Article(id=1210516648881156280, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0520, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1651161600000, receivedDateStr=2022-04-29, revisedDate=1655654400000, revisedDateStr=2022-06-20, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766539259404, onlineDateStr=2025-12-24, pubDate=1662912000000, pubDateStr=2022-09-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766539259404, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766539259404, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539259404, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210516638089212895, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2022', volume='57', issue='9', pageStart='1', pageEnd='2888', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766539256832, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539546411, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210517852726096743, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210517852726096744, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2612, endPage=2621, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210516649573216467, articleId=1210516648881156280, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progresses on NLRP3 inflammasomes-induced anti-tumor immunity, columnId=1210516639267812321, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Special Reports: Therapeutic interventions and strategies for cancer immunotherapy, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

More and more studies have shown that NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome has become the regulatory factor of inflammatory response and protective immunity, and the assembly and activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes are closely related to the anti-tumor immunity effect. Depending on the cell type and stimuli, activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome can induce immune cells to become polarized, hyperactive, or pyroptotic, releasing interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, which leads to cascade immune or inflammatory responses, and its role in tumor immunity has received extensive attention. Here, we review the mechanisms of the NLRP3 inflammasome enhancing CD8+ T cells-mediated anti-tumor immunity by inducing the pyroptosis of tumor cell, the pyroptosis or hyperactive state of dendritic cells (DCs), and the pyroptosis or polarization of the macrophages. Different anti-tumor immune roles of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in tumor cells and immune cells provide new directions for future research and may influence the development of next-generation immunotherapy.

, correspAuthors=Hong-bin DENG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2022 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Cui-cui SUN, Jing-wen DONG, Ze-an KUANG, Ming-xiao YIN, Xiao-jia LIU, Hong-bin DENG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1210516651141886224, articleId=1210516648881156280, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=NLRP3炎性小体与抗肿瘤免疫作用研究进展, columnId=1210516639397835747, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

