Article(id=1208402527142396425, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1208402525334646788, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2020-1485, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1600012800000, receivedDateStr=2020-09-14, revisedDate=1603814400000, revisedDateStr=2020-10-28, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766035213504, onlineDateStr=2025-12-18, pubDate=1613059200000, pubDateStr=2021-02-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766035213504, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-18, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766035213504, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766035213504, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1208402525334646788, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2021', volume='56', issue='2', pageStart='341', pageEnd='642', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766035213072, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766137254779, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1208830519349998380, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1208402525334646788, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1208830519349998381, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1208402525334646788, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=374, endPage=382, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1208402527939314196, articleId=1208402527142396425, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Recent advancement in targeting the KRAS-G12C mutant for cancer therapy, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

RAS, as a well-known proto-oncogene, is the most frequently mutated oncogene in human cancers, yet tremendous efforts over the past 30 years have failed to develop effective therapies for RAS-mutant cancer.Recently, specifically targeting the KRAS-G12C mutant, a frequently occurring KRAS mutation in human cancers, has shown promise in conquering KRAS-mutant cancers, and has inspired interest in this direction. We herein review the very recent progress achieved in the development of covalent inhibitors towards KRAS-G12C mutant, in combinational therapies and in proteolysis-targeting chimeras(PROTACs)-based approaches to disrupt KRASG12C protein. We provide insights for drug discovery against KRAS-G12C-mutated tumors and discuss the potential challenges in this field.

, correspAuthors=Ping-yu LIU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2021 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Xin LI, Yi-jun WANG, Ping-yu LIU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1208402529495401051, articleId=1208402527142396425, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=特异靶向KRAS-G12C突变的抗肿瘤药物研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

RAS是肿瘤中突变最为广泛的癌基因, 但是至今尚无针对RAS突变肿瘤的靶向治疗药物获批在临床使用。近年来, 针对KRAS-G12C突变体的抑制剂研发进展迅猛, 被认为是当前针对RAS突变肿瘤最具希望的突破方向。本综述围绕KRAS-G12C突变, 重点介绍了针对半胱氨酸的共价抑制剂研发进展、联合用药策略和基于蛋白降解的蛋白水解靶向嵌合体(PROTACs)技术的应用, 总结了相关新药研发的最新进展。自2013年首个针对KRASG12C的共价抑制剂被报道以来, 该领域已经取得了快速进展, 目前进展较快的化合物已在临床取得显著疗效, 极有希望在近期上市; PROTACs降解剂的研发虽然刚刚起步, 新近也获得了显著进展, 有望带来新的希望。针对RAS的抗肿瘤药物研发有望迎来首个突破, 但也仍面临着诸多挑战, 进一步优化技术、探明机制和明晰策略将是未来的努力方向。

, correspAuthors=刘平羽, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*刘平羽,Tel: 86-25-58509955, E-mail:
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特异靶向KRAS-G12C突变的抗肿瘤药物研究进展
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李歆 1 , 王义俊 2 , 刘平羽 *, 2
药学学报 | 综述 2021,56(2): 374-382
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药学学报 | 综述 2021, 56(2): 374-382
特异靶向KRAS-G12C突变的抗肿瘤药物研究进展
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李歆1, 王义俊2, 刘平羽*, 2
作者信息
  • 1.南京医科大学药学院, 江苏 南京 211166
  • 2.南京医科大学第二附属医院药学部, 江苏 南京 210011

通讯作者:

*刘平羽,Tel: 86-25-58509955, E-mail:
Recent advancement in targeting the KRAS-G12C mutant for cancer therapy
Xin LI1, Yi-jun WANG2, Ping-yu LIU*, 2
Affiliations
  • 1. School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
  • 2. Pharmacy Department, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210011, China
出版时间: 2021-02-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2020-1485
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RAS是肿瘤中突变最为广泛的癌基因, 但是至今尚无针对RAS突变肿瘤的靶向治疗药物获批在临床使用。近年来, 针对KRAS-G12C突变体的抑制剂研发进展迅猛, 被认为是当前针对RAS突变肿瘤最具希望的突破方向。本综述围绕KRAS-G12C突变, 重点介绍了针对半胱氨酸的共价抑制剂研发进展、联合用药策略和基于蛋白降解的蛋白水解靶向嵌合体(PROTACs)技术的应用, 总结了相关新药研发的最新进展。自2013年首个针对KRASG12C的共价抑制剂被报道以来, 该领域已经取得了快速进展, 目前进展较快的化合物已在临床取得显著疗效, 极有希望在近期上市; PROTACs降解剂的研发虽然刚刚起步, 新近也获得了显著进展, 有望带来新的希望。针对RAS的抗肿瘤药物研发有望迎来首个突破, 但也仍面临着诸多挑战, 进一步优化技术、探明机制和明晰策略将是未来的努力方向。

KRAS突变肿瘤  /  KRAS-G12C突变体  /  抗肿瘤药物  /  共价抑制剂  /  蛋白水解靶向嵌合体  /  联合用药

RAS, as a well-known proto-oncogene, is the most frequently mutated oncogene in human cancers, yet tremendous efforts over the past 30 years have failed to develop effective therapies for RAS-mutant cancer.Recently, specifically targeting the KRAS-G12C mutant, a frequently occurring KRAS mutation in human cancers, has shown promise in conquering KRAS-mutant cancers, and has inspired interest in this direction. We herein review the very recent progress achieved in the development of covalent inhibitors towards KRAS-G12C mutant, in combinational therapies and in proteolysis-targeting chimeras(PROTACs)-based approaches to disrupt KRASG12C protein. We provide insights for drug discovery against KRAS-G12C-mutated tumors and discuss the potential challenges in this field.

