Article(id=1210147888336867813, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210147879319113875, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2021-1794, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1639497600000, receivedDateStr=2021-12-15, revisedDate=1641484800000, revisedDateStr=2022-01-07, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766451340040, onlineDateStr=2025-12-23, pubDate=1654963200000, pubDateStr=2022-06-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766451340040, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-23, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766451340040, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766451340040, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210147879319113875, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2022', volume='57', issue='6', pageStart='1541', pageEnd='1924', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766451337890, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766451466252, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210148417767084534, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210147879319113875, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210148417767084535, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210147879319113875, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1689, endPage=1701, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210147889217671672, articleId=1210147888336867813, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=The development of small-molecule inhibitors targeting MYC, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The MYC gene, one of the most common dysregulated driver genes in human cancers, is composed of three paralogous genes C-MYC, N-MYC and L-MYC. It is abnormally activated in more than half of cancer types. Since MYC plays an important role in the formation, maintenance and progression of cancer, targeting MYC is an effective strategy for cancer treatment. As a potential anti-cancer target, MYC is considered "undruggable" because it lacks a suitable pocket for accommodating small molecule inhibitors. Recently, under the guidance of protein structure information and many computational tools, many indirect strategies to inhibit MYC have emerged and shown favorable anti-cancer effects in tumor models. In this paper, the recent small molecules that indirectly target MYC are divided into inhibitors acting on the protein-protein interaction (PPI) among MYC and other proteins, and targeting inhibitors regulating MYC action. Additionally, the introduction and assessment towards compounds with different mechanisms are summarized to provide reference for the further research of MYC inhibitors.

, correspAuthors=Qi-dong YOU, Xiao-ke GUO, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2022 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Jun-jie XU, Qi-dong YOU, Xiao-ke GUO), CN=ArticleExt(id=1210147893118374783, articleId=1210147888336867813, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=靶向MYC小分子抑制剂的研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

MYC基因由3个旁系同源基因C-MYCN-MYCL-MYC组成, 是人类癌症中最常见的失调驱动基因之一, 在超过一半的癌症类型中被异常激活。由于MYC在癌症的形成、维持和发展中起着重要的作用, 因此, 靶向MYC蛋白是治疗癌症的一种有效的策略。但由于缺乏适合小分子配体进行结合的口袋, MYC蛋白被认为是“不可成药”的抗癌靶点。然而, 近年来, 相关蛋白质结构信息愈加丰富以及越来越多新型计算工具出现, 衍生了许多间接靶向抑制MYC的策略, 并在肿瘤模型中展现了不错的抗肿瘤效果。本文根据其作用机制, 将目前的间接靶向MYC的小分子分为作用于MYC PPI (protein-protein interaction, 蛋白-蛋白相互作用) 的抑制剂和调控MYC作用的靶点抑制剂, 并针对不同机制的化合物分别进行了介绍和评述, 以期为MYC抑制剂的进一步研究提供参考。

, correspAuthors=尤启冬, 郭小可, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*尤启冬, Tel: 86-25-86185328, E-mail: ;
郭小可,
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靶向MYC小分子抑制剂的研究进展
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徐俊杰 1, 2 , 尤启冬 1, 2, * , 郭小可 1, 2, *
药学学报 | 综述 2022,57(6): 1689-1701
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药学学报 | 综述 2022, 57(6): 1689-1701
靶向MYC小分子抑制剂的研究进展
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徐俊杰1, 2, 尤启冬1, 2, * , 郭小可1, 2, *
作者信息
  • 1.中国药科大学, 江苏省药物分子设计与成药性优化重点实验室, 江苏 南京 211198
  • 2.中国药科大学药学院, 江苏 南京 211198

通讯作者:

*尤启冬, Tel: 86-25-86185328, E-mail: ;
郭小可,
The development of small-molecule inhibitors targeting MYC
Jun-jie XU1, 2, Qi-dong YOU1, 2, * , Xiao-ke GUO1, 2, *
Affiliations
  • 1. Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
  • 2. School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
出版时间: 2022-06-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2021-1794
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MYC基因由3个旁系同源基因C-MYCN-MYCL-MYC组成, 是人类癌症中最常见的失调驱动基因之一, 在超过一半的癌症类型中被异常激活。由于MYC在癌症的形成、维持和发展中起着重要的作用, 因此, 靶向MYC蛋白是治疗癌症的一种有效的策略。但由于缺乏适合小分子配体进行结合的口袋, MYC蛋白被认为是“不可成药”的抗癌靶点。然而, 近年来, 相关蛋白质结构信息愈加丰富以及越来越多新型计算工具出现, 衍生了许多间接靶向抑制MYC的策略, 并在肿瘤模型中展现了不错的抗肿瘤效果。本文根据其作用机制, 将目前的间接靶向MYC的小分子分为作用于MYC PPI (protein-protein interaction, 蛋白-蛋白相互作用) 的抑制剂和调控MYC作用的靶点抑制剂, 并针对不同机制的化合物分别进行了介绍和评述, 以期为MYC抑制剂的进一步研究提供参考。

MYC  /  抑制剂  /  MYC相关因子X  /  鸟嘌呤四链体  /  WD40重复蛋白5

The MYC gene, one of the most common dysregulated driver genes in human cancers, is composed of three paralogous genes C-MYC, N-MYC and L-MYC. It is abnormally activated in more than half of cancer types. Since MYC plays an important role in the formation, maintenance and progression of cancer, targeting MYC is an effective strategy for cancer treatment. As a potential anti-cancer target, MYC is considered "undruggable" because it lacks a suitable pocket for accommodating small molecule inhibitors. Recently, under the guidance of protein structure information and many computational tools, many indirect strategies to inhibit MYC have emerged and shown favorable anti-cancer effects in tumor models. In this paper, the recent small molecules that indirectly target MYC are divided into inhibitors acting on the protein-protein interaction (PPI) among MYC and other proteins, and targeting inhibitors regulating MYC action. Additionally, the introduction and assessment towards compounds with different mechanisms are summarized to provide reference for the further research of MYC inhibitors.

