Article(id=1210147881303019669, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210147879319113875, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0263, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1646064000000, receivedDateStr=2022-03-01, revisedDate=1649606400000, revisedDateStr=2022-04-11, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766451338363, onlineDateStr=2025-12-23, pubDate=1654963200000, pubDateStr=2022-06-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766451338363, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-23, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766451338363, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766451338363, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210147879319113875, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2022', volume='57', issue='6', pageStart='1541', pageEnd='1924', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766451337890, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766451466252, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210148417767084534, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210147879319113875, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210148417767084535, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210147879319113875, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1630, endPage=1640, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210147881642758297, articleId=1210147881303019669, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress on mitochondrial oxidative stress and corresponding targeted delivery systems in Alzheimer's disease, columnId=1210147881269465236, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Special Reports: Oxidative Stress in Physiopathology and Pharmacological Treatment, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Mitochondrial oxidative stress has been recognized as a preliminary and critical factor that aggravates the pathological cascade of Alzheimer's disease, which induces the production of β-amyloid protein, upregulates the expression of phosphorylated tau protein and triggers oxidative damage to lipids, proteins and mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid. Central neurons are more vulnerable to oxidative stress than non-neuronal cells due to their high oxygen demand, abundant unsaturated fatty acids and antioxidant enzymes deficiency. On this account, this review introduces the causes of mitochondrial oxidative stress, and analyzes the important role of mitochondrial oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Meanwhile, the review focuses on the design and intervention strategies of drug delivery systems targeting mitochondrial oxidative stress in neurons, aiming to provide new ideas for the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