KRAS mutated cancer  /  KRAS-G12C mutant  /  anticancer drug  /  covalent inhibitor  /  proteolysistargeting chimeras  /  combination therapy
李歆, 王义俊, 刘平羽. 特异靶向KRAS-G12C突变的抗肿瘤药物研究进展. 药学学报, 2021 , 56 (2) : 374 -382 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2020-1485
Xin LI, Yi-jun WANG, Ping-yu LIU. Recent advancement in targeting the KRAS-G12C mutant for cancer therapy[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2021 , 56 (2) : 374 -382 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2020-1485
RAS蛋白属于具有GTPase酶活性的鸟嘌呤核苷结合蛋白, 包括KRAS、HRAS和NRAS 3种亚型。RAS的活性因与二磷酸鸟苷(guanosine diphosphate, GDP)或三磷酸鸟苷(guanosine triphosphate, GTP)的结合转换而切换, 与GDP结合时处于失活的状态, 与GTP结合时则激活。在细胞中, RAS处于信号通路相对中枢位置, 承接上游多种生长因子受体的信号, 激活下游多条信号通路包括丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase, MAPK)、磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(phosphati‐dylinositol 3-kinase, PI3K)和鸟嘌呤核苷酸解离刺激因子(Ral guanine nucleotide dissociation stimulator, Ral GDS)等, 调控基因转录和蛋白合成等过程, 进而影响细胞生长、分化、凋亡和转移等[1]
RAS是肿瘤中突变最为广泛的癌基因, 大约30%的肿瘤中含有RAS突变。KRAS、HRAS和NRAS 3种亚型均被发现在肿瘤中存在突变, 其中以KRAS突变最为常见, 占RAS突变的80%左右。KRAS突变在胰腺癌、非小细胞肺癌(non-small cell lung cancer, NSCLC)和结直肠癌中最为常见, 特别是在胰腺癌中高达90%。KRAS突变主要发生在12、13位甘氨酸(glycine, Gly, G)和61位谷氨酰胺(glutamine, Gln, Q) 3个位点。其中G12位突变发生率最高, 受到广泛关注[2]
尽管KRAS突变在肿瘤中的重要作用已经得到了广泛共识, 但是针对KRAS突变体的抗肿瘤药物研究道路一直充满荆棘, 至今尚无靶向KRAS的药物获批上市。长期以来, KRAS突变体被认为是一个“难以靶向(undruggable)”的靶点, 其原因与KRAS蛋白的作用特点直接相关: ① KRAS与GTP的亲和力极强, 可达到皮摩尔水平, 比蛋白激酶对ATP的亲和力强1 000倍以上, 且细胞中GTP浓度很高, 因此很难像蛋白激酶抑制剂一样, 实现针对GTP结合位点的有效竞争; ②KRAS蛋白表面平滑, 具有近乎球形的空间结构, 缺乏较深的疏水口袋, 阻碍了高亲和力抑制剂的识别[3, 4]
过去30多年来, 针对KRAS突变肿瘤的药物研发的探索从未停止。靶向KRAS的药物发现策略, 主要有以下几种[5-9]: ①影响KRAS功能相关的翻译后修饰或蛋白定位; ②影响KRAS与其调节蛋白或下游蛋白的结合, 如调节蛋白SOS (son of sevenless)和下游效应蛋白RAF; ③抑制KRAS下游关键信号通路; ④针对特定突变体的共价抑制思路; ⑤基于KRAS肿瘤的协同致死策略(synthetic lethality)等。上述策略均取得了不同程度的进展。例如, 通过与SOS1结合来阻断KRAS通路的首个泛KRAS抑制剂BI 1701963, 有望突破KRAS突变不同类型的限制, 广泛抑制KRAS突变肿瘤, 目前已经启动临床研究, 并将中国纳入了其全球早期临床开发项目; KRAS通路下游分子MEK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)的抑制剂曲美替尼(trametinib)单用或联用治疗KRAS突变的NSCLC也在临床中初现疗效; 此外, 基于协同致死策略的Polo样激酶蛋白激酶1 (Polo-like kinase 1, PLK1)抑制剂也已经进入临床研究, 探索对KRAS突变结直肠癌的治疗潜力。当前, 毋庸置疑, RAS领域最受关注的是特异针对KRAS-G12C的共价抑制策略, 被认为是最有可能在近期取得突破的KRAS抑制剂研发方向, 掀起了KRAS抑制剂研究的新高潮[6, 10-12]。本文将围绕这一热点领域, 就新近取得的进展进行总结, 并就面临的挑战进行讨论, 希望为针对KRAS-G12C突变的抗肿瘤新药研发提供系统的信息和新的思路。