MYC  /  inhibitor  /  MYC associated factor X  /  guanine quadruplex  /  WD40 repeat protein 5
徐俊杰, 尤启冬, 郭小可. 靶向MYC小分子抑制剂的研究进展. 药学学报, 2022 , 57 (6) : 1689 -1701 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2021-1794
Jun-jie XU, Qi-dong YOU, Xiao-ke GUO. The development of small-molecule inhibitors targeting MYC[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2022 , 57 (6) : 1689 -1701 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2021-1794
MYC (myelocytomatosis viral oncogene homolog, 骨髓细胞瘤病毒癌基因同源物) 是研究最广泛的癌症基因之一, 参与多种不同类型癌症的形成。MYC癌基因家族由C-MYCN-MYCL-MYC三个成员组成[1, 2], 均属于碱性螺旋-环-螺旋亮氨酸拉链(b-HLH-LZ) DNA结合蛋白超家族[3, 4]
MYC是一种62 kDa的核磷蛋白, 其通过与几种蛋白质形成相互作用网络发挥转录因子的作用[4], 参与从细胞增殖到核糖体生物发生过程中的基因表达[4-6]。MYC 3个成员蛋白(C-MYC、N-MYC、L-MYC) 都具有高度保守的结构域: 一个包含反式激活结构域的N端区域、一个与核定位和核稳定性控制有关的中心区域以及一个与伴侣蛋白MAX (MYC associated factor X, MYC相关因子X) 相互作用并与DNA结合的C端区域[7, 8] (图 1)。
MYC蛋白的结构特征是存在多个高度保守的序列, 称为MYC盒子(MYC Box, MB)[7]。C-MYC和N-MYC有6个MB, 从N端开始, 依次为MB0、MBⅠ、MBⅡ、MBⅢa、MBⅢb、MBⅣ。L-MYC缺少MBⅢa盒子, 只有5个MB。MB0、MBⅠ、MBⅡ位于MYC蛋白的反式激活结构域内, 其余MB则位于蛋白质的中心区域[9]
不同的MB域与不同的蛋白质结合, 因此也发挥着不同的作用。MB0与TFⅡF (transcription factor ⅡF, 转录因子ⅡF) 相互作用以调节转录并加速肿瘤生长[9, 10]; MBI通过磷酸化, 参与MYC的泛素化和蛋白酶体降解[10, 11]; MBII与TRRAP-HAT (transcription domain associated protein, 转录域相关蛋白; histone acetyltransferase, 组蛋白乙酰基转移酶) 复合物相互作用, 与肿瘤的发生有关[12]; MBIIIa在基因抑制和细胞凋亡调节中发挥作用[13]; MBIIIb与WDR5 (WD40 repeat protein 5, WD40重复蛋白5) 结合, 促进MYC靶基因的识别和肿瘤的发生[14]; MBIV可调节DNA结合、细胞凋亡、转化和G2期阻滞[15, 16]
MYC原癌基因位于受体信号转导通路的下游, 这些信号对MYC基因进行正向或负向调控。MYC表达转录因子MYC, MYC与伴侣蛋白MAX形成异二聚体, 靶向结合到DNA序列或E盒子(E Box, 带有5′-CACGTG-3′序列) 上(图 2A), 进而调控与细胞生长和增殖有关的基因转录[1, 17, 18]
虽然MYC-MAX异二聚体与靶基因调控区中E Box序列的结合是MYC调控基因表达的主要机制[19], 但据报道, MYC也结合于非E Box DNA区域[20, 21], 尽管这些位点缺乏E Box, 但MYC可以与核糖体蛋白基因上的启动子结合[22]。此外, 在某些情况下, MYC能够独立于MAX发挥作用。例如, 在N-MYC扩增的神经母细胞瘤中, 发现N-MYC与p53结合, 从而靶向调节p53基因[23-26]
MYC蛋白的表达通常在分子水平(转录、转录后、翻译、翻译后的蛋白质稳定性和蛋白质相互作用) 受到严格控制[27], 并且半衰期只有20~30 min[28]。由于存在多个层级的调控, 因此, MYC存在多种失调的可能, 目前已在许多癌症中发现存在MYC的点突变、染色体易位、基因扩增、其他激活转录或稳定MYC的因素改变[29]。这种致癌激活作用导致体内MYC稳定在较高水平, 促进了肿瘤发生和逃避肿瘤抑制检查点[30], 从而导致细胞不受控制的生长。在转基因小鼠模型中, MYC的失活导致其肿瘤的消退[31, 32], 充分显示了MYC在肿瘤发生和维持中的重要作用。