, correspAuthors=Qi-zhi ZHANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2022 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Ling-ling ZHOU, Kang QIAN, Peng YANG, Qi-zhi ZHANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1210147882641002681, articleId=1210147881303019669, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=阿尔茨海默病的线粒体氧化应激及靶向递送系统研究进展, columnId=1210147881391100055, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道:疾病氧化应激损伤机制与药物干预研究, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

线粒体氧化应激是引起和加速阿尔茨海默病的重要原因, 其会诱导β淀粉样蛋白产生, 上调磷酸化tau蛋白的表达, 并引发脂质、蛋白质及线粒体脱氧核糖核酸的氧化损伤。其中中枢神经元因需氧量大、富含不饱和脂肪酸, 而抗氧化酶缺乏, 相较于非神经元细胞对氧化应激更为敏感。本综述以此为切入点, 介绍线粒体氧化应激产生的原因, 并分析线粒体氧化应激在阿尔茨海默病发病机制中的重要作用。同时重点阐述以神经元线粒体氧化应激为靶点的药物递送系统设计及干预策略, 旨在为阿尔茨海默病的防治提供新思路。

, correspAuthors=张奇志, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*张奇志, Tel: 86-21-51980068, E-mail:
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CypD: Cyclophilin D; PreP: Presequence protease; p38: p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase; MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinases; GSK-3<i>β</i>: Glycogen synthase kinase-3<i>β</i>; 8-OHdG: 8-Hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine; AD: Alzheimer's disease , figureFileSmall=zdEul4oAu3gto4XZrMAukg==, figureFileBig=bquFTTZya/ZGAzzOejefxg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210147886944358794, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210147881303019669, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=qE9hhJnCWps+E/M9TayGEA==, figureFileBig=1sKFizwUuBHOQ56kj8MZLQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210147887028244882, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210147881303019669, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= a: Representative confocal fluorescence microscopy images showing the subcellular colocalization of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated triphenylphosphonium (TPP)-ceria nanoparticles (NPs) and FITC-conjugated ceria NPs. Scale bar: 20 μm. b: MitoSOX fluorescence intensity measured in SH-SY5Y cells by flow cytometry. Statistical analysis was performed using an ANOVA test. <sup>****</sup><i>P</i> < 0.000 1. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. c: Transmission electron microscopy images showing representative mitochondrial morphologies of wild-type + saline (LT + sham), transgenic + saline (Tg + sham), and Tg + FITC-conjugated TPP-ceria NPs (Tg + TPP-ceria NPs). Scale bar: 500 nm. Adapted from Ref. 56 with permission. Copyright © 2016 American Chemical Society , figureFileSmall=qE9hhJnCWps+E/M9TayGEA==, figureFileBig=1sKFizwUuBHOQ56kj8MZLQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210147887141491098, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210147881303019669, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=aKjt1Xqw3OZ8KCvC5nhnnA==, figureFileBig=mBZVzM720AkF6KY9m9OP9Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210147887225377183, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210147881303019669, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= a: Schematic illustrating the micelles co-modified with neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) mimetic peptide C3 and TPP for targeting the mitochondria of the central neurons, reversing mitochondrial dysfunction. b: Representative fluorescent images showing the distribution of different Cou-6-loaded micelles in Neuro-2a at 8 h following incubation. Scale bar: 10 μm. c: Concentration-time curve of resveratrol in mitochondria of brain after i.v. injection. <sup>**</sup><i>P</i> < 0.01, <sup>***</sup><i>P</i> < 0.001. d: Mean escape latency in the Morris water maze of APP/PS1 transgenic mice. <sup>#</sup><i>P</i> < 0.05. e: Representative swimming path. PEG: Poly(ethylene glycol); PLA: Poly(<i>L</i>-lactide); NM: Micelles without modification; T-NM: Micelles modified with TPP; C-NM: Micelles modified with C3; CT-NM: Micelles modified with both C3 and TPP; Res: Resveratrol; CL-NM/Res: C-NM/Res low-dose; CH-NM/Res: C-NM/Res high-dose; CTL-NM/Res: CT-NM/Res low-dose; CTH-NM/Res: CT-NM/Res high-dose. Adapted from Ref. 53 with permission. Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved , figureFileSmall=aKjt1Xqw3OZ8KCvC5nhnnA==, figureFileBig=mBZVzM720AkF6KY9m9OP9Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210147887355400620, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210147881303019669, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=Ynz/H3OaSTWvSK7fXLSbOQ==, figureFileBig=r+MaM+r/vD2WU5bWgo4f/w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210147887447675311, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210147881303019669, language=CN, label=Figure 4, caption= a: Schematic preparation of loading resveratrol (RSV) into red blood cell (RBC) membrane-coated nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) bearing rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG29) and TPP molecules attached to the RBC membrane surface (RVG/TPP-RSV NPs@RBCm). b: Colocalization of various Cou6-tagged formulations into mitochondria in HT22 cells. Cou6 (green) and MitoTracker for mitochondria staining (red) were recorded. DSPE-PEG2000-TPP: 1, 2-Distearoyl-<i>sn</i>-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-<i>N</i>-[methoxy (polyethylene glycol) 2000]-TPP. Adapted from Ref. 57 with permission. 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阿尔茨海默病的线粒体氧化应激及靶向递送系统研究进展
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周玲玲 , 钱康 , 杨鹏 , 张奇志 *