RAS蛋白包含4个结构域, 其中氨基酸1~166组成G结构域(G-domain), 该结构域在各亚型中高度保守, 其余23~24个氨基酸组成高度可变区(hyper-variable region, HVR)。G-domain包含了关键的核苷酸结合口袋, 由P-loop (氨基酸10~17)、Switch I (SWI, 氨基酸30~38)和Switch II (SWII, 氨基酸60~67)等区域组成。SWI和SWII区域对于RAS活性至关重要。当RAS处于GTP结合的活性状态时, GTP分子中的磷酸分别与SWI的35位苏氨酸和SWII的60位Gly形成氢键; GTP被水解时, SWI和SWII随即分开, 恢复非活性构象[2]。KRAS的G12位于KRAS蛋白SWI、SWII以及P-loop三方交界的区域。根据肿瘤中该位点氨基酸残基的变化情况, KRAS的12位Gly可能产生10余种不同形式的突变, 其中突变为天冬氨酸(G12D)、缬氨酸(G12V)和半胱氨酸(G12C)的发生频率最高。KRAS-G12C突变特指KRAS的12位Gly突变为半胱氨酸(cysteine, Cys, C), 该突变主要在肺腺癌中比例最高, 超过10%。
对于KRAS突变对其功能产生的影响, 主要基于生物化学和结构生物学的研究证据, 虽然以往已经有了大量的研究, 但是认识仍不明晰。一般认为, KRAS12、13和61位点突变均能降低GTPase酶活, 但是不同形式的KRAS突变体的激活机制并不尽相同, 例如G13D突变体的核苷酸交换速度要高于其他突变体[13]; G12位突变会影响GTP水解, 在所有的G12突变体中, G12C的GTPase的酶活水平最高。对于KRAS-G12C突变的导致KRAS异常激活的机制, 目前认识还比较有限。早期的认识主要依赖于对KRAS活性调控机制的理解和对KRAS-G12C结构生物学研究。如前所述, GTP水解为GDP是RAS活性转换的关键步骤, 而RAS高效水解GTP需要GAP蛋白参与。研究表明, GAP与RAS结合后, 会将其精氨酸残基伸到催化位点, 协助GTP水解, 被称作精氨酸手指(arginine finger)。结构生物学研究提示, G12替换成脯氨酸之外的任何氨基酸, 其立体位阻将阻碍精氨酸手指进入催化位点。受到这一证据提示, 人们猜测G12C突变可能降低了KRAS的GTPase活性, 造成激活型KRAS-GTP比例增加。然而, 随着G12C抑制剂的发现, 为认识该突变的功能提供了新的手段, 带来了对G12C功能的全新认识。人们发现, G12C自身的GTPase活性似乎并没有下降。KRAS-G12C类似于野生型, 也存在GTP/GDP循环。KRAS-G12C是一种“过度激活(hyperactive)”的状态[14, 15]
近年来, 针对表皮生长因子受体(epithelial growth factor receptor, EGFR)和Bruton's酪氨酸激酶(Bruton's tyrosine kinase, BTK)的Cys的共价抑制剂在临床相继取得成功, 为KRAS-G12C共价抑制剂的研究提供了新的思路, 使得这一突变形式从众多的G12突变体中脱颖而出, 成为KRAS突变体中可行性最高的靶点。从2013年第一个针对KRAS-G12C的抑制剂被报道至今, 短短几年时间, 该类抑制剂已经在临床研究中初见成效, 显示出极大的潜力, 有望近期上市, 为患者带来新的希望(图 1)[12, 16]
一直以来, 由于对共价抑制剂的作用机制认识不足及对其潜在毒性的担心, 使得非共价抑制剂成为药物研发的主流。目前发现的大多数药物, 都是通过其非共价作用实现对靶点功能的干预。近年来, 随着酶化学、酶动力学等方面认识的不断深入, 共价抑制剂的研发引起了人们的关注。特别是针对蛋白激酶共价抑制剂的成功上市, 推动了在更广阔的靶点领域探索共价抑制剂的治疗机会。共价抑制剂具有显著的优势: ①靶点作用更强: 共价抑制剂大多通过不可逆的共价修饰实现对靶点的功能干预, 避免了可逆反应导致的靶点功能恢复, 因此作用更加持久, 药物有效浓度大幅度降低; ②选择性更高: 共价抑制剂独特的结合口袋在选择性方面显示出独特的优势。以目前上市药物最多的ATP竞争性激酶抑制剂为例, 这类抑制剂大多结合于激酶靶点的ATP结合口袋, 因为该区域的氨基酸序列相对保守, 因此很难避免抑制剂对同家族激酶的抑制。共价抑制剂一般作用于非保守区域, 避开了保守区域, 因此选择性更高[17]