MYC蛋白是一个内在无序的蛋白, 其缺少适合小分子化合物结合的疏水口袋或凹槽[33-35], 目前还未找到可以与MYC结合的小分子化合物。同时, 由于MYC位于细胞核中, 很难用单克隆抗体等大分子进行靶向。因此, 间接靶向MYC成为一种有效的、可行的替代治疗策略。本文根据其作用机制, 将目前的间接靶向MYC的小分子化合物分为作用于MYC PPI (protein-protein interaction, 蛋白-蛋白相互作用) 的抑制剂和调控MYC作用的靶点抑制剂, 并针对不同机制的化合物分别进行了介绍和评述, 希望能够为靶向MYC的癌症治疗提供参考。
MAX是一种普遍存在的组成性表达蛋白, 在控制MAX-MAX二聚蛋白1 (MXD1) 轴中发挥着核心作用。MAX是一种磷蛋白, 存在两种亚型, 分子大小分别为21 kDa和22 kDa, 两者之间有9个氨基酸的差异[36]。MAX也是一种b-HLH-LZ蛋白, 但缺乏反式激活结构域[7]。MYC与MAX通过含有亮氨酸拉链和HLH基序的C端进行延伸, 形成一个α-螺旋元件后发生异二聚化[37]。MYC-MAX通过两种机制调节基因转录: ① MYC-MAX与启动子区域内的特定识别位点(E-Box元件) 结合, 继而激活基因转录(图 2B); ②通过锌指蛋白Miz-1将MYC-MAX异二聚体间接募集到DNA上, 从而抑制MYC调节基因[38]。由于这两种调节机制都需要MYC与MAX结合, 因此调控MYC-MAX相互作用是抑制MYC功能的有效方法。目前, 通过高通量虚拟筛选或体外筛选策略已经发现了许多调控这种蛋白-蛋白相互作用的小分子, 本文根据作用机制将其分为3类: ① MYC-MAX异二聚体抑制剂; ② MAX-MAX同二聚体稳定剂; ③ MYC-MAX-DNA结合干扰剂。
MYC-MAX异二聚体抑制剂是一些能够直接破坏MYC-MAX异二聚化过程的小分子, 可以使MYC的固有无序b-HLH-LZ结构域变得不再无序, 促进其转化为更刚性、更明确的结构域, 从而阻止其识别MAX蛋白[39, 40]。斯克利普斯研究所的Berg等[41]通过高通量筛选, 得到了一系列MYC-MAX异二聚体抑制剂: 化合物1 (IIA6B17) 和化合物2 (IIA4B20) (图 3), 这两个化合物均以剂量依赖的方式阻断了鸡胚成纤维细胞的MYC依赖性致癌转化。但是, 化合物1在转化实验中也抑制了相关的碱性拉链(bZip) 家族蛋白Jun, 因此, Berg等[41]尝试通过结构优化来获得选择性更好的衍生物。他们将化合物1和化合物2的异吲哚啉母核替换为吡咯烷母核, 并在此基础上进一步结构修饰, 得到了化合物3 (mycmycin-1, I-A5B12) 和化合物4 (mycmycin-2, II-A3B16) (图 3), 这两个化合物在20 μmol·L-1时几乎完全抑制了MYC诱导的致癌转化, 而不抑制由酪氨酸激酶Src或癌基因Jun诱导的致癌转化, 因此对MYC具有一定的选择性。
之后, Yin等[42]利用酵母双杂交实验来筛选可以阻止MYC和MAX HLH-Zip结构域结合的化合物, 得到了7个MYC-MAX二聚体的小分子抑制剂, 均可抑制成纤维细胞的生长和MYC依赖性转录(图 4); 此外, 化合物5~8 (10058-F4、10009-G9、10050-C10和10074-A4) 可以抑制小鼠体内肿瘤生长[42]。其中, 化合物5 (10058-F4) 对HL-60细胞的抗增殖活性为49 μmol·L-1, 以化合物5作为先导, 对其五元罗丹宁环进行结构相似性搜索, 得到了化合物9 (#764) (图 4), 其活性提高了10倍(IC50 = 4.6 μmol·L-1)[43]。对化合物10 (10074-G5) 进行改造, 得到了化合物11 (JY-3-094)[44] (图 4), 其在电泳迁移率实验(EMSA) 中抑制MYC与MAX二聚化的能力提升了5倍, 但是由于其透膜性较差, 未对HL-60细胞显示出抗增殖活性。经进一步结构修饰, 制成了前药12 (3jc48-3) (图 4), 透膜性得到了明显改善, 其对HL-60细胞的抗增殖活性为34 μmol·L-1 [44]
美国加州生物医学研究所的Choi等[45], 通过蛋白质互补分析(protein-complementation assay, PCA) 进行高通量筛选(HTS), 得到了一个骨架新颖的小分子MYC-MAX抑制剂13 (sAJM589) (图 4)。化合物13与MYC结合后阻止了MYC与MAX的关联, 其以剂量依赖性方式有效破坏MYC-MAX异二聚体的形成, PCA实验中IC50为1.8 μmol·L-1。实验表明,化合物13可以促进蛋白酶体介导的MYC降解并显著缩短MYC蛋白在细胞内的半衰期。因此, 化合物13在肿瘤细胞中的抗增殖活性可能是由于其抑制MYC-MAX异二聚化, 也可能是由于降低MYC蛋白水平导致的[45]。而Lars-Gunnar Larsson小组通过双分子荧光互补分析(bimolecular fluorescent complimentary, BiFC) 发现的化合物14 (MYCMI-6) (图 4), 不会下调MYC蛋白表达的水平, 其仅作为MYC-MAX异二聚体的干扰物发挥作用[46]。在表面等离子体共振(surface plasmon resonance, SPR) 实验中, 化合物14结合MYC的KD值为1.6 ± 0.5 μmol·L-1, 同时, 实验显示, 化合物14不与MAX结合, 因此, 其对MYC的b-HLH-Zip结构域具有一定的选择性[46]