药学学报 | 专题报道:疾病氧化应激损伤机制与药物干预研究 2022,57(6): 1630-1640
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药学学报 | 专题报道:疾病氧化应激损伤机制与药物干预研究 2022, 57(6): 1630-1640
阿尔茨海默病的线粒体氧化应激及靶向递送系统研究进展
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周玲玲, 钱康, 杨鹏, 张奇志*
作者信息
  • 复旦大学药学院, 教育部智能化递药重点实验室, 上海 201203

通讯作者:

*张奇志, Tel: 86-21-51980068, E-mail:
Research progress on mitochondrial oxidative stress and corresponding targeted delivery systems in Alzheimer's disease
Ling-ling ZHOU, Kang QIAN, Peng YANG, Qi-zhi ZHANG*
Affiliations
  • Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of the Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
出版时间: 2022-06-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0263
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线粒体氧化应激是引起和加速阿尔茨海默病的重要原因, 其会诱导β淀粉样蛋白产生, 上调磷酸化tau蛋白的表达, 并引发脂质、蛋白质及线粒体脱氧核糖核酸的氧化损伤。其中中枢神经元因需氧量大、富含不饱和脂肪酸, 而抗氧化酶缺乏, 相较于非神经元细胞对氧化应激更为敏感。本综述以此为切入点, 介绍线粒体氧化应激产生的原因, 并分析线粒体氧化应激在阿尔茨海默病发病机制中的重要作用。同时重点阐述以神经元线粒体氧化应激为靶点的药物递送系统设计及干预策略, 旨在为阿尔茨海默病的防治提供新思路。

线粒体氧化应激  /  阿尔茨海默病  /  神经元  /  药物递送系统  /  β淀粉样蛋白  /  tau蛋白

Mitochondrial oxidative stress has been recognized as a preliminary and critical factor that aggravates the pathological cascade of Alzheimer's disease, which induces the production of β-amyloid protein, upregulates the expression of phosphorylated tau protein and triggers oxidative damage to lipids, proteins and mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid. Central neurons are more vulnerable to oxidative stress than non-neuronal cells due to their high oxygen demand, abundant unsaturated fatty acids and antioxidant enzymes deficiency. On this account, this review introduces the causes of mitochondrial oxidative stress, and analyzes the important role of mitochondrial oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Meanwhile, the review focuses on the design and intervention strategies of drug delivery systems targeting mitochondrial oxidative stress in neurons, aiming to provide new ideas for the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

mitochondrial oxidative stress  /  Alzheimer's disease  /  neuron  /  drug delivery system  /  β-amyloid  /  tau protein
周玲玲, 钱康, 杨鹏, 张奇志. 阿尔茨海默病的线粒体氧化应激及靶向递送系统研究进展. 药学学报, 2022 , 57 (6) : 1630 -1640 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0263
Ling-ling ZHOU, Kang QIAN, Peng YANG, Qi-zhi ZHANG. Research progress on mitochondrial oxidative stress and corresponding targeted delivery systems in Alzheimer's disease[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2022 , 57 (6) : 1630 -1640 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0263
阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease, AD) 是一种常见的中枢神经系统退行性疾病, 主要表现为认知、记忆功能障碍[1]。AD的病理特征包括β淀粉样蛋白(amyloid-β, Aβ) 异常升高和沉积、tau蛋白高度磷酸化(phosphorylated tau, P-tau) 形成神经纤维缠结及胆碱能神经元丢失。