Cys是最强的具有亲核作用的氨基酸, 其侧链富电子巯基极易与药物分子中的亲电基团反应形成共价键, 导致药物分子的不可逆结合而达到抑制蛋白功能的效果。不可逆共价抑制剂通常包含“导引头”与“反应弹头”两个部分, 分别实现不同功能。其中, 导引头识别靶蛋白上的结合口袋, 通过与口袋附近氨基酸残基的疏水作用等非共价作用与靶点结合, 确保了共价抑制剂的选择性; 随后, 反应弹头与Cys残基发生化学反应, 形成共价连接[18]。这一机制也解释了为何关键的Cys残基在蛋白中广泛存在, 但是共价抑制剂仍能保持较好的选择性。例如, 已经上市的EGFR三代抑制剂AZD9291的嘧啶环C-2位的亲电反应基团能与ATP结合位点的Cys797残基形成共价键结合[19, 20, 21]; BTK不可逆共价抑制剂如ibrutinib的丙烯酰胺弹头的亲电子的烯键能与BTK的Cys481的巯基发生迈克尔加成反应形成共价键, 占用了BTK分子的活性口袋, 不可逆地抑制BTK的激酶活性[22]
Cys共价抑制剂不断取得突破, KRAS-G12C成为众多KRAS突变体中的理想靶点。一方面, 变异产生的Cys可以成为不可逆抑制剂进攻的目标, 减少了对结合口袋的依赖, 一定程度上克服了RAS蛋白表面缺乏结合口袋的问题; 另一方面, G12C位于SWI、SWII以及P-loop三方交界的区域, 提示抑制G12C极有可能对RAS构象和活性产生重要影响。
2013年, 美国加州大学Shokat团队[23]率先报道了首个针对KRAS-G12C的共价抑制剂。该抑制剂的发现得益于一种基于二硫键的小分子片段库筛选方法, 该方法利用了半胱氨酸侧链巯基的高反应性, 小分子的二硫键可以与靶蛋白Cys的巯基发生交换反应, 形成共价连接。该方法通过还原处理除去了其他缀合片段, 使得真正进入Cys结合口袋内部的小分子片段得以保留, 并通过蛋白质谱法进行检测。上述筛选得到的活性片段, 结合药物化学的构效关系研究, 得到了活性化合物6。在此基础上, 研究者进一步摒弃了化合物的二硫键活性中心, 引入共价抑制剂常用的丙烯酰胺类改造策略, 得到了化合物12, 活性较化合物6显著提升。这些化合物能够阻断SOS介导的核苷酸交换, 导致突变KRAS对GDP的亲和力增加, 显示出对KRAS-G12C的显著抑制活性。对活性化合物和RAS蛋白的复合物晶体的结构研究, 极大地推动了对其作用机制的认识, 并为该类抑制剂的研发提供了重要的理论指导。特别值得注意的是, 在化合物结合的KRAS-GDP的SWII区域下形成的一个新的结合口袋, 被称为SWII口袋(switch II pocket, S-IIP), 而这一口袋在以往已经发表的RAS结构中并不明显, 这一发现很大程度上支持了针对KRAS-G12C共价抑制的可行性。
上述成果迈出了重要的第一步, 但是获得的化合物在KRAS-G12C肿瘤细胞内的抑制活性似乎并不明显。Wellspring生物公司针对前期发现的变构口袋S-IIP, 设计了对该口袋作用更强的抑制剂, 发现了化合物ARS-853, 对细胞中的KRAS-G12C具有显著抑制作用, 实现了细胞活性的突破[24]。然而, 上述化合物的成药性均存在问题, 未能在体内表现出抗肿瘤活性。上述工作促成了Wellspring公司的进一步努力, 得到了活性和选择性更高的化合物ARS-1620, 是首个在体内动物模型中被证实对G12C突变有抗肿瘤作用的共价抑制剂[25]。通过解析ARS-1620与KRAS蛋白的共晶结构, 研究人员确证了该化合物的作用模式与前期发现的化合物基本一致, 即抑制剂的结合诱导了变构口袋S-IIP, 导致RAS与GDP的亲和力增加, 同时抑制了鸟苷酸交换因子(GMP exchange factor, GEF)催化的核苷酸交换, 通过上述机制, 将RAS锁在了非活性状态。ARS-1620在小鼠体内表现出极好的口服生物利用度和代谢稳定性, 在KRAS-G12C突变的裸小鼠移植瘤模型中显示出抗肿瘤活性。2019年7月, Wellspring公司与Janssen合作将ARS-3248 (JNJ-74699157)推进至临床研究。