通过稳定MAX-MAX同二聚体, 可以减少与MYC进行异二聚化的MAX, 从而阻止目标基因的MYC-MAX反式激活[47]。Jiang等[48]应用虚拟配体筛选(virtual ligand screening, VLS) 来识别小分子相互作用的特异性结合口袋, 从而筛选出MAX同源二聚体的稳定剂。通过对NCI文库中140 000种化合物的筛选, 得到了化合物15 (NSC13728) (图 5)。在FRET (fluorescence resonance energy transfer, 荧光共振能量转移) 实验中, 化合物15被证明可以稳定MAX-MAX同二聚体[48]。此外, 在分析超速离心实验(analytical ultracentrifuge) 中, 化合物15使MAX的单体/二聚体平衡向二聚体方向移动, MAX-MAX二聚体的解离常数降低了1 000倍。化合物15在2.5 mmol·L-1浓度时显著抑制依赖于MYC的鸡胚成纤维细胞的致癌转化, 且在10 mmol·L-1浓度时对Src、Jun、P3K诱导的转化也具有良好的选择性。Struntz等[47]通过SMM (small molecule microarray, 小分子微阵列) 技术筛选结合MAX的化合物, 得到了不对称多环内酰胺化合物16 (KI-MS2-001) (图 5)。经过初步的构效关系讨论, 对映体选择性对活性没有显著影响, 且用于连接到SMM表面的丙二醇侧链不是结合所必需的, 故去除丙二醇链得到了化合物17 (KI-MS2-008) (图 5), 其对MAX-MAX同二聚体的结合亲和力显著增加。同时, 化合物17通过蛋白酶体途径改变MYC介导的转录, 并下调MYC蛋白水平。实验表明, 在小鼠T细胞急性淋巴细胞白血病(T-ALL) 移植瘤模型中, 化合物17在低剂量下(0.06 mg·kg-1, iv) 可有效缩小肿瘤[47]
当MYC与MAX异源二聚化时, 其复合物会采用稳定的螺旋构型, 该构型可以在靶基因的增强子和启动子处结合特定的DNA识别序列5′-CACGTG-3′ (E-Box)[49], 从而触发染色质重塑复合物的募集和转录机制的组装, 进而驱动转录程序的进行。MYC和MAX通过其螺旋-环-螺旋(HLH) 和亮氨酸拉链(LZ) 区域寡聚化, 并主要通过带正电荷的碱性(b) 区域和位于HLH区域的特定残基结合DNA。
Carabet等[50]使用MOE (molecular operating environment, 分子操作环境) 的Site Finder模块, 依据C-MYC-MAX异二聚体与DNA序列结合的1.9 Å晶体结构(PDB∶1NKP), 探究了MYC-MAX-DNA界面的潜在结合位点。根据配体结合倾向(PLB) 的打分对位点进行排序, 打分最高的位点位于MAX和MYC的bHLH区域形成的交叉处, 二聚体在该交叉处将自身插入DNA大沟。之后, 研究人员将已报道的MYC抑制剂56用作阳性对照, 在人前列腺癌细胞(LNCaP细胞) 中, 使用荧光素酶报告基因测定法, 通过监测MYC调节的信号进行筛选。在所有命中的化合物中, 有10个化合物在25 μmol·L-1浓度时使MYC驱动的荧光素酶水平降低50%以上。进行剂量反应分析后, 得到了两个化合物: 化合物18 (VPC-70067, IC50 = 22.7 μmol·L-1) 和化合物19 (VPC-70063, IC50 = 8.9 μmol·L-1)[50] (图 6)。化合物18在结构、活性和作用机制上与化合物5高度相似, 而化合物19在细胞实验和体外实验中表现最好。目前, 研究人员已将19作为先导化合物进行后续的进一步结构修饰与改造, 有望得到活性提升的化合物。
WDR5是一种高度保守的WD-40重复蛋白, 由334个氨基酸组成, 其在造血过程中对H3K4的甲基化和HOX基因的表达起着至关重要的作用[51, 52]。WDR5包含有两个结合位点, 分别称为WIN位点(WDR5-interacting site, WDR5相互作用位点) 和WBM位点(WDR5-binding motif, WDR5结合基序)[51]。MYC通过进化上保守的“MYC盒”MBIIIb基序中的6个氨基酸序列(EEIDVV) 与WDR5的WBM位点结合, 结合表面是一个浅的疏水性裂缝(图 7A), 这个结合裂缝也被证明可以结合其他蛋白质如: RBBP5 (retinoblastoma binding protein 5, 人源重组蛋白5)、KANSL2 (KAT8 regulatory NSL complex subunit 2, KAT8调控NSL复合亚基2)[53]。该结合表面具有明显的结构化特征, 其在MYC蛋白中普遍保守, 非常适合探究用来抑制MYC-WDR5蛋白-蛋白相互作用(PPI) 的小分子。MYC中的结构突变可以破坏其与WDR5的相互作用, 减弱了MYC与大部分染色体的结合, 并使其无法诱导多功能干细胞形成, 从而抑制肿瘤细胞的进一步扩增[14, 53, 54]