越来越多的研究表明, NOD样受体蛋白3 (NOD-like receptor protein 3, NLRP3) 炎性小体已成为炎症反应和保护性免疫的调节因子, 其组装和激活与抗肿瘤免疫的效果密切相关。由于细胞类型和所受刺激的不同, NLRP3炎性小体的激活可诱导免疫细胞处于极化、过度活跃状态或发生焦亡, 释放白细胞介素(interleukin, IL)-1β和IL-18, 导致级联免疫或炎症反应, 其在肿瘤免疫中的作用受到了广泛关注。本综述汇总了NLRP3炎性小体通过诱导肿瘤细胞焦亡、树突状细胞(dendritic cells, DCs) 发生焦亡或过度活跃状态, 以及诱导巨噬细胞发生焦亡和极化, 增强CD8+ T细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫作用的机制。NLRP3炎性小体的激活在肿瘤细胞和免疫细胞中的不同抗肿瘤免疫作用为未来研究提供了新方向, 并且可能影响下一代免疫治疗的发展。

, correspAuthors=邓洪斌, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*邓洪斌, Tel: 86-10-63169876, E-mail:
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Chemotherapeutic drugs induce tumor cells to undergo pyroptosis, which triggers tumor cells recruit immune cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) into the tumor microenvironment by releasing adenosine triphosphate (ATP), high mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB1), tumor-associated antigens (TAA). Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in these immune cells induces them pyroptotic or hyperactive. Hyperactive immune cells bind to the corresponding receptors on the surface of T cells by releasing interleukin (IL)-1<i>β</i>, etc., and enhance the anti-tumor effect of cells such as CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells. PAMPs: Pathogen-associated molecular patterns; TLR: Toll-like receptors; LDH: Lactate dehydrogenase; GSDMD: Gasdermin D; MHC I: Major histocompatibility complex class-1; oxPLs: Oxidized phospholipids; CD: Cluster of differentiation; CCR7: Chemokine receptor 7; ASC: Apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (caspase activation and recruitment domain); TCR: T-cell receptor; IL-1R: Interleukin-1 receptor; IFN-<i>γ</i>: Interferon-<i>γ</i> , figureFileSmall=lJbMzVXUVTPKrTvlh9O7Ow==, figureFileBig=0iZ3D3PMBkCUMtm1tzKiFw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516656086971090, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516648881156280, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=1arNTFqnKheJZlDcNxdb+A==, figureFileBig=leYTbnYctmoYRtxGPcmsBQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516656233771742, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516648881156280, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in macrophages and anti-tumor immunity. 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NLRP3炎性小体与抗肿瘤免疫作用研究进展
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孙翠翠 , 董靖雯 , 况泽安 , 殷明晓 , 刘晓嘉 , 邓洪斌 *
药学学报 | 专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预 2022,57(9): 2612-2621
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药学学报 | 专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预 2022, 57(9): 2612-2621
NLRP3炎性小体与抗肿瘤免疫作用研究进展