同期, 美国安进(Amgen)公司也开展了针对KRAS-G12C的共价抑制剂开发。通过早期筛选得到了活性化合物1[26], 其与GDP-KRAS的共晶结构揭示, 该类化合物显示出与ARS-1620不完全相同的结合模式; 化合物1的四氢异喹啉环占据了一个H95/Y96/Q99组成的隐藏口袋, 这使得药物活性成倍提高。对化合物1和ARS-1620的结合模式的叠加发现, 取代ARS-1620的喹唑啉酮氮可能提供一种进入H95隐袋的替代手段, 从而产生新的、增强效力的KRAS-G12C抑制剂。基于上述认识, 通过系统的构效关系研究结合成药性的考量, 成功研发出了靶向KRAS-G12C的共价抑制剂(R)-38。与KRAS-G12C的共结晶揭示, (R)-38的喹唑啉酮核心占据了SWII口袋, 丙烯酰胺部分与C12形成了共价键, 吡啶环的异丙基与Y96、H95和Q99紧密接触, 很大程度上填满了H95残基的侧链旋转所揭示的隐蔽口袋, 使得药物活性大大提高(图 2)。(R)-38在细胞水平抑制KRAS下游ERK磷酸化的半数抑制浓度(half-maximal inhibitory concentration, IC50)为68 nmol·L-1, 口服生物利用度为22%~40%;在KRAS-G12C突变的MIAPaca-2异种移植模型中, 口服10 mg·kg-1(R)-38后肿瘤生长抑制率达86%。(R)-38显示出作为候选药物的开发潜力, 定名为AMG510, 后来公布的通用名为sotorasib。
美国Mirati公司利用基于结构的药物设计策略, 开发了KRAS-G12C选择性抑制剂adagrasib(MRTX849)[27]。Adagrasib能结合并稳定非活性状态的KRAS-GDP。抑制GTPase活性或者影响KRAS-G12C的核苷酸交换功能, 均能影响化合物的活性, 提示通过影响核苷酸循环抑制了KRAS-G12C的活性。Adagrasib能够对肿瘤细胞内的KRAS-G12C形成共价修饰, 并显著抑制KRAS下游MAPK信号通路, 对携带KRAS-G12C突变肿瘤细胞的IC50介于10~973 nmol·L-1之间。研究者在26个不同组织来源的肿瘤细胞系移植瘤(cell line derived xenograft, CDX)或患者组织移植瘤(patient derived xenograft, PDX)模型中, 系统研究了adagrasib的体内抗肿瘤活性。在23个含有KRAS-G12C突变的移植瘤模型中, 17个模型呈现出显著的治疗效果, 与对照组相比, 肿瘤缩小体积超过30%;而3个不含G12C突变的模型则完全无效, 提示了该化合物的良好活性和选择性。
另外一种较早尝试的策略是设计亲电子的GDP类似物, 与核苷酸竞争KRAS的结合[28]。竞争性抑制是小分子抑制剂研发的重要思路。如前所述, 由于KRAS对于GTP和GPD的亲和力都非常高, 且细胞内GDP和GTP浓度都非常高, 竞争抑制的策略被认为无法在RAS靶点上取得突破。观察到G12C突变位点位于GTP的磷酸基团附近, 研究者提出是否可以套用ATP竞争性激酶共价抑制的策略[29], 通过共价结合G12C克服GTP/GDP的高亲和力带来的挑战, 从而有效地占据RAS的GTP/GDP结合位点。这一策略产生了SML-8-73-1系列的化合物, 可以与毫摩尔浓度的GTP/GDP竞争, 使RAS处于一种失活状态[30]
Sotorasib于2018年8月率先启动临床I期试验, 是首个进入临床研究的KRAS-G12C抑制剂[31, 32]。继2019年在美国临床肿瘤学会(American Society of Clinical Oncology, ASCO)、世界肺癌大会(World Conference on Lung Cancer, WCLC)和欧洲肿瘤内科学会(European Society for Medical Oncology, ESMO)上先后披露数据后, 2020年9月24日, 新英格兰医学杂志(New England Journal of Medicine, NEJM)发表了sotorasib的临床I期研究数据[33]。该研究包括剂量爬坡和剂量拓展两个阶段, 剂量爬坡设置180、360、720和960 mg剂量组(口服给药, 每日1次), 共入组129例含KRAS-G12C突变的实体瘤患者(59例NSCLC、42例结直肠癌和28例其他实体瘤)。11.6%的患者发生了治疗相关的3~4级毒性反应, 常见毒性为腹泻、疲劳和恶心, 未见限制性毒性(dose limiting toxicity, DLT)或者治疗相关的患者死亡。