Hardy和Higgins[2]最早提出淀粉样蛋白级联假说, 认为Aβ异常沉积是AD的主要发病机制, 其直接导致神经纤维缠结形成、脑萎缩及认知能力的下降。然而, 目前临床发现Aβ沉积程度与AD进展之间的相关性不高[3], 且针对Aβ治疗的药物在临床试验中大多以失败告终[4]。这表明在AD的发生发展过程中还有其他机制发挥着关键作用, 因此探索新的干预靶点对改善AD治疗效果极为重要。近年来, 越来越多的研究表明, 线粒体氧化应激是AD的早期事件, 其可能介导、驱动或参与多种AD病理[5, 6]。本文将介绍线粒体氧化应激产生的原因, 并分析其与AD发病机制(Aβ、tau蛋白、生物分子) 之间的关系。在此基础上, 重点阐述以神经元线粒体氧化应激为靶点的纳米药物治疗策略(无机纳米递送系统、有机纳米递送系统、生物膜包裹的纳米递送系统)。
氧化应激是由于活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 和活性氮(reactive nitrogen species, RNS) 的产生与抗氧化防御系统、酶促和非酶促之间的严重失衡所导致[7]。线粒体是细胞内ROS的主要产生场所, 在电子转移过程中, 呼吸链中的呼吸复合物Ⅰ (泛素酮氧化还原酶)、Ⅱ (琥珀酸脱氢酶) 和Ⅲ (细胞色素c还原酶) 发生不可避免的电子泄漏, 泄露的电子与氧气相互作用形成超氧阴离子(superoxide anion radical, ·O2-) 或过氧化氢(hydrogen peroxide, H2O2)。随后, H2O2和·O2-通过Haber-Weiss反应或芬顿反应与一氧化氮形成羟基自由基和过氧亚硝酸盐[8]。产生大量•O2-的另一途径是线粒体反向电子传递, 此时质子动力升高, 驱动电子通过辅酶Q从复合物Ⅱ转移至复合物Ⅰ, 将辅酶Ⅰ (nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide, oxidized form, NAD+) 还原为还原型辅酶Ⅰ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NADH), NADH/NAD+比值增大使线粒体处于过氧化状态, 进而显著提高·O2-含量, 升高线粒体中ROS水平[9]。正常情况下, 细胞的内源性抗氧化系统包括超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase, SOD)、过氧化氢酶(catalase, CAT) 和谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(glutathione peroxidase, GPx) 等, 可协同工作有效对抗自由基造成的损伤[7]。但在AD病理条件下, AD患者脑中金属离子超载及Aβ、P-tau和载脂蛋白E4 (apolipoprotein E4, ApoE4) 等风险因素均可加重线粒体电子传递链相关蛋白的损伤[6], 致使三磷酸腺苷(adenosinetriphosphate, ATP) 的合成效率降低, 电子泄漏增加, 导致ROS的产生远超抗氧化系统的清除能力, 进一步加剧氧化应激。
线粒体是真核生物进行氧化代谢的细胞器, 在细胞生存和凋亡中起着至关重要的作用。它是ATP的合成部位, 负责整个细胞的能量供应[10]。此外, 线粒体还参与关键的细胞过程, 如钙稳态[11]、氧化应激平衡[12]、代谢产物的释放等[13]。但当线粒体发生氧化应激时, 会诱导Aβ、tau蛋白和关键生物分子的生成或功能发生改变, 从而引发或加重AD病情, 下文将具体介绍线粒体氧化应激与AD发病机制的关系(图 1)。
Aβ由淀粉样前体蛋白(amyloid precursor protein, APP) 经β-分泌酶和γ-分泌酶剪切后产生, 其中β-分泌酶是Aβ产生的限速酶。氧化应激可激活β-分泌酶或γ-分泌酶, 并抑制α-分泌酶, 从而促进Aβ产生[5, 6]。例如氧化应激时, 脂质过氧化物4-羟基壬烯醛(4-hydroxynonenal, 4-HNE) 显著生成, 其能上调β-分泌酶的表达, 促进APP剪切产生Aβ[14]。而Aβ与线粒体中的乙醇脱氢酶相互作用进一步促进自由基的产生和线粒体氧化损伤, 导致线粒体电子传递链和相关酶活性被破坏[15]。同时, 生成的Aβ与晚期糖基化终产物受体(receptor of advanced glycation end products, RAGE) 结合后易于跨越血脑屏障(blood-brain barrier, BBB), 进一步增加了Aβ在脑中的蓄积[16], 最终导致AD患者神经元损伤和认知能力下降。
线粒体发生氧化应激时亲环素D (cyclophilin D, CypD) 高表达, 刺激线粒体通透性转化孔的开放, 使得线粒体肿胀、外膜破裂、钙离子流失、氧化应激失衡, 从而导致ROS进一步的产生和释放[17]。Du等[18]在此基础上证实了线粒体氧化应激与Aβ的产生呈正相关。McLellan等[19]采用多光子成像技术对AD动物脑内Aβ沉积物进行成像, 发现在淀粉斑周围有自由基产生的荧光, 且荧光与密集的核心斑块相关, 而不是弥漫性斑块。由此说明ROS和淀粉斑致密核心的生成存在直接联系。
线粒体前序列蛋白酶(presequence protease, PreP) 位于线粒体基质中, 参与线粒体基质蛋白导入后的前序列的裂解和成熟[20]。PreP能降解Aβ40和Aβ42[21], 当线粒体氧化应激水平增强时, PreP水解活性降低, 导致线粒体中Aβ累积, 增强了线粒体功能紊乱及神经元变性, 从而加剧AD病理程度[22]。这些研究在一定程度上提示线粒体氧化应激参与Aβ的形成机制, 同时Aβ又反作用于线粒体加剧氧化应激程度, 导致恶性循环。
