程序性死亡受体1 (programmed cell death protein 1, PD1) 表达促进CD8+ T细胞耗竭[78]; 诱导调节性T细胞(regulatory T cell, Treg) 分化[79]; 下调NK细胞p46相关蛋白(natural killer cell p46-related protein, NKp46) 和NKG2D等杀伤相关分子的表达, 限制NK细胞的细胞杀伤作用[80]; 促进DC细胞和巨噬细胞对Treg的诱导能力[81, 82]。值得注意的是, KYN能通过AHR不依赖的方式, 调控肿瘤细胞对铁死亡激活剂的耐受性[83], 提示了KYN能够通过AHR不依赖的方式发挥作用, 但是这一机制是否在固有免疫细胞中发生, 目前尚不明确。
色氨酸代谢体现出的强大的免疫抑制作用, 引起了领域内对于这一类靶点抑制剂开发的关注。其中IDO抑制剂的研发最为活跃。临床前研究中发现, IDO1抑制剂能够增敏免疫检查点抑制剂的疗效, 推动多个靶向IDO1的代谢抑制剂(epacadostat、indoximod、navoximod) 先后进入了临床试验。临床Ⅱ期试验显示出epacadostat和anti-PD1抗体pembrolizumab联用对于晚期黑色素瘤患者有效。但后续临床Ⅲ期试验, 却发现相比于单独使用pembrolizumab, epacadosta和pembrolizumab联合使用并不能使患者进一步获益。目前, 这一临床试验失败的原因, 尚未有明确的结论。其中一种可能是, TDO2和IL4I1作为IDO1的同工酶, 可能代偿了IDO1的作用, 从而导致IDO1抑制剂的治疗失败。
精氨酸是一类“半必需”氨基酸, 即细胞虽然能够合成精氨酸, 但是不足以供给其使用, 因此也需要从外源摄取精氨酸以满足需求。精氨酸在固有免疫细胞内主要有以下两种代谢方式(图 4A): ①通过ARG分解为鸟氨酸, 后者通过鸟氨酸脱酸酶(ornithine decarboxylase, ODC) 的脱羧作用, 参与多胺的合成; ②通过iNOS分解为一氧化氮(NO) 和瓜氨酸。
精氨酸代谢对于巨噬细胞的功能调控机制的研究较为深入。精氨酸代谢模式对于巨噬细胞的极化有着重要的作用。M1型巨噬细胞通过iNOS代谢精氨酸, 产生NO和瓜氨酸。NO一方面发挥着促进炎症的作用; 另一方面能够造成线粒体损伤, 抑制M1型巨噬细胞向M2型极化转变[84]。瓜氨酸能够与JAK2发生结合, 抑制JAK2-STAT1信号通路, 减弱M1极化相关基因的表达, 对M1巨噬细胞起负向调控作用[85]。M2型巨噬细胞则通过ARG1代谢精氨酸, 产生鸟氨酸, 后者参与合成多胺, 经过两步反应合成亚精胺, 促进真核翻译起始因子5A (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A, eIF5A) 尾下素修饰(hypusination), 促进OXPHOs相关蛋白的翻译, 维持TCA循环和电子传递链的完整性, 正向调控M2型极化[86]
在肿瘤微环境中, TAM、MDSC、耐受型DC细胞均表达ARG1。这些细胞与CD8+ T细胞和NK细胞形成竞争精氨酸的关系, 导致CD8+ T细胞和NK细胞精氨酸缺乏(图 4B)。精氨酸缺乏能够抑制mTOR通路的激活, 而该通路的激活对于CD8+ T细胞和NK细胞发挥抗肿瘤功能至关重要[87, 88]。此外, 精氨酸缺乏还能激活CD8+ T细胞内GCN2通路, 抑制CD8+ T细胞激活和增殖[89, 90]。采用ARG1抑制剂CB1158, 能够解除髓系细胞介导的免疫抑制, 恢复CD8+ T细胞对精氨酸的可及性, 增强其他免疫治疗的效果[91]。CB1158联合anti-PD1抗体治疗实体瘤目前正处于临床Ⅱ期试验中。此外, 采用ODC抑制剂α-二氟甲基鸟氨酸(α-difuoromethylornithine, DFMO) 能够解除TAM和MDSC的免疫抑制功能, 促进过继T细胞疗法(adoptive T cell therapy, ACT) 和anti-PD1的效果[92, 93]