在59例NSCLC中, 19例为部分缓解(partial response, PR), 33例为疾病稳定(stable disease, SD), 客观响应率(objective response rate, ORR)为32.2%, 疾病控制率(disease control rate, DCR)达到88.1%, 中位无进展生存(median progression free survival, PFS)为6.3个月; 在42例结直肠癌患者中, ORR为7.1%, DCR为73.8%, 中位PFS为4.0个月。总体而言, NSCLC的疗效要显著优于结直肠癌。此前, 美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA)已经授予sotorasib治疗KRAS-G12C突变型转移性NSCLC的快速通道认定。2020年3月9日, 中国国家食品药品监督管理总局(National Medicinal Products Administra‐tion, NMPA)也受理了sotorasib在中国开展临床研究的申请。经过30年努力, KRAS-G12C抑制剂第一次接近成功。
Adagrasib目前处于临床Ⅰ/Ⅱ期研究, 是另一个备受关注的KRAS-G12C抑制剂。2019年10月, 研究者首次公布了adagrasib的I期临床研究的初步结果, 包括12例可供评估治疗患者(6例NSCLC、4例结直肠癌和2例阑尾癌)的治疗效果, 其中NSCLC的获益最为显著, 引起了人们的极大关注。2020年10月25日, 在第32届国际分子靶标与癌症治疗学研讨会(EORTC-NCI-AACR)会议上, Mirati公司进一步公布了adagrasib的临床研究数据, 包括上市注册的II期临床试验数据。综合临床I、II期数据, 共有51例既往接受过含铂化或程序性死亡受体-1 (programmed cell death protein-1, PD-1)或程序性死亡受体-配体1 (programmed cell death-ligand 1, PD-L1)免疫治疗的KRAS-G12C突变NSCLC患者接受了adagrasib单药治疗(600 mg、每日2次)。疗效分析显示, 45%(23/51)的患者为PR, 51%(26/51)的患者为SD, ORR达到45%, DCR为96%。在PR患者中, 70%(16/23)患者的肿瘤体积与基线相比缩小40%以上。基于上述结果呈现出来的显著临床获益, Mirati公司表示将于2021年下半年向FDA递交新药申请(new drug application, NDA), 用于经过既往治疗的KRAS-G12C突变的NSCLC患者。
此外, 截至2020年10月, Janssen公司与Wellspring合作开发的JNJ-74699157 (ARS-3248)和Eli Lilly公司开发的LY3499446也相继进入临床研究, 但是目前均无研究数据披露。
在临床概念验证(proof-of-concept)的单药治疗研究大力推进的同时, 这类抑制剂联合用药的研究也全面开展。目前, sotorasib、adagrasib和LY3499446都在临床进行联合用药研究。除了与一线治疗的化疗药物联合使用外, 联合用策略主要涉及两个方面[16]
该策略主要是基于更好地抑制KRAS通路或者防止其反馈激活的思路。例如KRAS-G12C抑制剂与MEK抑制剂、SOS1抑制剂、蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶2 (Src homology 2 domaincontaining phosphatase, SHP2)抑制剂、EGFR抑制剂联用, 都是基于上述思考。其中与SHP2的联合用药是新近较受关注的联合用药策略。SHP2是由PTPN11基因编码的细胞质蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶, SHP2的活性对于RAS通路的激活是必需的, 成为新近备受关注的抗肿瘤靶点[34]。此前有临床前研究证实, 联合抑制SHP2和MEK能显著抑制KRAS突变肿瘤的生长[34, 35], 新近SHP2抑制剂与KRAS-G12C抑制剂的联用也显示出优势[36]。同时, SHP2抑制剂的研发也相继取得突破, 诺华等公司研制的SHP2变构抑制剂TNO155、RMC-4630以及国内加思科公司研制的JAB-3068和JAB-3312, 相继进入临床研究, 为临床联合用药探索铺平了道路[37, 38]。当前, KRAS-G12C抑制剂sotorasib、adagrasib均选择了和SHP2抑制剂联用的策略。第32届EORTC-NCI-AACR上最新披露的临床数据报道, 1例经过化疗、免疫治疗等多线治疗的NSCLC患者, 接受adagrasib与TNO155联用治疗后, 肿瘤体积缩小了60%。