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孙翠翠, 董靖雯, 况泽安, 殷明晓, 刘晓嘉, 邓洪斌*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 北京 100050

通讯作者:

*邓洪斌, Tel: 86-10-63169876, E-mail:
Research progresses on NLRP3 inflammasomes-induced anti-tumor immunity
Cui-cui SUN, Jing-wen DONG, Ze-an KUANG, Ming-xiao YIN, Xiao-jia LIU, Hong-bin DENG*
Affiliations
  • Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2022-09-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0520
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越来越多的研究表明, NOD样受体蛋白3 (NOD-like receptor protein 3, NLRP3) 炎性小体已成为炎症反应和保护性免疫的调节因子, 其组装和激活与抗肿瘤免疫的效果密切相关。由于细胞类型和所受刺激的不同, NLRP3炎性小体的激活可诱导免疫细胞处于极化、过度活跃状态或发生焦亡, 释放白细胞介素(interleukin, IL)-1β和IL-18, 导致级联免疫或炎症反应, 其在肿瘤免疫中的作用受到了广泛关注。本综述汇总了NLRP3炎性小体通过诱导肿瘤细胞焦亡、树突状细胞(dendritic cells, DCs) 发生焦亡或过度活跃状态, 以及诱导巨噬细胞发生焦亡和极化, 增强CD8+ T细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫作用的机制。NLRP3炎性小体的激活在肿瘤细胞和免疫细胞中的不同抗肿瘤免疫作用为未来研究提供了新方向, 并且可能影响下一代免疫治疗的发展。

NOD样受体蛋白3  /  炎性小体  /  白细胞介素-1β  /  细胞焦亡  /  树突状细胞  /  抗肿瘤免疫

More and more studies have shown that NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome has become the regulatory factor of inflammatory response and protective immunity, and the assembly and activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes are closely related to the anti-tumor immunity effect. Depending on the cell type and stimuli, activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome can induce immune cells to become polarized, hyperactive, or pyroptotic, releasing interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, which leads to cascade immune or inflammatory responses, and its role in tumor immunity has received extensive attention. Here, we review the mechanisms of the NLRP3 inflammasome enhancing CD8+ T cells-mediated anti-tumor immunity by inducing the pyroptosis of tumor cell, the pyroptosis or hyperactive state of dendritic cells (DCs), and the pyroptosis or polarization of the macrophages. Different anti-tumor immune roles of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in tumor cells and immune cells provide new directions for future research and may influence the development of next-generation immunotherapy.

NOD-like receptor protein 3  /  inflammasome  /  interleukin-1β  /  pyroptosis  /  dendritic cell  /  anti-tumor immunity
孙翠翠, 董靖雯, 况泽安, 殷明晓, 刘晓嘉, 邓洪斌. NLRP3炎性小体与抗肿瘤免疫作用研究进展. 药学学报, 2022 , 57 (9) : 2612 -2621 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0520
Cui-cui SUN, Jing-wen DONG, Ze-an KUANG, Ming-xiao YIN, Xiao-jia LIU, Hong-bin DENG. Research progresses on NLRP3 inflammasomes-induced anti-tumor immunity[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2022 , 57 (9) : 2612 -2621 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0520