虽然目前的研究初步认识到氨基酸代谢能够调控固有免疫细胞的多方面的功能。但是除了上述4种氨基酸, 其他氨基酸及相关的代谢如何影响固有免疫细胞, 目前尚不明晰。此外, 在诸多临床前研究中证明, 干预固有免疫细胞的氨基酸代谢, 重塑其免疫功能, 具有抗肿瘤的潜力。但是, 目前尚无氨基酸代谢抑制剂成功上市。考虑到氨基酸种类的多样性, 及不同氨基酸代谢通路之间可能存在的互补, 固有免疫细胞是否可能通过代谢重塑以适应氨基酸代谢抑制剂的干预, 影响抑制剂的效果, 但这一问题, 目前尚缺乏相关研究。
脂质是重要的能量物质, 也是生物膜的重要组成部分。在固有免疫细胞中, 脂质代谢产生的脂质类, 还可以作为信号分子, 调控细胞功能。目前的研究主要集中于脂肪酸和胆固醇。
FAO是细胞利用脂肪酸产能的重要代谢途径。固有免疫细胞能够通过CD36等脂肪酸转运蛋白结合肿瘤微环境中的脂蛋白, 进而通过脂解作用(lipolysis) 分解脂蛋白产生自由脂肪酸。胞质中的脂肪酸在脂酰CoA合成酶(acyl CoA synthetase) 的催化下与辅酶A结合, 生成脂酰辅酶A。后者进一步由肉碱棕榈酰转移酶1A (carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1A, CPT1A) 催化转变为脂酰肉碱。脂酰肉碱通过定位于线粒体内膜肉碱转位酶(carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase, CAT) 转位至线粒体内进一步由CPT2转变为脂酰辅酶A。后者通过β-氧化反应分解, 产生ATP为细胞供能, 并产生乙酰辅酶A供给TCA循环[94]
目前的研究认识到, M2型巨噬细胞呈现出依赖FAO的代谢特征。IL4能够激活巨噬细胞中STAT6和过氧化酶增殖因子活化受体共激活因子1β (peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 β, PPARG1β) 介导的转录活动, 促进FAO相关基因表达上调[95]。FAO促进M2型巨噬细胞氧化磷酸化, 为细胞供能, 维持M2型极化[9]
在肿瘤微环境中, 肿瘤来源的信号分子等能上调髓系细胞中FAO相关代谢酶的表达(图 5A)。如黑色素瘤细胞释放Wnt5a, 通过激活FZD (Frizzled) 受体, 促进β-catenin介导的转录活动, 上调FAO相关基因表达。FAO为TCA循环提供了乙酰辅酶A, 促进琥珀酰辅酶A累积, 后者作为原料促进原卟啉Ⅸ (protoporphyrin Ⅸ) 合成, 原卟啉Ⅸ是IDO发挥酶活的必需组分。这一机制促进了FAO介导的DC对Treg的诱导效应[96]。而干预FAO则能够改变这些免疫细胞的免疫功能, 采用CPT1A抑制剂etomoxir能阻断DC细胞对Treg的诱导效应, 并增强anti-PD1对黑色素瘤的疗效[96]。相似地, etomoxir能够抑制MDSC的免疫抑制功能, 增敏anti-PD1的疗效[97]。这些发现为FAO抑制剂用于肿瘤免疫治疗提供了重要的信息。
除了氧化供能, 脂肪酸也能够影响固有免疫细胞内信号通路, 调控免疫功能。如外源脂肪酸通过抑制mTOR通路限制NK细胞的杀伤能力[98]。此外, 有研究发现, 氧化型脂肪被DC细胞摄取后, 能够共价结合HSP70, 抑制MHCI膜转位, 从而抑制DC细胞的抗原递呈能力[99], 提示脂肪酸与蛋白质互作也是一种影响固有免疫细胞功能的机制。