Macdonald等[55]在2019年报道了一类具有磺酰胺结构的MYC-WDR5抑制剂。研究人员利用荧光偏振(FP) 实验, 对VICB集合库进行高通量筛选(HTS), 得到了110个命中化合物。之后根据正交生物物理分析, 收集WDR5的SOFAST 1H-15N异核多量子相干光谱(HMQC) 以验证化合物的直接结合, 结果显示多个命中化合物包含联芳基磺酰胺结构(图 7B), 于是研究人员在此基础上进行了一系列的结构改造。该系列活性最好的化合物20, 其IC50值达到了29 nmol·L-1 [55] (图 8)。虽然这些化合物显示出很高的活性, 但是其理化性质较差, 不适合用于体内研究。Chacon Simon等[56]在此基础上, 通过NMR的片段筛选鉴定了一些其他的化合物碎片, 并将所得碎片(F2) 与之前的磺酰胺(化合物22) 拼合, 得到了一系列理化性质改善的化合物(见通式X), 其中, 化合物23的IC50值为100 nmol·L-1 (图 8)。在转染WDR5的HEK293 (human embryonic kidney 293 cell, 人胚胎肾细胞293) 细胞中进行的Co-IP (co-immunoprecipitation, 免疫共沉淀) 研究表明, 当细胞用化合物23处理时, WDR5-MYC复合物的量减少了大约4倍。目前, 该化合物已被用于研究MYC-WDR5复合物的生物学效应。
TRRAP (transformation/transcription domain associated protein, 转化/转录域关联蛋白) 是一种高度保守的434 kDa蛋白, 属于PIKK (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase related kinase, 磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶相关激酶) 家族, 该家族包括mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin, 哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白)、DNA-PKcs (DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit, DNA依赖性蛋白激酶催化亚基)、ATM/Tel1 (ataxia telangiectasia mutated gene, 共济失调毛细血管扩张突变基因; 人类ATM蛋白的出芽酵母同源物)、ATR/Mec1 (ataxia telangiectasia Rad3 related protein, 共济失调毛细血管扩张症Rad3相关蛋白) 和SMG-1 (suppressor with morphogenetic effect on genitalia-1, 生殖器形成抑制基因1)[57]。PIKK是参与转录调控、DNA修复、细胞生长、代谢控制和mRNA监视的激酶, 但其中TRRAP缺乏激酶结构域, 且在整个进化过程中没有酶活性。同时TRRAP也是一种关键的MYC辅因子, 是组蛋白乙酰化(HAT) 复合物的成员, 可帮助转录因子(如MYC) 控制基因表达。MYC和TRRAP之间的相互作用发生在MYC蛋白的一个精确区域, 称为MBⅡ, 该区域也是MYC反式激活域(TAD) 的核心[57, 58]。MYC TAD本质上是无序的, 但是有证据表明, 当MBII与TRRAP发生相互作用时, MBII会变成一个明确的结构, 因此可以通过该结构来开发抑制剂以阻止MYC-TRRAP的相互作用, 从而靶向治疗MYC驱动的癌症[58-61]。研究表明, MYC-TRRAP相互作用的特点是结合自由能较低, 相比于MYC-MAX异源二聚体, 靶向MYC-TRRAP更有利于开发靶向MYC的小分子抑制[57]。同时, 介导MYC和TRRAP之间相互作用的17个氨基酸的MBII区域更短且更明确, 因此比MYC-MAX界面更容易被破坏。此外, 体内药效模型已经证实MBII是MYC驱动肿瘤发生所必需的, 这使得通过MBII区域干扰MYC-TRRAP相互作用是一个非常有前景的治疗策略。