机体的免疫系统利用模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors, PRRs) 感知内源性危险或外源性病原体, 并做出反应来保护宿主。自2002年炎性小体作为一种新的PRR被提出后, 近年来大量研究证明炎性小体是炎症反应和保护性免疫的调节因子[1]。目前发现的炎性小体主要有4种, 即NOD样受体蛋白1 (NOD-like receptor protein 1, NLRP1) 炎性小体、NOD样受体蛋白3 (NOD-like receptor protein 3, NLRP3) 炎性小体、NOD样受体C4 (NOD-like receptor C4, NLRC4) 炎性小体和黑色素瘤缺乏因子2 (absent in melanoma 2, AIM2) 炎性小体。其中NLRP3炎性小体的研究更为深入彻底, 其组装和激活与结肠直肠癌、胃癌和原发性和转移性乳腺肿瘤等多种肿瘤的发生发展密切相关[2], 以炎性小体为靶点的抗肿瘤免疫策略也已成为肿瘤领域的研究热点。已有研究证明NLRP3炎性小体的激活可影响细胞焦亡(pyroptosis) 或过度活跃, 通过释放白细胞介素(interleukin, IL)-1β和IL-18, 导致级联免疫或炎症反应, 影响抗肿瘤免疫[3]。本综述将介绍NLRP3炎性小体对肿瘤的调控作用和机制, 并针对不同细胞内的炎性小体激活与抗肿瘤免疫之间的研究现状和最新进展展开讨论, 为基于炎性小体的抗肿瘤新策略研究提供思路。
炎性小体是哺乳动物中一类介导先天性免疫反应的多蛋白复合物, 其最显著的功能是招募和激活含半胱氨酸的天冬氨酸蛋白水解酶-1 (cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase-1, caspase-1), 促进IL-1β和IL-18的成熟, 进而产生炎症反应。多细胞生物体的病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PAMPs) 如核酸、微生物细胞壁成分, 以及损伤相关模式(damage-associated molecular patterns, DAMPs) 如从受损的宿主细胞释放的结构部分[4]均能刺激炎性小体的组装和激活。在哺乳动物细胞中可组装形成多种炎性小体, 其中NLRP3炎性小体由NLRP3蛋白、凋亡相关斑点样蛋白(apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD, ASC) 和半胱天冬酶-1的前体(pro-caspase-1) 蛋白组成, 是目前最具特征、研究最为深入的炎性小体。
NLRP3炎性小体的组装和激活过程主要分为两步。首先, DAMPs或PAMPs被Toll样受体4 (Toll-like receptor 4, TLR4) 识别, 激活核因子κB (nuclear factor kappa-B, NF-κB) 通路, 导致NLRP3和白细胞介素-1β前体(pro-IL-1β) 和白细胞介素-18前体(pro-IL-18) 的转录增加[5]。随后, 在免疫和炎症分子如细菌和病毒的核酸、腺苷三磷酸(adenosine triphosphate, ATP)、尿酸、β-淀粉样蛋白、空气污染物、胆固醇晶体和氧化磷脂(oxidized phospho-lipids, oxPLs) 等进一步刺激下, NLRP3蛋白发生低聚化, 并和ASC、pro-caspase-1组装形成NLRP3炎性小体[6]。NLRP3炎性小体的形成导致pro-caspase-1切割形成活性形式的caspase-1, 并促进pro-IL-1β和pro-IL-18的剪切, 形成IL-1β和IL-18成熟体[7], 导致级联免疫或炎症反应。NLRP3炎性小体通过诱导免疫细胞、肿瘤细胞发生细胞焦亡或过度活跃, 建立了免疫与抗肿瘤之间的联系, 在抗肿瘤免疫过程中发挥不可忽视的作用。深入理解NLRP3炎性小体在抗肿瘤免疫作用中的分子机制, 将为促进抗肿瘤免疫提供新的视角。
细胞焦亡是一种炎症细胞程序性死亡方式, 表现为细胞不断胀大直至细胞膜丧失完整性, 导致IL-1β等细胞内容物和ATP等DAMPs的释放, 同时引起机体发生强烈的炎性免疫反应。细胞焦亡由GSDM (gasdermin) 家族介导, 包括caspase-1经典途径及caspase4/5/11和caspase3/8非经典途径[8]。NLRP3激活后可切割pro-caspase-1成活性形式的caspase-1, caspase-1进一步切割GSDMD形成GSDM-N, 通过GSDM-N的片段寡聚化并插入细胞膜, 形成内径10~20 nm的脂质双分子层孔道, 使细胞中的内容物如IL-1β释放出来[9]。细胞焦亡可发生于多种生命活动中, 当有病原体存在时, 细胞中的PRRs可感知到微生物成分如脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS) 等, 通过细胞焦亡可减少细胞内病原体的复制[10]; 当没有病原体存在时, 线粒体或溶酶体的通透性、活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 的产生增加或钾的外流等细胞活动改变也可刺激NLRP3炎性小体的激活, 进而引发细胞焦亡[11]。此外, 化疗药物、病毒等也可引发乳腺癌、结直肠癌等多种肿瘤发生细胞焦亡, 从而激活T细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫反应[12]
研究表明[13], 树突状细胞(dendritic cells, DCs) 和巨噬细胞中的NLRP3激活后还能通过细胞焦亡非依赖性途径释放IL-1β。与经典TLR激动剂相比, 这种在保持活性的同时还能分泌IL-1β、导致免疫刺激反应增强的免疫细胞, 被称为“过度活跃”的免疫细胞[14]。另外, 人单核细胞[13]、小鼠的DCs、巨噬细胞和中性粒细胞也可达到这种过度活跃状态。研究表明[15], 当暴露于LPS和可能从死亡细胞中释放的oxPLs混合物时, 小鼠DCs能连续分泌IL-1β至少4天, 即处于过度活跃状态。另外oxPLs也被称为oxPAPC (oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine), 其混合物中的不同脂质部分如占oxPAPC脂质种类10%的PGPC (1-palmitoyl-2-glutaroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) 和POVPC [1-palmitoyl-2-(5-oxovaleroyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine] 也能诱导小鼠巨噬细胞、DCs释放IL-1β; 但oxPAPC仅在DCs中表现出这种活性[15], 这可能与oxPAPC混合物中化学成分的多样性有关。也就是说, 尽管PGPC和POVPC等脂类具有很高的结构相似性(单个疏水链、1个庞大的极性头基和极性的sn-2酰基片段), 但这些碎片化的oxPLs可能会引起不同的细胞效应[16]。除oxPAPC及其组成脂质外, 细菌肽聚糖(peptidoglycan, PGN) 的N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖糖基(N-acetyl glucosamine sugar group, NAG) 部分也能刺激NLRP3炎性小体使细胞处于过度活跃状态, 一项研究证明NAG可使小鼠巨噬细胞处于过度活跃状态[17]