正常生理条件下, tau蛋白结构中丝氨酸/苏氨酸的定向磷酸化控制着tau与微管的结合和脱落, 二者处于动态平衡状态。但ROS的过度生成会大幅提升tau蛋白磷酸化水平, 干扰tau蛋白对微管的亲和性, 并导致微管网络退化, tau从微管脱落。游离的tau含量异常增加, 逐渐形成P-tau聚集体。其中, 高浓度ROS通过激活p38增殖蛋白激酶(p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, p38)[23, 24]、丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinases, MAPK)[23]、细胞外信号调节激酶[25]、糖原合成酶激酶3β (glycogen synthase kinase-3β, GSK-3β)[26, 27]及细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶[28]参与tau蛋白磷酸化。tau蛋白是p38的底物, 而线粒体氧化应激能激活p38, 从而导致tau蛋白过度磷酸化[8], 影响神经元细胞器的轴突运输, 最终导致神经元功能紊乱[29]。MAPK是一种丝氨酸-苏氨酸激酶, 介导了多种细胞活动相关的细胞内信号转导, 氧化应激不仅会引起MAPK信号通路紊乱, 而且其可通过诱导炎症因子水平上升进一步刺激MAPK信号通路[30], 加重tau蛋白过度磷酸化。Lovell等[31]利用Cu2+和Fe2+发生经典的芬顿反应造成原代大鼠皮层神经元的氧化应激, 发现氧化应激会引起tau蛋白的初始构象改变, 并使蛋白激酶C的αβ异构体失活。而蛋白激酶C又是GSK-3β的重要调控机制之一, 失衡的GSK-3β会诱导tau蛋白磷酸化, 促使神经元死亡。Beyrent等[32]发现线粒体氧化应激可促使P-tau从微管中释放出来, 在神经突重新分布, 引起神经元萎缩和死亡。然而, 来自不同脑区神经元的神经突对氧化应激的敏感性不同, 在大脑神经元中, 虽然tau蛋白整体水平增加, 但其重新分布远离神经突。因此, 大脑神经元受氧化应激引起的P-tau影响较小。而在顶盖神经元中, tau蛋白则不会因氧化应激而重新分布。这些现象表明, 氧化应激引起的tau相关毒性在不同脑区神经元中存在内在差异, 值得更深入和系统的研究。
ROS具有高度活性, 可破坏脂质、蛋白质和核酸等重要生物分子。
线粒体氧化应激易引起脂质过氧化, 脂质过氧化是指脂质被ROS/RNS通过自由基链式反应机制攻击而产生脂质过氧化产物的过程[33]。生物膜磷脂、膜受体等富含不饱和脂肪酸, 尤其易被ROS从其侧链亚甲基碳中提取1个氢原子生成4-羟基醛、丙二醛或2-丙烯醛等脂质过氧化产物[34, 35], 导致细胞膜结构和功能严重损害, 如流动性降低、膜受体失活等。
ROS可直接诱导蛋白质氧化, 也可通过脂质过氧化和糖基化等过程间接诱导蛋白质氧化, 从而导致蛋白质主链断裂、蛋白质羰基化及蛋白质-蛋白质交联, 引起蛋白质变性和功能丧失, 最终导致机体生理病理的改变, 乃至加速衰老过程[36]。Han等[37]采用二硝基酚(2, 4-dinitrophenol, DNP) 来检测蛋白质羰基化程度, 发现诱导海马神经元发生氧化应激8周后, 神经元内DNP水平增加, 12周后蛋白质羰基化是非氧化应激诱导组的2倍以上。且随着线粒体氧化应激水平升高, 整个大脑区域炎症水平增加, 细胞骨架完整性丧失, 神经元发生变性。p53蛋白是一种转录因子, 调控脱氧核糖核酸(deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA) 稳定性和细胞正常生长。当其发生不可逆的氧化应激时, p53移位到线粒体外膜增强了外膜的通透性, 并改变了线粒体膜电位, 从而诱发线粒体功能障碍, 导致细胞凋亡[38]。同时, p53还可在线粒体内膜积聚, 与CypD和动力相关蛋白1形成复合物并活化线粒体通透性转化孔[38]。此过程会导致大量脂质涌入, 引起线粒体肿胀、外膜破裂, 最终导致神经元坏死[39]
线粒体氧化应激产生的过量ROS可导致DNA双链断裂、DNA/DNA或DNA/蛋白质交联及碱基被氧化[40]。在AD患者海马和大脑皮层中均发现了大量断裂的DNA[41, 42]。研究表明, AD中应用最广泛的DNA氧化标志物是8-羟基脱氧鸟嘌呤(8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine, 8-OHdG), 其是鸟嘌呤的氧化产物。与其他3种DNA碱基相比, 鸟嘌呤的氧化电位较低, 最易受到ROS攻击。其中, 线粒体DNA (mitochondrial DNA, mtDNA) 因缺乏组蛋白保护、信息密度高、内含子缺失及修复机制有限, 且靠近产生ROS的线粒体内膜, 更易受氧化应激的影响[43]。当mtDNA中8OHdG显著增加时, 会导致mtDNA突变, 损害线粒体成分[44, 45]。此外, 由于mtDNA在编码产生ROS的呼吸链的必需亚基中起重要作用[46], 因此mtDNA突变会进一步放大AD脑的氧化损伤。上述研究强调了线粒体氧化应激在驱动AD疾病进程中的重要作用, 表明干预线粒体氧化应激可能是治疗AD的关键。
神经元在中枢神经系统中承担着信号传递和网络整合等重要功能, 线粒体是神经元的关键细胞器, 其在神经元氧化应激平衡和代谢活动中起重要作用。研究表明, 神经元细胞因其高氧摄入量、高脂含量和抗氧化酶的缺乏而对氧化应激高度敏感[47]。因此, 减轻线粒体氧化应激, 保护脑神经元功能是预防和减慢AD发病和进展的关键。然而, 绝大多数抗氧化剂如姜黄素、白藜芦醇、维生素E/C、辅酶Q10等难以透过BBB, 且由于线粒体本身存在双层膜结构, 其膜孔通透性具有选择性, 导致药物对神经元线粒体的靶向效率有限, 临床作用微乎其微[48]。因此, 如何高效递送药物至脑神经元线粒体, 避免其外周毒副作用是AD治疗亟待解决的问题。
目前, 纳米系统由于粒径可调、表面易修饰、比表面积大, 同时可延长药物体内循环时间, 提高病灶部位靶向效率, 增加药物生物利用度和安全性等优势, 成为药剂学研究热点。本文将首先介绍靶向脑神经元线粒体的纳米系统设计策略, 再分别阐述无机纳米系统、有机纳米系统及生物膜包裹的纳米系统在减轻脑神经元线粒体氧化应激治疗AD中的应用。
要将药物递送进入脑神经元线粒体, 纳米系统需克服BBB、神经元、线粒体三重生物学屏障。其中, BBB是药物递送到靶部位的主要障碍。常用的脑靶向策略包括受体介导的胞吞转运(如转铁蛋白受体、低密度脂蛋白受体)、转运体介导的胞吞转运(如己糖转运体、胆碱转运体)、吸附介导的胞吞转运(如细胞穿膜肽修饰) 等[49, 50]。可根据AD时BBB上受体/转运体表达的变化, 如AD时RAGE、血管细胞间黏附分子-1等在BBB上的表达显著上调[51], 选择其相应的配体修饰在纳米系统表面或利用仿生策略组装纳米复合物, 有望提高纳米系统的脑靶向性。
纳米系统入脑后需进一步靶向神经元, 主要策略是利用神经元靶向功能基, 如穿膜肽PenetratinTM、神经降压肽、狂犬病毒糖蛋白衍生肽RVG29、破伤风毒素模拟肽Tet1、神经细胞黏附分子模拟肽C3等[52]。由于部分靶向功能基的受体同时在BBB和神经元上高表达, 此时修饰单一靶向功能基如RVG29肽、C3肽等即可实现对BBB和神经元的双重靶向, 可简化纳米系统的设计。