溴结构域和末端外结构域(bromodomain and extraterminal domain, BET) 家族蛋白共有4名成员, 分别为BRD2、BRD3、BRD4、BRDT, 其中BRD4有3种不同的亚型[62]。由于BRD结构域对乙酰化组蛋白有很高的亲和力, 因此BET蛋白在染色质上主要分布在组蛋白乙酰化位点附近。除了能够通过BRD结构域结合乙酰化修饰的组蛋白外, BRD4还能与其他一些蛋白如P-TEFb (positive transcription elongation factor b, 正转录延伸因子b) 形成蛋白复合物(图 9), P-TEFb蛋白能够与CDK9 (cyclin dependent kinase 9, 周期蛋白依赖性激酶9) 发生相互作用并通过磷酸化来增加RNA聚合酶Ⅱ (Pol II) 的转录活性, 从而激活下游基因的表达[63] (图 9)。BET是重要的转录激活蛋白, 一些重要的原癌基因如MYCBCL2 (B-cell lymphoma-2, B淋巴细胞瘤-2)、CDK6 (cyclin dependent kinase 6, 周期蛋白依赖性激酶6) 均受到BET蛋白的调控。
在多发性骨髓瘤细胞中, BRD4在MYC基因上游IgH增强子(enhancer) 上高度富集; 在白血病细胞中, BRD4在MYC基因下游E1-E5增强子区域高度富集[63], BRD4蛋白在这些增强子上富集后直接调控MYC蛋白的表达[64]。实验发现, BET抑制剂JQ1 (图 10) 处理白血病细胞可以降低MYCBCL2等原癌基因的表达[65], 因此, 可以通过干扰染色质与RNA聚合酶之间的信号转导来靶向MYC转录, 即通过抑制与转录起始和延伸有关的共激活蛋白的乙酰赖氨酸识别域(溴域), 来实现癌症的治疗[66]
(+)-JQ1是通过对噻吩并二氮杂䓬结构(一种已知的BRD4结合母核) 进行计算建模而得到的[67, 68]。(-)-JQ1对BRD4完全无活性, 这可能是由于(-)-JQ1的酯取代基与结合口袋周围的氨基酸残基存在空间位阻(图 11A)。两种对映异构体的对接研究证实, (+)-JQ1的拟结合优于(-)-JQ1, (-)-JQ1在活性位点内与Leu92和Leu94产生空间位阻, 因此该构象在能量上不利。JQ1对BET的抑制会下调MYC转录, 从而使全基因组下调MYC依赖性靶基因。在多发性骨髓瘤(一种依赖于MYC的血液系统恶性肿瘤) 的实验模型中, JQ1产生与细胞周期停滞和细胞衰老相关的有效抗增殖作用。JQ1在3种多发性骨髓瘤的小鼠模型中均显示出较好的抑癌效果, 这为BET溴结构域抑制剂在以MYC病理激活为特征的恶性肿瘤中的治疗作用奠定了基础。目前, 已经报道了许多BET抑制剂, 本小节只选择性地介绍具有蛋白-复合物共晶结构且正处于临床的部分BET抑制剂。
由Resverlogix开发的BET抑制剂喹唑啉化合物24 (RVX-208) (图 10) 用于治疗肾衰竭、慢性糖尿病和与动脉粥样硬化相关的心血管疾病[69]。化合物24 (KD = 135 nmol·L-1) 对溴结构域2 (BD2) 表现出10倍的选择性, 这种选择性归因于溴结构域活性位点中3个关键残基的变化: 将BD1与BD2进行比较时, 发现Gln85变为赖氨酸、Asp144变为组氨酸以及Ile146变为缬氨酸。泛BET抑制剂(+)-JQ-1抑制了754个基因的表达, 而化合物24仅抑制了46个基因的表达, 显著降低了脱靶的风险[69]。目前, 化合物24正处于III期临床试验阶段。
Abbvie开发了一种可口服的泛BET抑制剂化合物25 (ABBV-075)[70, 71] (图 10), ABBV系列化合物的吡咯并吡啶部分与苯基相连, 在1位带有O或N取代基, 在4位带有磺酰基取代基。研究人员对其构效关系的研究集中在吡咯并吡啶母核的取代基上, 由此得到了化合物26 (ABBV-744) (图 10), 其具有很强的选择性, 对BRD4 BD2的抑制活性超过了BD1的300倍[72]。化合物26对AML (acute myelogenous leukemia, 急性髓系白血病) 细胞系和雄激素受体阳性前列腺癌细胞系具有很强的抑制作用, 并且提高了口服生物利用度。目前, 化合物25和化合物26均处于治疗急性髓细胞白血病的I期临床试验阶段。
AstraZeneca开发的化合物27 (AZD5153) (图 10) 也是一种可口服的BET抑制剂[66], 可与BRD4溴结构域1 (BD1) 和2 (BD2) 结合, 并通过从染色质中置换BRD4来阻断MYC的表达, 其IC50为5 nmol·L-1。虽然靶向BRD4的小分子抑制剂研发取得了重大进展, 许多BRD4抑制剂在临床上显示出很好的效果, 但是, 这些抑制剂对MYC蛋白的影响还需要进一步的研究。