无论细胞发生焦亡还是保持过度活跃状态, 分泌成熟IL-1β的通道都是由GSDMD形成的[18], 那么DCs和巨噬细胞是如何保持过度活跃状态的?可能的原因有两种: ①过度活跃的细胞可能比发生焦亡的细胞有更少的膜孔道[10]。研究发现当使用GSDMD依赖的膜不透性染料在小鼠过度活跃和焦亡的巨噬细胞中进行细胞内核酸染色时, 过度活跃的巨噬细胞有更弱的染色结果。②过度活跃细胞可能通过转运必需内体分选复合物(endosomal sorting complex required for transport, ESCRT) 进行了膜修复, 填补了GSDMD孔道使细胞存活[19]。此研究发现在LPS转染小鼠骨髓来源的巨噬细胞后, GSDMD孔道的形成诱导钙内流、招募ESCRT到受损的膜区域[20]。目前, 关于NLRP3炎性小体诱导细胞焦亡或促进细胞过度活跃这两个方向的平衡机制还不明确, ESCRT介导的GSDMD孔道形成是否在其中发挥关键作用还有待进一步研究。
研究表明[21], 只要能诱导一小部分肿瘤细胞发生细胞焦亡, 就足以激发机体的炎症反应, 引发强大的抗肿瘤免疫力。NLRP3激活诱导的肿瘤细胞焦亡会释放乳酸、ATP等DAMPs和肿瘤相关抗原, 通过激活和招募巨噬细胞、DCs等免疫细胞到肿瘤组织进而调节免疫反应。NLRP3可分别通过肿瘤细胞和免疫细胞(巨噬细胞和DCs) 途径调控抗肿瘤免疫作用(图 1)。
诱导肿瘤细胞发生焦亡是目前化疗、放疗等抗肿瘤策略的一种方式。为确保自身存活、增殖, 肿瘤细胞必然会设法逃避相应的细胞死亡方式。研究表明[22], 由于功能丧失突变或炎性小体成分的表观遗传沉默, 恶性肿瘤细胞可避免焦亡。例如, 人雄激素-非依赖性前列腺肿瘤细胞低表达caspase-1蛋白; 在肺癌、乳腺癌、神经母细胞瘤和胃癌等许多人类肿瘤中, 含有半胱天冬酶募集结构域(caspase recruitment domain, CARD) 的NLRP3炎性小体ASC的表达被甲基化沉默[23]。另外, 在结直肠癌模型如偶氮甲烷/葡聚糖硫酸钠模型中, Nlrp3-/-Asc-/-Casp1-/-小鼠比野生型小鼠的肿瘤更易生长, 也就是说NLRP3炎性小体通路功能障碍会增加肿瘤负荷; 而若增加IL-18, 则可阻止Il18-/-Nlrp3-/-Casp1-/-小鼠结肠炎相关肿瘤的发生[24, 25]
位于炎性小体下游的GSDM蛋白家族是细胞焦亡的唯一执行者, 随着研究深入, 其与肿瘤发生发展的关系逐渐被揭示[26]。如成员GSDME (也被称为DFNA5) 被证明在黑色素瘤、三阴乳腺癌和结直肠癌肿瘤等小鼠肿瘤模型和人类肿瘤组织中通过诱导细胞凋亡到细胞焦亡的转换来发挥肿瘤抑制作用[27]。但肿瘤细胞也可通过甲基化表观遗传修饰和功能缺失突变两种策略来避免GSDME介导的焦亡。例如在22个人类癌症组织中, 有20个组织(人类结肠癌、胃癌、肺癌、乳腺癌、肝腺癌和黑色素瘤等) 发生了GSDME功能丧失突变[9]。在对89例原发性胃肿瘤进行GSDME甲基化模式检测时, 显示52%的胃癌Gsdme启动子异常甲基化[9]。在这种焦亡过程中, 自然杀伤细胞(natural killer cell, NK) 诱导释放细胞毒性颗粒酶-B, 其裂解肿瘤细胞内GSDME从而在细胞膜上形成孔道, 肿瘤细胞得以发生焦亡。在此过程中可能会产生保护性免疫的前馈循环, 即肿瘤细胞发生细胞焦亡会释放肿瘤抗原和DAMPs, 这些会反过来通过原位免疫应答促进CD8+ T、NK和自然杀伤T细胞(natural killer T cell, NKT) 的杀伤效应[12]。在一项研究中这一观点得到了证实, 先天NKT在同类细胞相互作用时可促使TLR刺激得到的骨髓来源树突状细胞分泌IL-1β。且通过Nlrp3-/-Casp8-/-Fas-/-小鼠模型研究发现, FasL与DCs上Fas相互作用可导致DCs内caspase-8的激活、炎性小体依赖性和非依赖性IL-1β的释放[28]。由此而见, 这一前馈循环若被充分利用, 可能会诱导非常强的T细胞反应。
研究表明[21], 在小鼠4T1乳腺肿瘤模型中利用基于苯丙硼氨酸脱甲硅烷基化作用的生物正交化学体系选择性地从纳米粒结合物中控制释放GSDMA3, 而GSDMA3在诱导15%肿瘤细胞的细胞焦亡时, 足以激发强大的抗肿瘤免疫, 并通过CD8+ T细胞清除了4T1乳腺肿瘤。值得注意的是, 纳米粒-GSDMA3偶联物和苯丙硼氨酸处理的小鼠的血清和肿瘤中IL-1β的浓度都有所增加[21]。而当IL-1β被IL-1β抗体中和时, 这种小鼠的肿瘤消退能力被强烈抑制, 因此在该模型中IL-1β对肿瘤的抑制是必不可少的[26]。由于4T1肿瘤细胞没有IL-1β的内源性表达, 但确检测到了肿瘤细胞死亡释放的oxPAPC、ATP等DAMPs, 因此推测髓系细胞可能是IL-1β的来源, 其可能通过诱导前馈循环增强了T细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫[29]
由此可见, 细胞焦亡通过增强抗肿瘤获得性免疫来抑制肿瘤细胞的生长。因此, 开发针对GSDME的治疗策略可作为抗肿瘤免疫的研究重点, 如使用DNA甲基转移酶抑制剂地西他滨可增加Gsdme的表达[30], 并可提高肿瘤细胞对某些化疗药物的敏感性。推测这可能是由于多柔比星等化疗药物能通过激活caspase-3裂解GSDME, 从而诱导HeLa、MeWo和Jurkat细胞系等人类恶性肿瘤细胞及乳腺EMT6和4T1细胞等小鼠肿瘤细胞系从凋亡到焦亡的转换[31]。此外, 去甲基化药物如地西他滨可与其他化疗药物联合使用用于治疗急性髓系白血病[32]Gsdme的表达是这种治疗方式的前提, 但若其介导的焦亡发生于非恶性肿瘤组织中也可能会造成细胞毒性。
研究发现, 与健康对照组相比, 转移性乳腺癌和黑色素瘤患者血清中乳酸脱氢酶(lactate dehydrogenase, LDH) 的含量增加, 且与患者死亡高风险具有相关性[33]。LDH是细胞损伤和细胞焦亡的标志物, 在临床上被用于指示肿瘤预后不良。而且与基线LDH患者相比, 血清LDH浓度高的癌症患者肿瘤微环境(tumor microenvironment, TME) 中的人T细胞浸润和功能是弱的, 且对检查点抑制剂没有反应, 因此血清LDH可被认为是抗肿瘤免疫力弱的候选生物标志物[34]。TME中的缺氧缺糖状态可能解释了抗肿瘤T细胞活性降低和LDH含量高的情况。然而, 尚不清楚在LDH水平升高的患者中, TME或引流淋巴结(draining lymph node, dLN) 中的髓样细胞的焦亡是否与CD8+ T细胞反应减弱有关。因此, 需要更好的临床指标来了解肿瘤细胞焦亡在抗肿瘤反应中的作用。