目前, 靶向线粒体主要通过以下3种策略实现: ①膜电势驱动: 三苯基膦(triphenylphosphonium, TPP) 及其衍生物是经典的靶向线粒体的亲脂性阳离子, 其在线粒体内外膜电势的驱动下, 可进入线粒体基质[53]。②吸附/结合力驱动: 短肽类如Szeto-Schiller (SS) 系列肽, 其结构中芳香族残基和碱性氨基酸交替排列, 赋予多肽正电性和亲脂性, 致使其能通过静电吸附定位到线粒体[54]。同时SS肽可与心磷脂(线粒体膜成分) 结合, 也有助于靶向线粒体。③转运驱动: 大多数线粒体蛋白在胞质中合成, 并经线粒体膜上转位酶导入机制转运至线粒体。例如, N-末端线粒体靶向信号肽即利用这种内在转运机制实现线粒体靶向[55]
基于此, 靶向脑神经元线粒体的纳米系统往往需在纳米粒表面修饰1或2种靶向功能基, 以赋予该系统有效跨越BBB进入神经元, 并在线粒体里积聚的能力[53, 56, 57]。为了提高靶向效率, 实现药物的有效浓集, 可根据具体脑部疾病模型和递送系统特征进行选择和优化。
无机纳米材料不仅具有表面积大、尺寸和形态可控的特点, 而且具有良好的药物靶向性和缓释性。多种无机材料纳米系统如二氧化铈(cerium oxide, CeO2)[56, 58-60]、金(gold, Au)[61]、钯(palladium, Pd)[62, 63]、二硫化钼(molybdenum disulfide, MoS2)[64]等已被用于缓解AD。
纳米级别的CeO2富含氧空位, 在电子转移过程中易形成具有高反应活性的Ce3+/Ce4+电子对。Ce3+/Ce4+可通过与外界环境得失电子发生氧化还原反应, 从而有效俘获氧自由基及其衍生物[65]。同时, CeO2晶体结构具有记忆功能, 氧化还原电子构型发生变化后可在一定条件下恢复至原始状态[58], 这种优异的再生功能和可循环使用性, 在清除ROS领域中表现出巨大的优势。Dowding等[59]制备了超小CeO2纳米粒(3~8 nm), 易被细胞内化, 聚集于神经元线粒体基质和外膜上, 可模拟SOD和CAT清除线粒体氧化应激产生的过量ROS, 从而防止神经元死亡。在CeO2纳米粒上修饰TPP, 其可在线粒体膜电位(-180~-200 mV) 的驱动下, 透过线粒体外膜聚集于线粒体中(图 2a)。研究发现, TPP-CeO2纳米粒可有效抑制Aβ诱导的ROS产生, 还可通过修复受损嵴和空泡形态减轻线粒体损伤, 降低4-HNE水平(图 2bc), 揭示了TPP-CeO2在AD治疗中的潜力[56]。此外, CeO2也是一种新型n型半导体材料, 可响应可见光激发电子从价带到导带, 产生光电子和空穴。Ge等[60]充分利用了CeO2这一特性, 合成了表面沉积CeO2的金纳米棒, 再修饰序列为KLVFF的Aβ靶向肽以制备KLVFF@Au-CeO2纳米粒。利用金纳米棒的光热效应辅助KLVFF@Au-CeO2跨越BBB, 同时所产生的热效应可加速Ce4+向Ce3+的转化, 从而提高清除ROS的效率。
除了CeO2纳米粒外, 研究者也致力于研究其他无机纳米粒来模拟抗氧化酶活性, 以克服传统AD抗氧化药物代谢快、半衰期短、难以蓄积在AD病灶部位等不足。例如, Singh等[66]开发了具有类似SOD活性的高效钒酸铈(cerium vanadate, CeVO4) 纳米粒, 该纳米粒能控制神经元细胞的超氧化物水平并维持线粒体正常的膜电位, 从而恢复线粒体功能, 调节ATP水平。此外, CeVO4纳米粒能恢复氧化应激条件下抗凋亡细胞淋巴瘤2家族蛋白的功能, 阻止磷脂被氧化, 保护神经元细胞。Jia等[63]构建了八面体Pd纳米酶复合体系(Pd@PEG@Bor), 并将中药成分冰片(borneol, Bor) 偶联在Pd纳米酶表面以提高其渗透BBB和靶向神经元的效率。这种复合体系具有较高的SOD和CAT活性, 能将细胞内过多的•O2-和H2O2转化为无害的氧气和水, 并能维持线粒体膜电位和钙离子水平, 抑制Aβ的产生和聚集, 减少神经炎症, 保护神经元, 改善AD小鼠的认知障碍。
总之, 通过将无机纳米系统靶向递送至神经元线粒体, 可在生物安全性范围内, 降低中枢神经系统的氧化应激和神经炎症, 从而防止神经退行性病变, 提高学习和记忆能力, 缓解AD症状。
鉴于有机纳米材料优异的生物安全性、多功能用途和优良的生物降解性, 近年来, 有机纳米系统也被用于抗氧化药物的载体, 促进其神经元线粒体递送, 改善抗氧化效果, 恢复线粒体功能, 延缓AD病理进程。
目前, AD研究中应用较多的有机纳米材料主要有多糖类如壳聚糖[67]、海藻酸钠[68], 以及聚合物类如聚丙烯酸乙酯[69]、聚乳酸-羟基乙酸共聚物[poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), PLGA][70]、聚乙烯亚胺[71]、两亲性二嵌段或三嵌段共聚物[72]。Yang等[53]构建了由神经细胞黏附分子模拟肽C3 (脑神经元靶向功能基) 和TPP (线粒体靶向功能基) 共同修饰的聚乙二醇-聚乳酸(PEG-PLA) 胶束系统(CT-NM), 该系统具有优良的脑神经元线粒体靶向性(图 3a), 能高效递送抗氧化剂白藜芦醇进入脑线粒体中(图 3bc), AUC0-24 h值达到游离药物的105倍。相较于游离药物和仅修饰C3肽的胶束, 包载白藜芦醇的CT-NM (CT-NM/Res) 能更有效地减轻氧化应激, 修复线粒体分裂/融合动态失衡, 维持线粒体膜电势和正常形态, 减少Aβ沉积和tau蛋白过度磷酸化, 保护突触, 抑制小胶质细胞异常活化和炎症反应, 并能使APP/PS1转基因鼠的认知能力恢复到正常水平(图 3de), 说明靶部位药物浓度的提高产生了显著的AD治疗效果。Marrache等[73]合成了一端连接TPP的PLGA-b-PEG共聚物(PLGA-b-PEG-TPP NPs), 其所制备的纳米粒显示出对姜黄素有较高的包封率。该纳米粒入胞后可快速进入内体, 并随时间的推移, 几乎所有纳米粒都从内体逃逸, 定位于线粒体(共定位系数ρ = 0.53)。释放的姜黄素可抑制Aβ引起的氧化应激, 提高神经元存活率, 缓解AD病理进程。总之, 有机纳米粒表面易修饰多种不同类型的靶分子, 以构成多重靶向系统, 从而大幅提高病灶区药物浓度, 改善AD治疗效果。