基于脂肪酸摄取对固有免疫的关键调控作用, 干预脂肪酸摄取也被认为是一种潜在的免疫调控手段。研究表明采用CD36阻断剂能够抑制MDSC的免疫抑制能力[100]。类似地, 在小鼠肺癌、结直肠癌等模型中观察到, 采用脂肪酸转运体蛋白2 (fatty acid transporter protein 2, FATP2) 抑制剂lipofermata减少MDSC对花生四烯酸的摄取及前列腺素E2 (prostaglandin E2, PGE2) 产生, 对anti-CTLA4治疗具有增敏作用[101]。另外, 肿瘤细胞活跃的脂质代谢是微环境中的脂肪酸累积的重要原因。因此, 除了干预免疫细胞摄取脂肪酸, 干预肿瘤脂肪酸合成也是一种可行手段。使用脂肪酸合成酶(fatty acid synthase, FASN) 抑制剂TVB2640、乙酰辅酶A羧化酶(acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1, ACC1) 抑制剂TOFA, 限制肿瘤细胞的脂肪酸合成, 减少固有免疫细胞对脂质的摄取, 也能够激活DC细胞的抗原递呈功能, 促进抗肿瘤免疫[102, 103]
此外, 目前的研究主要聚焦于DC细胞、巨噬细胞等髓系细胞, 但是脂肪酸如何影响NK细胞等固有免疫细胞, 目前尚不明晰。
PGE2是目前研究最多的一类具有重要抗炎作用的脂质信号分子。髓系细胞通过表达环氧化酶2 (cyclooxygenase 2, COX2) 催化花生四烯酸生成PGE2。PGE2通过被前列腺素E2受体亚型1~4 (prostaglandin E receptor subtypes 1-4, EP1~EP4) 感知, 促进第二信使cAMP合成, 调控信号转导, 发挥免疫调节作用(图 5B)。
肿瘤微环境中的TAM、DC细胞、MDSC高表达COX2, 是肿瘤微环境中PGE2的重要来源[104]。PGE2能够调控微环境中多种免疫细胞的功能, 包括以NF-κB依赖的方式促进MDSC分化[104, 105]; 通过上调CXCR4促进MDSC浸润, 上调PD-L1表达, 促进肿瘤对多柔比星的耐药[106-108]。此外, PGE2还能够抑制NK细胞分泌IL12、IL15、IFNγ等细胞因子, 限制NK细胞介导抗肿瘤效应[109]; 并能够诱导DC细胞耐受表型[110]。COX2抑制剂celecoxib最初应用于类风湿性关节炎的治疗, 近年来其抗肿瘤效应也受到广泛关注。临床前模型发现, celecoxib能够抑制肿瘤微环境中MDSC浸润, 恢复NK细胞效应能力[111]。联用anti-CD40和celecoxib对于胶质瘤有治疗作用[112]。EP2/EP4拮抗剂能够有效阻断PGE2下游的信号通路, 激活抗肿瘤免疫, NK细胞贡献了这类抑制剂的疗效[109]
胆固醇(cholesterol) 是生物膜成分的重要组成部分。以往的研究提示, 生物膜中的胆固醇能够通过影响膜流动性、合成脂筏、调控信号通路等方式影响固有免疫细胞的功能。胆固醇介导的生物膜流动性对于免疫功能十分重要。一项基于黑色素瘤模型的研究表明, 黑色素瘤来源的葡糖神经酰胺等能上调TAM胆固醇合成, 胆固醇能掺入内质网(endoplasmic reticulum, ER), 改变内质网的脂质组成, 减弱内质网流动性, 导致内质网应激(ER stress), 促进免疫抑制基因表达[113]
胆固醇的含量还能影响细胞膜脂筏的形成, 进而影响膜上受体的寡聚等, 影响免疫信号通路。卵巢癌来源的透明质酸能够促进TAM胆固醇外排, 造成细胞膜脂筏的减少, 同时促进了IL4-IL4R介导的信号通路, 但是否由于细胞膜脂筏的减少导致IL4-IL4R介导的信号通路增强, 目前尚不明确[114]
细胞膜中的胆固醇含量能直接影响信号通路。7-脱氢胆甾醇在细胞膜的累积能够激活胞内磷脂酰肌醇激酶(phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, PI3K) 信号通路, 促进环磷酸鸟苷-磷酸腺苷合成酶(cyclic GMP-AMP synthase, cGAS) 下游转录因子IRF3的磷酸化及核转位, 进而促进IFNβ转录。但是, 7-脱氢胆甾醇如何影响AKT尚不明确[115]