如前所述, DCs释放IL-1β不仅需TLR受体的激活, 还需第2个信号去刺激NLRP3炎性小体, 如肿瘤细胞焦亡释放的DAMPs[14, 35]。但若炎性小体诱导了DCs焦亡, 即使IL-1β大量释放, 也不能有效刺激T细胞介导的免疫效应。事实也如此, 在小鼠DCs-T细胞共培养的体外模型中, 使用FLT3L产生的炎症型BMDCs, 经LPS、NLRP3激动剂如明矾(十二水硫酸铝钾) 刺激后, 再负载可溶性抗原鸡卵白蛋白(ovalbumin, OVA), 与对照组相比, 其激活原始或记忆OVA特异性CD8+ T细胞的能力却很弱[36]。活体实验也支持了这一观点, 小鼠体内的炎症型DCs不能迁移到邻近的dLN和参与初始T细胞分化[36]; 当皮下注射炎症性DCs-OVA时, 也只诱导了dLN中少量的OVA特异性CD8+ T细胞。此外, 由粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子产生的炎症性BMDCs在强毒力的鼠伤寒沙门氏菌SL1344株(诱导NLRP3炎性小体激活) 存在时, 不能有效激活CD4+和CD8+ T细胞; 但当用甘氨酸预处理DCs以阻止GSDMD孔介导的细胞焦亡发生时, 则可恢复CD4+和CD8+ T细胞的活性[37]。总之, 这些发现可能解释了明矾等佐剂在癌症疫苗中使用受限的原因, 其诱导DCs发生了焦亡, 因此不能有效刺激T细胞介导的保护性免疫。
若要有效刺激适应性免疫, 需要DCs能长期保持活力。研究发现[38, 39], 当面对毒力强的病原体或炎性小体刺激物如尼日利亚菌素、ATP或FlaTox时, 与巨噬细胞相比, 小鼠常规树突状细胞(conventional dendritic cells, cDCs) 更耐受于炎性小体介导的焦亡, 它们较低地表达炎性小体体系相关成分, 包括NLRP3、ASC、caspase-1和pro-IL-1β。另外发现DCs耐受焦亡也可能与cDC1s中的转录因子IRF8或cDC2s中的IRF4相关, 这些IRFs可与炎性小体相关基因包括Nlrp3Il1bAim2的启动子区域结合导致其转录抑制[39], 因此被鉴定为小鼠cDCs内炎性小体活动的负调节因子。
过去的大多数研究认为, 炎性小体主要通过诱导细胞焦亡增强适应性免疫, 近期才发现其也可刺激细胞过度活跃从而引起免疫反应。研究表明皮下注射的过度活跃DCs在保留其炎性小体活性如分泌IL-1β时, 还具有从皮肤向dLNs迁移的较强能力[36, 40]。因此小鼠高活性DCs不仅具有分泌肿瘤坏死因子-α (tumor necrosis factor-α, TNF-α) 和IL-6、共刺激分子上调和抗原递呈等经典激活DCs的特征, 也可向dLNs过度迁移、向CD8+ T细胞提供IL-1β[36]。若负载可溶性抗原, 高活性DCs不仅可激活抗原特异性CD8+ T细胞、增强干扰素-γ (interferon-γ, IFN-γ) 分泌、杀伤肿瘤细胞等细胞毒性CD8+ T细胞反应, 还可诱导产生长寿的抗肿瘤CD8+ T细胞[36]。而当DCs内Nlrp3Ccr7基因被敲除时, 这种T细胞刺激能力便消失[36]。另外, 在小鼠模型中, oxPAPC或oxPAPC的部分成分PGPC激活NLRP3炎性小体后得到的小鼠过度活跃DCs可增强细胞毒性CD8+ T细胞免疫能力, 产生持久的抗肿瘤CD8+ T细胞应答, 进而可消除已建立的CT26结肠癌等热肿瘤或肺腺癌LLC1等冷肿瘤[40]。这种强大的抗肿瘤保护反应取决于高活性DCs的独特优势, 其一是携带着全肿瘤裂解物抗原(whole tumor lysate, WTL) 具有更强的向dLNs迁移能力; 其二在淋巴组织中能持续分泌IL-1β, 启动de novo T细胞和激活记忆T细胞, 且有助于建立长寿的肿瘤特异性CD8+ T循环和驻留记忆细胞[36]。值得注意的是, 并不是所有的NLRP3激动剂都具有抗肿瘤免疫力, 如促进焦亡的炎性小体刺激物如明矾诱导弱的DC功能、减弱抗原交叉提呈, 即炎症型DCs不能有效地刺激抗肿瘤CD8+ T细胞[36]。因此DCs中诱导其炎症型与非炎症型的炎性小体活动在产生抗原特异性CD8+ T细胞和抗肿瘤时具有不同潜力。最近从健康成年人的外周血单核细胞(peripheral blood mononuclear cells, PBMCs) 中分离得到人cDC2细胞, 用R848和L8-MDP刺激后, 也可同时分泌IL-1β和IL-12, 从而促进1型辅助性T (T-helper 1, Th1) 细胞和Th17细胞的体外分化[41]。与小鼠相似, 这些研究表明人类过度活跃的DCs也可诱导细胞内病原体特异性的保护性T细胞反应, 为增强抗肿瘤免疫等提供了新思路。
上文提到的WTL也被推测和研究作为新的免疫原用于增强抗肿瘤免疫。在小鼠预防性或治疗性免疫研究中发现, 高激活刺激物LPS和PGPC对复杂的肿瘤抗原如WTL表现出很强的佐剂活性。并且这种细胞溶解产物WTL作为抗原来源物质提供了各种突变和异常表达的肿瘤特异性抗原, 可刺激肿瘤抗原特异性T细胞的许多功能[42, 43]。因此, 不可知来源的新抗原如WTL, 或许可与高激活刺激物一起使用, 作为一种潜在的免疫治疗策略[36]。在一项研究[36]中, 用来自B16-OVA细胞系的WTL或用纯新抗原如OVA和LPS、PGPC一起免疫小鼠时都能有效清除肿瘤, 但WTL的使用在B16-OVA细胞再次攻击小鼠时, 对小鼠有更好的保护作用。因此在设计个性化癌症疫苗时, 使用多种达20个肽的新抗原可能有更多的益处, 能刺激更强的保护性免疫反应。
另外, DCs中的NLRP3炎性小体也是一些化疗药物发挥抗肿瘤活性的基础。例如在CT26结肠癌和B16F10黑色素瘤模型中, 奥沙利铂和蒽环霉素可通过DCs激活细胞毒性CD8+ T细胞应答、诱导杀伤肿瘤细胞, 且使用Casp1-/-小鼠验证了NLRP3炎性小体激活的caspase-1是实现这种细胞应答的关键[44, 45]。首先化疗药物诱导肿瘤细胞死亡释放DAMPs, 被DCs上的P2X7受体感知后, 能激活NLRP3炎性小体和分泌IL-1β[46, 47]。然后IL-1β通过与CD8+ T细胞上IL-1受体(interleukin-1 receptor, IL-1R) 作用诱导细胞毒性CD8+ T细胞反应, 从而清除皮下移植的EL4或EG7胸腺瘤、MCA205纤维肉瘤和CT26结肠癌等肿瘤[29]。在这些肿瘤模型中, 若P2rx7或关键的NLRP3炎性小体成分Nlrp3-/-Pycard-/-Casp1-/-基因被敲除, 小鼠会对奥沙利铂或多柔比星没有反应, 只能诱导出弱的抗肿瘤CD8+ T细胞反应[29]。同样地, 使用anakinra[48] (一种阻断IL-1α和IL-1β信号的IL-1R拮抗剂) 或IL-1β中和抗体来阻断IL-1信号, 也会降低蒽环类药物在AT3、H2N100和EO771乳腺肿瘤及MCA205纤维肉瘤等多种肿瘤模型中的化疗效率[29]。若用奥沙利铂处理的EG7细胞和重组IL-1皮下注射免疫小鼠, 通过测定IFN-γ的分泌发现其可完全恢复Nlrp3-/-Casp1-/-宿主中CD8+ T细胞的缺陷[29]。因此, DCs分泌的IL-1β在肿瘤模型药物化疗期间对CD8+ T细胞免疫的建立过程中发挥关键作用。在人相关研究中也表明, 与携带正常等位基因的人相比, 乳腺癌患者P2X7R等位基因(Glu496Ala) 的多态性功能缺失降低了P2RX7对ATP的亲和力且减缓了人类单核细胞中IL-1β的释放[49], 因此能更快地出现肿瘤转移。值得注意的是, 化疗药物是ROS的强大刺激因子, ROS可诱导产生包括PGPC在内的oxPLs的混合物[16]。某些化疗药物增强抗肿瘤CD8+ T细胞反应的作用可能部分来自于其促进释放oxPLs, 使DCs保持过度活跃状态(如过度迁移到dLN和产生IL-1β)[36]