生物膜表面含有糖蛋白受体、细胞黏附分子等组分, 这赋予了生物膜能与多种生物基质之间相互作用的能力。因此, 多种具有不同生物特性的细胞膜如红细胞膜[74]、巨噬细胞膜[75]、中性粒细胞膜[76]等已被用于纳米粒的包覆。细胞膜包裹的纳米粒具有高度复杂的生物功能(如延长循环时间、减少网状内皮系统的摄取、降低免疫识别提高安全性), 同时又保留了纳米粒固有的物理化学性质。下面将介绍几种以神经元线粒体氧化应激为靶点的仿生递送系统。
由于体内生理环境复杂, 静脉注射后, 药物要有效到达脑神经元线粒体仍是一个重大挑战。Han等[57]构建了红细胞膜包覆的载抗氧化剂白藜芦醇的纳米脂质体, 并在红细胞膜上修饰狂犬病毒糖蛋白衍生肽RVG29和TPP以分别介导脑神经元和线粒体靶向(RVG/TPP-RSV NPs@RBCm, 图 4a)。药动学研究表明RVG29和TPP的修饰不会影响仿生纳米系统的长循环特性。在双靶功能基的作用下, RVG/TPP-RSV NPs@RBCm不仅顺利跨越BBB, 且有效靶向到神经元的线粒体(图 4b), 从而显著缓解了线粒体氧化应激。但是, 非同源红细胞膜表面表达的血型抗原差异可能引起红细胞之间的强烈排斥反应, 存在一定生物安全风险。为克服此不足, Han等[75]利用巨噬细胞天然的趋炎性和体内重要免疫细胞这一特性, 提取巨噬细胞膜来包覆载抗氧化剂染料木黄酮的脂质纳米粒, 同时利用双靶功能基RVG29和TPP对巨噬细胞膜进行工程化。所构成的仿生纳米系统(RVG/TPP-MASLNs-GS) 对海马神经元HT22细胞具有明显的保护作用, 能将毒性Aβ25-35导致的细胞凋亡率从50.27%降至14.35%, 且改善了APP/PS1小鼠的认知缺陷, 有效减少脂质过氧化损伤, 恢复海马神经元SOD活性, 该研究为仿生纳米系统在AD中的应用提供启发。总之, 利用生物膜的仿生策略和神经元线粒体靶向功能基的选择, 有望协助纳米系统跨越BBB并定位于神经元线粒体中进行有效的AD抗氧化治疗。
随着全球老龄化程度的加重, AD逐渐成为全球性的公共卫生危机。因此, 探索延缓AD发生发展的新策略是世界各国的当务之急。线粒体氧化应激是AD重要的发病机制之一, 其能引起Aβ沉积、tau蛋白磷酸化和生物分子的损伤。同时, 考虑到脑神经元是AD重要的靶细胞, 而线粒体是ROS的主要产生部位及胞内Aβ的主要沉积部位, 因此将脑神经元线粒体作为新靶点进行靶向治疗对于保护线粒体功能、提高AD治疗效果、降低不良反应是一个更为合理的策略。然而, 常用的抗氧化剂进入机体后呈全身分布, 难以精准靶向到AD病灶部位达到有效治疗浓度, 导致无明显记忆改善效果。因此, 探索以脑神经元线粒体氧化应激为靶点, 实现抗氧化药物的精准递送和调控, 对AD的治疗具有重要意义。目前, 基于纳米技术的神经元线粒体靶向给药为AD治疗提供了一条可行的途径, 但仍有几个局限性需克服: ①虽然文献已报道了线粒体氧化应激的发生机制及其与AD其他病理机制间的关系, 但还需确定氧化应激触发的确切分子途径和启动异常功能的氧化应激阈值, 以及这些途径如何选择性地影响神经元命运, 从而保证后续以神经元线粒体氧化应激为靶点的治疗干预有利性。此外, 自由基是一把双刃剑, 在降低病灶区域自由基水平时, 要探索合适的抗氧化程度, 以避免影响细胞的正常生理功能。②纳米材料的生物安全性需进一步验证, 尤其是无机纳米系统难以降解, 其在脑内蓄积是否影响正常中枢功能及其在机体各脏器的蓄积是否会引发毒副作用需深入、系统研究。例如, 小鼠静注CeO2纳米粒(0.5 mg·kg-1), 5个月后CeO2仍在肝、肾、脾蓄积[77]。③对于线粒体靶向, 目前大多数研究采用TPP作为靶向功能基, 但该类基团对线粒体的靶向效果严重依赖于线粒体膜电位, 当线粒体膜电位降低后, TPP修饰的药物在线粒体的积聚显著减少[78]。基于此, 将来应探索更多线粒体靶向策略, 如利用高通量设备智能筛选更多的线粒体靶向分子, 以提高病灶区域神经元线粒体的靶向效率。④目前大多数神经元细胞模型并没有区别神经元亚型(如中间神经元、运动神经元和神经递质能神经元), 体内研究采用的鼠源模型和AD患者病理表型也存在一定差距。因此未来需选择合适的神经元亚型建立细胞模型, 同时可选择与AD患者病理特征相似度更高的动物模型以评价纳米系统的安全性和有效性。如果条件允许, 可利用AD患者的脑切片来进行部分相关研究。⑤尽管纳米递送系统增强了抗氧化药物(如白藜芦醇、姜黄素等) 的AD治疗效果, 但其要转化到临床还需大量细致深入的研究, 如监测纳米系统在神经元细胞的摄取机制及胞内转运过程、在脑中的代谢清除情况、蛋白冠对递送系统靶向性的影响等, 并解决纳米制剂产业化的瓶颈技术、发展新设备, 建立完善的质量评价体系等。
作者贡献: 周玲玲负责文献整理和综述撰写; 杨鹏负责图文摘要的制作; 钱康、杨鹏对综述提出修改意见; 张奇志负责综述的整体设计和质量把关。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明没有任何利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82073780)
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2022年第57卷第6期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0263
  • 接收时间:2022-03-01
  • 首发时间:2025-12-23
  • 出版时间:2022-06-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-03-01
  • 修回日期:2022-04-11
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国家自然科学基金资助项目(82073780)
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    复旦大学药学院, 教育部智能化递药重点实验室, 上海 201203

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*张奇志, Tel: 86-21-51980068, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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