此外, 固有免疫细胞的胆固醇能够通过三磷酸腺苷结合盒转运体A1 (ATP binding cassette subfamily A member 1, ABCA1) 外排, 介导细胞间的互动。近年来, 肿瘤微环境中这种互相作用引起人们极大的兴趣。在肺癌患者样本中发现, 肿瘤微环境中的TAM的胆固醇含量低于癌旁组织[116]。这一现象可能与TAM外排胆固醇有关。多种肿瘤来源的活性分子, 如乳腺癌细胞来源透明质酸、前列腺癌来源集落刺激因子1 (colony stimulating factor 1, CSF1) 均能促进TAM中胆固醇外排[114, 117]。外排的胆固醇被前列腺癌细胞摄取用于合成二氢睾酮, 促进雄激素受体(androgen receptor, AR) 的核转位及靶基因的转录, 继而促进前列腺癌细胞的增殖[117] (图 5C)。固有免疫细胞外排的胆固醇是否对肿瘤微环境的其他细胞有调控作用, 尚不明晰。
细胞内的多种核苷酸是重要的代谢原料。核苷酸作为DNA合成的底物, 直接贡献于固有免疫细胞的增殖。此外, 一些核苷酸类似物, 如烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD+)、腺苷也被发现具有免疫调控的作用。
核苷酸是DNA合成的原料, 对于细胞增殖至关重要。终末分化的固有免疫细胞大多不具备增殖能力, 但是部分细胞的活化过程伴随着其增殖能力的提升, 因此依赖于核苷酸合成。如NK细胞的活化、DC和MDSC的前体在骨髓中均有增殖现象。有研究发现, 在肿瘤微环境中, MDSC的数量与肿瘤微环境免疫抑制的程度正相关。采用胸苷酸合成酶(thymidylate synthase, TYMS) 抑制剂5-氟尿嘧啶干预胸腺核苷酸合成, 或是用核苷酸类似物吉西他滨干预DNA合成, 能够杀伤MDSC, 促进抗肿瘤免疫[118, 119]
NAD+是细胞内最重要的代谢产物之一, 可作为反应底物或者辅因子参与细胞物质合成、能量代谢及DNA损伤修复等多种生理过程。固有免疫细胞能够以色氨酸为原料, 从头合成NAD+[120]; 也能通过补救途径以烟酰胺(NAM) 为原料, 由烟酰胺磷酸核糖转移酶(nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase, NAMPT) 转变为烟酰胺单核苷酸(nicotinamide mononucleotide, NMN), 进一步由烟酰胺单核苷酸转移酶(nicotinamide nucleotide adenylyltransferase, NMNAT) 合成NAD+[121]
固有免疫细胞在增殖、分化与发挥效应功能过程中, 伴随着高水平的物质能量消耗、活跃的转录调控等需求, 因此对这些生理过程中不可或缺的辅因子NAD+有较高的需求。与此认识一致, 不同的NAD+合成酶在固有免疫细胞激活、分化过程中都被发现表达上调[122]。NAD+补救途径合成对MDSC的正常迁移[122], M1型巨噬细胞的存活、分化与激活都具有重要的调控作用[123]; 而NAD+从头合成在M2型巨噬细胞的极化中发挥关键的作用[120]。有研究发现, 在巨噬细胞朝向M1极化时, NAD+水平发生显著的降低, 而M2极化几乎不引起NAD+水平的改变[123]。此外, 也有证据提示, 补充的NAD+合成前体能增强NK细胞的细胞杀伤功能[124]
近年来, NAD+对固有免疫细胞的功能已经有一定的认识, 主要是作为辅因子维持相关蛋白的功能。在M1型巨噬细胞极化过程中, LPS诱导巨噬细胞产生的大量ROS能引起基因组DNA发生氧化损伤, 使得细胞对DNA修复的需求增加。DNA修复酶聚腺苷酸二磷酸核糖基聚合酶[poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, PARP] 功能被激活, 消耗大量的胞内NAD+[123]。同时, 也有报道发现M1极化过程中另一个NAD+消耗酶CD38也显著上调, 而CD38的功能对巨噬细胞的极化功能至关重要[120]。此外, NAD+依赖的去乙酰化酶SIRT1参与调控髓系前体细胞的分化。研究发现, 在粒细胞集落刺激因子(granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, G-CSF) 的作用下, 胞内增加的NAD+促进SIRT1与CCAAT增强子结合蛋白a (CCAAT enhancer binding protein a, C/EBPa) 形成转录复合物, 进而促进髓系前体细胞向粒细胞分化所需的G-CSF和G-CSFR转录[125] (图 6A)。