此外, sotorasib与adagrasib的临床研究中都呈现出相似的趋势, 即对NSCLC的治疗效果要优于结直肠癌。目前针对这一现象已经有了相关的研究, 提示结直肠癌中本底高表达的受体酪氨酸激酶(receptor tyrosine kinase, RTK)可能是结直肠癌疗效较弱的原因。结直肠癌的EGFR被证实参与了对KRAS-G12C抑制剂耐药[39], 多个RTK可能同时介导了KRAS通路的反馈激活[40]。据此, 联合EGFR抑制剂治疗KRAS-G12C突变的结直肠癌患者也是当前临床探索的重要方向。
新近有研究发现, sotorasib除了能直接抑制KRAS-G12C突变的肿瘤生长外, 还能提升肿瘤微环境中的免疫反应。在免疫健全的动物模型中, sotorasib的治疗效果更加持久, 而在免疫缺陷小鼠中, 短时间响应以后会伴随肿瘤的反弹。Sotorasib与免疫检查点抑制剂联用显示出持久的治疗效果[41]。与上述认识一致, adagrasib作用于免疫健全的CT-26小鼠模型, 能促进抗原递呈, 重塑肿瘤免疫微环境[42]。据此, 与PD-1抑制剂联用也是临床大力探索的重要方向。根据新近披露的研究计划, adagrasib也在探索与PD-1抑制剂联用治疗NSCLC患者。
近年来, 蛋白水解靶向嵌合体(proteolysis-targeting chimeras, PROTACs)技术的兴起, 使众多所谓的“难以靶向”靶点的药物研发成为可能, 成为新药研发领域备受关注的新方向。针对KRAS-G12C的PROTACs也在新近取得了初步的进展。
PROTACs是一种利用蛋白降解机制的新药研发策略[43, 44]。PROTACs降解剂实际上是一种双功能分子, 形状类似哑铃, 一端带有能与靶蛋白结合的小分子, 另一端是能招募E3泛素连接酶结合的小分子, 中间由连接器(linker)连接。PROTACs技术利用细胞中经典的泛素-蛋白酶体途径, 实现对靶蛋白的降解作用(图 3)。PROTACs技术最大的优势之一, 是对于一些传统认为“难以靶向”靶点的药物研发, 带来了新的可能性。大多数小分子药物或单抗需要结合酶或受体的活性位点来发挥作用, 然而, 据估计, 人类细胞中80%的蛋白缺乏这样的位点, 对于这类靶点, PROTACs比传统的小分子、抗体甚至抗体偶联药物具有显著优势。
事实上, 基于蛋白降解的技术药物研发思路早在上世纪末就被广泛尝试, 只是早期主要是基于肽类结构片段, 因为细胞膜通透性等问题, 极大地阻碍了其在药物研发中的应用。2008年, PROTACs技术先驱Craig M.Crews[45]由基于肽类结构转向给予小分子的PROTACs技术, 设计合成了基于E3泛素连接酶MDM2的小分子降解剂, 用于降解雄激素受体(androgen receptor, AR)。2012年, 该团队又报道了基于泛素连接酶VHL (Von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor)的小分子PROTACs, 真正将这一技术带到了新药研发的前沿[46]。近年来, 针对多个靶点的PROTACs降解剂被陆续报道, 该领域成为药物研发的热点领域。ARV-110是全球首个进入临床试验的蛋白降解剂, 于2019年进入临床研究, 靶向AR治疗前列腺癌。
PROTACs技术兴起之初, 开发靶向KRAS-G12C的降解剂就引起了人们的关注。早期靶向KRAS-G12C的PROTACs的设计思路是将靶向KRAS-G12C的“弹头”通过linker与作为E3泛素连接酶CRBN配体的泊马度胺类似物进行连接。然而, 早期研究中得到的PROTACs仅能对外源性的KRAS-G12C有效, 似乎对于内源性的KRAS-G12C并无显著的降解作用[47]
近期Craig M.Crews团队[48]首次报道了针对内源性KRAS-G12C的降解剂LC-2。LC-2是采用adagrasib作为“弹头”, 与常用的E3连接酶VHL的配体连接得到PROTACs分子。最早发现的化合物LC-1仅能结合KRAS-G12C, 但不能有效降解该蛋白。进一步的研究显示, 更短的连接器能够更有效地降解KRAS-G12C。LC-2可持续地降解肿瘤中的KRAS-G12C, 并有效抑制下游MAPK信号通路。此外, LC-2还体现出了较好的选择性, 在10μmol·L-1浓度时, 也未显示能够结合和降解KRAS-G13D, 表明PROTACs是针对KRAS-G12C突变的可行策略。