与DCs相似, DAMPs或PAMPs也可激活巨噬细胞内NLRP3炎性小体, 使巨噬细胞处于过度活跃状态, 在不引起细胞焦亡时也可分泌IL-1β[50], 从而发挥抗肿瘤作用。另一方面, 巨噬细胞内的炎性小体也能帮助肿瘤细胞逃避免疫监视[51], 如结直肠癌部位的乳酸除作为DAMPs激活巨噬细胞内的炎性小体, 还通过上调ROS或通过TGF-β抑制炎性小体的激活, 从而建立起巨噬细胞内炎性小体活动与肿瘤发生进展之间复杂的联系[52]。单核巨噬细胞系统受局部环境的影响如细菌的LPS或细胞因子IFN-γ等, 可分化为促炎M1型和抗炎M2型两种功能表型。其中M1表型具有吞噬和抗原提呈活性, 产生Th1激活的细胞因子, 并介导细胞毒功能, 具有抗癌活性。而M2型被认为具有肿瘤支持、血管生成和免疫抑制作用, 帮助形成促进肿瘤存活和生长的肿瘤微环境。近年来的研究表明, 巨噬细胞的极化可参与到多种疾病的发生发展和治疗中。在非酒精性脂肪性肝炎中, TGR5信号通路减弱肝脏脂肪变性和炎症, 抑制NLRP3介导的M1巨噬细胞极化[53], 以及二甲双胍通过调节腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶(adenosine-monophosphate activated-protein kinase, AMPK)/哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin, mTOR) 通路抑制NLRP3炎性小体激活, 促进M2巨噬细胞极化, 促进创面愈合等[54]。肿瘤微环境的肿瘤相关巨噬细胞主要为M2型, 因此推测在肿瘤组织中巨噬细胞内炎性小体的激活与其表型的极化有关, 可能通过激活巨噬细胞内的炎性小体促进巨噬细胞的M1型极化从而发挥抗肿瘤免疫作用(图 2)。研究表明巨噬细胞中的NLRP3信号通路能促进CD4+ T细胞分化为促肿瘤Th2细胞、Th17细胞和调节性T细胞群, 同时抑制Th1细胞极化和细胞毒性CD8+ T细胞活化[55]。此外, 肿瘤细胞中NLRP3激活后产生的IL-1β能帮助建立M2巨噬细胞、髓系来源的抑制细胞等免疫抑制环境, 而当肿瘤细胞来源的NLRP3信号通路被阻断时, 肿瘤内浸润和CD8+细胞毒性T细胞被活化, 减弱了胰腺肿瘤的生长[56]; 因此, 在一些细胞因子作用下, NLRP3炎性小体激活可调控巨噬细胞极化方向从而介导抗肿瘤免疫。
一些化疗药物可通过影响巨噬细胞内NLRP3炎性小体活性, 使其分泌IL-1β或促进巨噬细胞向M1极化等增强T细胞反应, 抑制肿瘤的进展。例如抗肿瘤药物甲苯咪唑可诱导早幼粒细胞HL-60细胞表达富含与M1型激活有关的基因[57]; 且处理的THP-1单核细胞也具有M1表型的基因表达、表面标记和细胞因子释放特征。分化的THP-1巨噬细胞和HT29结肠肿瘤细胞的共培养模型也证明了甲苯咪唑通过ERK1/2和TLR8依赖的炎性小体激活单核/巨噬细胞M1表型, 从而发挥肿瘤抑制作用[57]。但是诱导巨噬细胞向M1型极化可能会导致慢性炎症, 因此在通过控制巨噬细胞极化来发挥抗肿瘤作用时, 考虑两者之间的平衡或药物作用时间等就显得尤为重要。
NLRP3激活后分泌的IL-1β是T细胞发挥作用过程中重要的调节因子, 参与T细胞的分化、长寿记忆T细胞生成、增强效应T细胞功能等[58, 59]。IL-1β可与T细胞固有的IL-1R结合, 通过髓系分化主要反应蛋白88 (myeloid differentiation primary response 88, MyD88) 信号途径激活信号转导子和转录激活子(signal transducer and activator of transcription, STATs) 和其他转录因子[60], 从而诱导人和小鼠的初始T细胞极化为辅助性T细胞[61]。IL-1R在初始和记忆性CD4+和CD8+ T细胞上都有表达, IL-1β与相应细胞上的IL-1R相互结合后, 不仅可激活预先存在的人和小鼠记忆CD4+ T细胞、增强CD4+ T细胞的效应功能如产生IFN-γ等, 还可促进抗原特异性CD8+ T细胞的增殖和多功能化[62]。例如急性淋巴细胞性脉络从脑膜炎病毒感染的小鼠模型中的IL-1β增强了记忆性特异性CD8+ T细胞的增殖, 并在病毒再次攻击时产生了强大的效应CD8+ T细胞反应如细胞毒性、细胞因子的产生等[63]。另外值得注意的是, 用弗氏完全佐剂和明矾等佐剂免疫后可产生IL-1β, 因此推测IL-1β在弱免疫原免疫过程中可能起到了有效的佐剂作用, 在接受李斯特菌活疫苗的小鼠实验、使用多肽疫苗对抗人乳头瘤病毒转化的肺上皮TC1小鼠肿瘤模型实验中都支持这一观点[64]。许多研究发现IL-1β在诱导保护性抗肿瘤CD8+ T细胞免疫中也发挥重要作用。例如, 皮下注射重组IL-1β, 可增强CD8+ T细胞的抗肿瘤功能, 使已建立的B16黑色素瘤消退[65]; 暴露于IL-1β的CD8+ T细胞增强了效应基因的表达如GzmaPrf1Il2raId2和促生存基因如Il7rBcl2, 使CD8+ T细胞具有了效应特征和持久性, 在抗原再次入侵时有强大的效应[66]。此外, 在小鼠皮下注射种植的骨髓瘤和B细胞淋巴瘤模型中, IL-1β是Th1细胞清除肿瘤并在肿瘤注射部位分泌IL-2和IFN-γ所必需的[67]。IL-1β在T细胞活化过程中的佐剂特性可能源于其能将炎症细胞招募到炎症部位, 并诱导抗原提呈细胞的成熟。事实上, 有研究表明IL-1β可通过提高小鼠DCs的功能来增强T细胞依赖的免疫功能[68, 69]。IL-1β可增强T细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫。
研究发现NLRP3炎性小体及介导释放的IL-1β在肿瘤发生和进展中具有促癌和抑癌的双重作用。这可能与其释放方式(如从细胞焦亡的细胞中爆发性释放或从高活性DCs持续释放)、分泌IL-1β的组织位置(如在TME或dLNs) 及组织中表达IL-1R细胞的丰度等有关。胃癌、头颈鳞癌、乳腺癌等肿瘤TME的IL-1β可通过促进肿瘤细胞更新和免疫抑制等方式促进肿瘤部位血管的生成和恶化[70]。此外, 鼠的髓系来源的抑制细胞在TME中也会分泌IL-1β, 进一步促进血管生成[71]。类似地, 癌症相关的成纤维细胞也可感应DAMPs、激活人和小鼠中的NLRP3炎性小体通路、导致IL-1β的分泌, 从而促进乳腺癌的生长和转移[72]