干预NAD+的免疫治疗策略已经引起人们的关注, 目前主要聚焦于干预补救途径的限速酶NAMPT。已有临床前的证据表明, NAMPT抑制剂能够抑制骨髓中MDSC细胞的迁出, 减少瘤内MDSC的浸润, 发挥激活抗肿瘤免疫的作用[122]。此外, 新近有研发提示NAMPT还能通过不依赖NAD+的方式调控肿瘤微环境MDSC的功能, 全面阻断NAMPT的功能, 发挥比NAMPT酶活抑制剂更强的肿瘤免疫激活作用[126]
腺苷是一类被广泛研究的免疫抑制代谢物。腺苷能激活细胞表面的腺苷受体A2AR, 上调细胞内cAMP的水平, 激活下游蛋白激酶A (protein kinase A, PKA) 等信号通路, 发挥免疫调节作用[127] (图 6B)。在肿瘤组织中, TAM、MDSC、DC、NK细胞等固有免疫细胞均能表达CD38/CD39/CD73, 贡献了肿瘤微环境中腺苷的产生[127]。其中, CD39催化ATP脱去磷酸基团产生AMP。NAD+则是被CD38催化生成ADPR, 进一步由CD203催化转变为AMP。上述两种途径产生的AMP由CD73代谢生成腺苷。
腺苷与A2AR结合, 调控了微环境中多种免疫细胞功能, 如限制CD4+ T细胞增殖并促进其向Treg分化[128]、上调PD1等共抑制受体(co-inhibitory receptors) 表达导致T细胞耗竭[129]、抑制NK细胞成熟和表达IFNγ[130]、增强TAM、MDSC、DC等髓系细胞免疫抑制能力[131, 132]
目前已有多个靶向CD39、CD73、CD38、A2AR药物在临床前研究中展示出了显著的抗肿瘤活性, 并能够增加免疫治疗的疗效[133-135]。其中一部分进入了临床试验。A2AR的抑制剂AZD4635在临床试验中发现单药使用能够减缓转移性去势抵抗性前列腺癌进展[136]。采用CD73阻断剂单药治疗及与CD39阻断剂或A2AR抑制剂联合治疗的临床试验正在进行中。靶向CD38的单抗daratumumab能够杀伤表达CD38的抑制型免疫细胞, 激活抗肿瘤免疫[137], 目前已获批用于多发性骨髓瘤治疗。
固有免疫参与肿瘤发生发展的各个环节, 并影响抗肿瘤治疗的疗效。固有免疫细胞具有高度的可塑性, 其本质是机体通过双向调控, 抵抗病原入侵, 并防止过度免疫应答。肿瘤利用这一特点重塑固有免疫细胞功能, 使其朝促肿瘤的方向转变, 塑造有利于肿瘤生长的微环境。因此, 重塑固有免疫细胞的功能是一种受关注的抗肿瘤手段, 如采用anti-CD47抗体激活巨噬细胞功能[138]; 利用化疗药引起的肿瘤细胞免疫原性死亡, 激活固有免疫细胞的功能[139]等。近年来的研究认识到, 固有免疫细胞的代谢调控与免疫应答息息相关, 多种代谢通路均被发现能够调控固有免疫细胞功能, 并且代谢通路产生的代谢物通过多种机制影响着免疫应答。因此, 认识代谢通路对固有的免疫功能的调控机制, 有利于为干预代谢激活固有免疫细胞的抗肿瘤功能的治疗提供新方向。
目前的研究认识到, 糖代谢、氨基酸代谢、脂质代谢、核酸代谢的许多关键代谢物均能够影响固有免疫细胞功能。但是这一领域的研究仍然处于比较初步的阶段, 未来可能从以下几个方面开展更为全面的探索。在机制探索方面, 除了本文所涉及的代谢物之外, 已有许多代谢物对于其他细胞的作用机制被报道[140]。那么这些代谢物是否也在固有免疫细胞中发挥作用, 以及在不同的固有免疫细胞中是否发挥了不同的作用?此外, 代谢物作为代谢特征和免疫功能的中间桥梁, 分子机制的认识尚存许多空白。如脂肪酸氧化是M2巨噬细胞极化的代谢特征, 但是脂肪酸作为脂肪酸氧化的代谢底物, 其调控M2极化的具体分子机制并不明确。