历经30多年的不懈努力, 人们第一次距离攻克KRAS突变肿瘤如此接近。然而, 面临的挑战也显而易见: ① G12C突变只占KRAS突变的一部分, 且主要在肺癌中, 对于其他常见突变KRAS-G12D和KRAS-G12V, 因为这些突变体在活性部位缺乏活性Cys, 目前大多尚无有效的策略。值得注意的是, 美国Mirati公司最新报道了针对KRAS-G12D的选择性抑制剂MRTX1133, 在临床前模型中体现出较好的治疗效果, 刚刚披露就引起了领域的极大关注; ②针对G12C的选择性至关重要。目前报道的化合物大多较大剂量才能起效, 这也增加了脱靶的风险, 对药物的安全性提出较高的要求; ③考虑到肿瘤的异质性, 可以预见不同肿瘤对于药物的响应差异将很大。前期有数据提示, KRAS变异在肺腺癌和胰腺癌肿瘤内部异质性较小, 而在肺鳞癌和肠癌中KRAS变异出现较晚, 含有KRAS突变的肿瘤细胞可能只是其中的一个“亚克隆”。这预示RAS变异对药物的敏感度可能与肿瘤类型高度有关, 这一猜测在sotorasib和adagrasib的临床数据中也得到证实。
此外, 分子靶向药物出现耐药几乎是难以避免的, KRAS-G12C抑制剂的获得性耐药发生也是可以预见的。特别是, 目前的抑制剂都是共价结合于GDP-RAS, 上游RTK通过激活GTP-RAS, 就可能导致治疗效果减弱[49]。多个KRAS-G12C抑制剂的研究均提示, 在大多数KRAS突变的肿瘤模型中, 抑制KRAS-G12C都能引起RTK介导的RAS通路的反馈激活, 且多个RTK都能参与这一作用[27]。最近的一项基于单细胞测序的研究进一步发现, KRAS-G12C抑制剂作用于KRAS-G12C突变的肺癌细胞, 引起的效应具有显著的异质性。部分处于静息状态的细胞能新合成KRAS-G12C蛋白, 这些细胞主要依赖EGFR和SHP2信号维持RAS信号通路, 导致对药物的耐受。该研究还通过基于CRISPR-Cas9技术的全基因筛选发现了耐药细胞对Aurora A激酶的依赖性[50]。基于上述认识, 联合抑制SHP2或者RTK都有可能克服KRAS抑制剂耐药。如前所述, SHP2抑制剂因为能够广泛阻断RAS信号通路的反馈激活, 引起了更多的关注[40]。当然, 目前临床应用时间还相对较短, 上述发现都有待临床的进一步证实。
PROTACs策略引起了极大的关注, 当前在多类抗肿瘤靶点被广泛尝试, 有望带来新的突破。同时, 该领域也面临着诸多挑战。首先, PROTACs分子由linker连接了两个分子片段, 所以一般分子量较大, 超过1 000 Da, 成药困难。仍有待该领域的技术升级, 以克服体内生物利用度和给药方式等各方面的成药性问题。第二, 目前报道的PROTACs分子, 对于E3泛素连接酶配体的应用还趋于一致, 局限在几个常见的分子上, 还有待进一步的拓展。第三, 对于PROTACs的评价体系与传统意义上的小分子也有差别, 还有待逐步完善, 包括脱靶降解的发现、安全性评价体系、药效研究和剂量选择等。第四, 目前的研究呈现出“过热”的端倪, 到底哪些靶点最适合PROTACs技术需要明晰的策略和生物学机制的支持。
作者贡献: 李歆负责撰写、文献资料的收集和作图; 刘平羽是综述框架的构思者及负责人, 指导论文写作并对论文进行了详细修改和检查; 王义俊进行了指导和帮助; 全体作者都阅读并同意最终的文本。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(72074123)
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2021年第56卷第2期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2020-1485
  • 接收时间:2020-09-14
  • 首发时间:2025-12-18
  • 出版时间:2021-02-12
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  • 收稿日期:2020-09-14
  • 修回日期:2020-10-28
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国家自然科学基金资助项目(72074123)
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    1.南京医科大学药学院, 江苏 南京 211166
    2.南京医科大学第二附属医院药学部, 江苏 南京 210011

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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