位于MYC的P1启动子上游的核酸酶超敏元件III1(NHE III1) 参与了80%~90%的MYC转录, NHE III1元件包含一个富含鸟嘌呤(G) 的区域, 该区域可以折叠成特定的DNA二级结构, 称为G4 (图 12), 其负向调节MYC转录[73]。作为非经典DNA结构, G4通常由三层或更多层G-四重体(也称为G-四分体) 组成, 该四重体是由Hoogsteen氢键连接4个G形成的一个环状平面, 并由中间的一价阳离子(主要是K+) 稳定, 两层或以上的四重体通过π-π堆积形成四链体。许多基因的启动子中都含有G4结构, 其中, 研究最广泛的是MYC G4。MYC G4的生物学作用取决于与其相互作用的蛋白质, 这些蛋白质可能促进G4的形成、稳定或分解, 从而介导MYC的转录。通过特定配体稳定G4结构会影响其与蛋白质的相互作用, 从而导致MYC转录减少[74, 75]。因此, 这些配体是潜在的抗癌分子, 基于充分表征的MYC G4, 研究人员可以设计小分子或肽来靶向这种结构, 并通过下调MYC基因表达使其成为有前景的抗癌药物。
迄今为止, 已经报道了许多天然化合物可以稳定G4结构, 从而抑制MYC的表达, 例如fonsecin B、生物碱、胡椒碱和黄酮类槲皮素等。然而, 其对MYC G4的结合亲和力和特异性远低于已报道的合成小分子。因此, 本节主要讨论稳定G4的合成化合物。
Brown等[76]发现了化合物28 (GQC-05) (图 13), 一种9- (二甲基氨基乙氧基) 取代的玫瑰树碱化合物。通过CD (circular dichroism, 圆二色谱法)、竞争平衡透析法(competition dialysis) 和表面等离子体共振(SPR) 方法分析, 该化合物对MYC G4有很好的结合能力。另外, 通过稳定MYC G4来抑制MYC基因的转录, 化合物28对RAJI细胞(人Burkitt淋巴瘤细胞) 具有很好的抑制活性(IC50 = 2.6 μmol·L-1)[76]。2018年, Calabrese等[77]从苯并呋喃衍生物库中筛选出一种三氟甲基取代的化合物29 (DC-34) (图 13), 化合物29对MYC G4具有很强的亲和力, 可以有效下调多发性骨髓瘤细胞中MYC基因的表达。与其他稳定G4化合物不同, 化合物29不结合dsDNA, 对其他致癌基因的G4结构显示出较弱的亲和力, 具有一定的选择性[78]
2018年, 中山大学药学院的Hu等[79]通过对芳基取代的咪唑/咔唑偶联物进行结构修饰, 设计合成了四叶草样配体化合物30 (IZCZ-3) (图 13)。分子对接研究表明, 化合物30可以通过π-π相互作用完美地堆叠在G4的5′末端G-四链体平面上。此外, 化合物30的带正电荷的咪唑部分位于MYC G4的离子通道中, 进一步提高了对G4的亲和力。同样, 一系列基于体外细胞的研究也证明化合物30可以通过特异性靶向G4结构来有效下调MYC转录。在异种移植人宫颈鳞癌细胞的裸鼠中, 化合物30也表现出很强的肿瘤抑制活性[79]
与化合物30相比, 喹啉衍生物31 (QN-1) (图 13) 对MYC G4显示出相对较高的选择性[80]。在基于细胞和小鼠模型的研究中, 化合物31对三阴性乳腺癌(TNBC) 显示出较好的抗癌活性。同时, 化合物31MYC的抑制显著大于G4介导的其他基因, 如BCL2c-KITVEGFHRAS等。此外, 与正常细胞相比, 过表达MYC的TNBC 4T1细胞对化合物31更敏感, 2.5 μmol·L-1的化合物31可以完全抑制TNBC 4T1细胞的生长, 而在同等浓度下, 其他经典的TNBC化疗药物(例如多柔比星、紫杉醇和顺铂) 对TNBC 4T1细胞仅有70%的抑制率[80]
Das等[81]合成了一系列可以结合和稳定MYC G4的咔唑衍生物。在这些化合物中, 化合物32 (Cz-1) (图 13) 对G4与dsDNA表现出良好的选择性。细胞实验表明, 化合物32可以通过结合和稳定MYC G4下调MYC的表达, 从而促进HeLa细胞凋亡。
尽管目前已经报道了很多靶向MYC G4的小分子, 但是由于其脱靶效应以及狭窄的治疗窗口, 大部分小分子都没有应用于临床。基于肽3D结构的可塑性以及重现G4与蛋白质相互作用的潜力, 其可以提供一种有前景的靶向G4的抗癌策略。
Dutta等[82]设计合成了一种月牙形的噻唑三肽: 化合物33 (TH3) (图 13)。与其他相比, 该化合物对MYC G4具有一定的选择性。核磁共振(NMR) 分析表明, 化合物33的平面结构可以通过与5′和3′末端G-四重体结合而与MYC G4相互作用, 这两个末端G-四重体的帽子结构富含AT碱基, 在MYC G4中是独一无二的[82], 因此化合物33对MYC G4具有较好的选择性。
2018年, Sengupta等[83]通过修剪人类导管素(LL37) 蛋白[84]的G4结合域(FK13), 设计了一种肽34 (KR12C) (肽序列: N-KRIVKLIKKWLR-C)[83]。肽34可以在凹槽/环/骨架结合模型中与MYC G4相互作用, 并通过糖-磷酸骨架上的静电相互作用选择性地稳定MYC G4的5′-螺旋桨环。肽34可以通过MCF-7细胞(人乳腺癌细胞) 中的E2F1/VEGF-A/BCL2 (VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor, 血管内皮生长因子A) 轴促进凋亡信号的传导[83], 从而特异性地靶向MYC G4并发挥抑癌活性。