其次, 如何应用这些新机制开展治疗, 也是一个颇受关注的问题。固有免疫细胞种类多样这一特征导致了同一代谢模式, 可能在不同的固有免疫细胞中, 发挥了不同的免疫调控作用。如TAM依赖于糖酵解以维持其免疫抑制功能。同时DC细胞依赖于糖酵解以维持其抗原递呈功能。相似的, 肿瘤细胞依赖糖酵解供给生存和增殖, 而NK细胞依赖于糖酵解发挥效应功能。因此, 在肿瘤微环境中, 多种细胞共存, 干预糖酵解可能同时会影响肿瘤细胞生存及TAM的免疫抑制功能, 但同时可能影响DC细胞和NK细胞的抗肿瘤功能。这一双向作用是否会影响治疗, 目前尚缺乏合理的评估手段。此外, 干预产生免疫抑制代谢物的代谢酶, 如IDO1、CD39、CD73、A2AR、ARG1, 均能够有效地激活抗肿瘤免疫。但是这一类免疫代谢酶的存在是为了避免过度免疫应答。因此其抑制剂可能导致免疫过激, 带来全身炎症等不良反应, 如肿瘤免疫检查点抑制剂治疗导致的结肠炎[141]。上述的两方面因素, 可能限制了代谢抑制剂的研发进展。因此, 需要开发更多合理的评估方式, 开展个性化药物治疗, 以最大化地实现代谢抑制剂的疗效。
值得注意的是, 固有免疫细胞代谢特征和免疫应答间的调控机制高度依赖于细胞所处环境。如M2型巨噬细胞在IL4诱导下, 体现出谷氨酰胺代谢和FAO的依赖性, 而不依赖于糖酵解[14], 并呈现出抗炎的免疫表型。但在肿瘤微环境中, 与M2型巨噬细胞具有类似功能的TAM, 却呈现出对于糖酵解通路的高度依赖。因此, 应当在特定的环境下, 精确剖析代谢特征和免疫应答调控机制。如在肿瘤研究中, 应当强调由肿瘤组织所处器官、肿瘤细胞携带的突变、肿瘤进展的阶段等所导致肿瘤微环境的差异。而后者可能对于固有免疫细胞的代谢模式及免疫功能带来决定性的影响。加深对这一问题的认识, 有助于理解微环境-代谢模式-免疫功能三者间的关联, 促进代谢抑制剂的精准应用。
综上, 探索肿瘤微环境中的固有免疫细胞的代谢通路对免疫功能的调控机制, 是肿瘤免疫领域十分重要的研究方向。对于该领域的机制探索, 能够为开发代谢抑制剂的临床应用和开发免疫治疗策略提供新的理论依据。
作者贡献: 李易泽负责相关文献的收集、文章作图及综述的撰写; 黄敏是综述框架的构思者及负责人, 指导论文写作并对论文进行了修改和检查。全体作者都阅读并同意最终的文本。
利益冲突: 所有作者均不存在利益冲突。
  • 上海市青年优秀学科带头人项目(20XD1424800)
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2022年第57卷第9期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0525
  • 接收时间:2022-04-29
  • 首发时间:2025-12-24
  • 出版时间:2022-09-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-04-29
  • 修回日期:2022-06-22
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上海市青年优秀学科带头人项目(20XD1424800)
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    1.中国科学院上海药物研究所, 新药研究国家重点实验室, 上海 201203
    2.中国科学院大学, 北京 100009

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
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genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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