相反, IL-1β在肿瘤远端却可增强T细胞杀伤肿瘤能力、诱导肿瘤消退。如将重组IL-1β皮下注射到B16黑色素瘤荷瘤小鼠的肿瘤远端区域, 可改善过继转移的肿瘤特异性CD8+ T细胞的抗肿瘤功能, 诱导肿瘤消退[66]。此外, 在小鼠Lewis肺癌模型中, 肌肉注射IL-1β减少了肺转移的数量, 发挥抑制肿瘤转移的作用[73]。但这些研究只证实了外源性IL-1β在推动CD8+ T细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫中的重要性, 直到最近才开始研究内源性IL-1β的保护性作用。例如, 在B16黑色素瘤小鼠模型的健康淋巴结中, 内源性过度活跃DCs可分泌IL-1β、诱导循环和驻留的细胞毒性CD8+ T细胞, 从而在肿瘤接种后很长一段时间内持续消除肿瘤[36]。此外, 皮下注射的高活性DCs可迁移到邻近的dLNs, 并在数天内产生炎性小体依赖的IL-1β并发挥作用; 然而, 目前尚不清楚这些过度活跃DCs是否迁移到了TME并调节肿瘤内的反应。值得注意的是, 与IL-1β类似, 炎性小体活动导致的细胞焦亡或过度活跃在肿瘤发生中也起着双重作用: 不仅可抑制肿瘤的发生和发展, 也可通过引发炎症和释放炎症介质形成有利于肿瘤进展的微环境[74]。由于炎性小体活动具有细胞类型特异性和组织依赖性, 因此作者认为利用特定细胞类型和特定组织的基因操作代替全身基因敲除方法来研究肿瘤和免疫细胞内炎性小体对抗肿瘤免疫的影响才具有重要意义。
炎性小体介导的抗肿瘤作用受多种因素影响, 包括: ①炎性小体刺激物的特点; ②响应的细胞类型(DCs、巨噬细胞和肿瘤细胞等); ③炎性小体使细胞发生焦亡或使其处于过度活跃状态; ④分泌炎性小体产物的组织(TME或dLNs)。但仍缺乏对细胞在炎性小体激活的下游分子水平上发生焦亡或过度活跃的深入了解。IL-1β是抗肿瘤CD8+ T细胞活性的重要调节因子, 在肿瘤免疫治疗或联合化疗时, 当治疗目标是激活T细胞反应时, 应避免使用会抑制IL-1β的药物。目前炎性小体在肿瘤细胞内的作用仍存在争议, 已有研究表明炎性小体的异常激活会促进乳腺癌、胃癌等多种肿瘤的发生、恶化[75]; 但通过诱导炎性小体激活也可导致肿瘤细胞焦亡和原位免疫; 因此刺激或抑制炎性小体都可能作为肿瘤免疫治疗的靶点。由于NLRP3炎性小体信号通路的复杂级联反应, 包括NLRP3炎性小体的激活和组装、caspase-1的激活、GSDMD的裂解过程、相关炎性细胞因子等均可作为NLRP3炎性小体通路潜在抑制剂和激活剂的靶点。且目前已有格列本脲、VX-765、MCC950等多种潜在的NLRP3炎性小体通路抑制剂[76]及尼日利亚菌素[75]等潜在激活剂正在体外体内实验的不同研究过程中。
明矾、QS-21、MF-59和AS03等是目前临床上广泛应用的几种疫苗佐剂, 炎性小体的激活是其作用机制之一[77]。研究发现虽然这些佐剂促进了强大和持久的体液免疫, 但促进T细胞保护性免疫反应的能力却特别弱, 甚至可能导致偏向Th2的免疫反应[78], 因此需要开发出更好更完善的肿瘤疫苗佐剂。由于DCs内的炎性小体活动导致的细胞焦亡可能会产生微弱的抗原特异性T细胞反应, 但若过度活跃却可大大增强DCs促进长寿记忆T细胞的能力, 因此在设计肿瘤疫苗时考虑佐剂激活炎性小体后是导致细胞焦亡还是过度激活是非常重要的, 可能有利于设计新的候选肿瘤疫苗佐剂和个性化疫苗的开发。例如, 或许可在肿瘤疫苗中引入氧化脂质作为佐剂, 以获得过度活跃DCs和诱导更强的抗肿瘤T细胞反应。瘤内注射药物诱导肿瘤细胞焦亡、释放肿瘤抗原诱发原位免疫, 或许可被用于替代疫苗接种, 从而有利于肿瘤的清除。
激活常驻T细胞群体, 如程序性细胞死亡蛋白1 (programmed cell death protein 1, PD-1) 阻断[79]和针对肿瘤新抗原的新T细胞产生的个性化肿瘤疫苗策略是目前用于增强抗肿瘤免疫的主要方法。在选择肿瘤新抗原时, WTL是一个非常有前景的选择, 不用进行新抗原鉴定, 且包含了肿瘤异常突变等。过度活跃DCs能独特地利用WTL诱导强大的抗肿瘤免疫, 为未来的研究开辟了新视角[80]。此外, 炎性小体在肿瘤不同发生和发展阶段的作用具有细胞特异性, 其对人体肿瘤浸润性髓系细胞和非髓系细胞激活的机制仍需进行深入研究。
作者贡献: 孙翠翠负责执笔、修改和作图; 董靖雯、况泽安、殷明晓、刘晓嘉负责调研文献、整理抑制剂相关资料; 邓洪斌负责指导、修改和审校。
利益冲突: 所有作者声明没有利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(81973366)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82003792)
  • “十四五”中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程项目(2021-I2M-1-70)
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2022年第57卷第9期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0520
  • 接收时间:2022-04-29
  • 首发时间:2025-12-24
  • 出版时间:2022-09-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-04-29
  • 修回日期:2022-06-20
基金
国家自然科学基金资助项目(81973366)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(82003792)
“十四五”中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程项目(2021-I2M-1-70)
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    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 北京 100050

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*邓洪斌, Tel: 86-10-63169876, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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