MYC作为重要的转录因子, 在一系列的细胞过程(包括增殖、代谢、生物合成和细胞凋亡等) 中具有重要作用, 而MYC的异常表达与癌症的发生和发展密切相关。尽管MYC已被证实是一种致癌基因, 但由于MYC蛋白表面缺乏传统的结合口袋, 目前还未发现可直接结合MYC蛋白的抑制剂。
MYC及其伴侣蛋白MAX都具有无序的b-HLH-LZ结构域, 这两个无序的亮氨酸拉链基序经过耦合、折叠、结合, 生成了有序α螺旋结构的MYC/MAX异二聚体。MYC/MAX异二聚体晶体结构的成功解析, 为高通量筛选间接靶向MYC的小分子化合物提供了蛋白结构基础。目前, 通过高通量筛选已经发现了很多调控MYC-MAX相互作用的小分子, 如3jc48-3、sAJM589、MYCMI-6等。遗憾的是, 目前还没有调控MYC-MAX相互作用的小分子进入临床阶段。在此之前, MYC-MAX调控剂对MYC蛋白相互作用网络和E-Box的影响还需进一步研究, 从而选择性地调控MYC蛋白。
表观遗传调控蛋白中的WDR5蛋白和TRRAP蛋白分别能与MYC结构中的MBⅢb基序和MBⅡ基序结合, 参与MYC的转录过程。已有研究报道, 抑制MYC-WDR5 PPI和MYC-TRRAP PPI, 可以有效地减弱MYC与染色质的结合, 从而抑制肿瘤的扩增。但是, 抑制MYC-WDR5相互作用后, 对独立于MYC的WDR5的功能造成的影响还不明确, 有待进一步的研究探讨。针对MYC-TRRAP相互作用的抑制剂还处于开发的早期药物发现阶段, 鉴于MYC-TRRAP PPI主要由疏水相互作用驱动, 因此可以优先考虑有针对性地筛选化合物库集。
另外, 有研究表明, 还可以通过抑制调控MYC的靶点来间接靶向MYC, 如抑制BET家族蛋白(BRDs) 或者稳定MYC G4结构。近几年这两种靶向策略都得到了较大的发展, 已经有小分子药物进入临床。例如, BET抑制剂ABBV-744选择性地抑制BRD4 BD2蛋白, 目前该小分子正处于治疗急性髓系白血病的I期临床试验阶段。但是, BET抑制剂存在选择性差和后续的药物不良反应等问题; 使用鸟嘌呤四链体稳定剂进行的早期临床试验结果表明, 基于DNA和RNA的结构特征设计出的小分子稳定剂, 很难与单个鸟嘌呤四链体特异性相互作用, 这些都是后续的研发工作中的关键点。
本文概述了靶向MYC小分子抑制剂的研究进展, 为想要了解相关发展动态、开展相关研究的药物化学工作者们提供了部分参考, 期待有更多的研究工作和成果被报道, 也希望后续能够有更多的小分子进入临床研究或者成功上市, 惠及更多患者。
作者贡献: 徐俊杰是本文的第一作者, 负责文献调研、整理以及文章的撰写; 尤启冬为本文的共同通讯作者, 负责稿件修改完善等工作; 郭小可为本文的通讯作者, 负责内容框架组织、稿件修改等工作。
利益冲突: 本文的研究内容无任何利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82173673)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(81872799)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(81930100)
  • 江苏省自然科学基金资助项目(BK20191321)
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2022年第57卷第6期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2021-1794
  • 接收时间:2021-12-15
  • 首发时间:2025-12-23
  • 出版时间:2022-06-12
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  • 收稿日期:2021-12-15
  • 修回日期:2022-01-07
基金
国家自然科学基金资助项目(82173673)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(81872799)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(81930100)
江苏省自然科学基金资助项目(BK20191321)
作者信息
    1.中国药科大学, 江苏省药物分子设计与成药性优化重点实验室, 江苏 南京 211198
    2.中国药科大学药学院, 江苏 南京 211198

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*尤启冬, Tel: 86-25-86185328, E-mail: ;
郭小可,
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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