Article(id=1239217294413451887, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, issueId=1239217289715839002, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.05.012, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1717257600000, receivedDateStr=2024-06-02, revisedDate=1721577600000, revisedDateStr=2024-07-22, acceptedDate=1725206400000, acceptedDateStr=2024-09-02, onlineDate=1773382026532, onlineDateStr=2026-03-13, pubDate=1760544000000, pubDateStr=2025-10-16, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1773382026532, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-13, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1773382026532, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773382026532, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1239217289715839002, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, year='2025', volume='46', issue='5', pageStart='1', pageEnd='174', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1773382025412, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773382179485, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1239217936007753991, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, issueId=1239217289715839002, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1239217936007753992, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, issueId=1239217289715839002, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=12, endPage=23, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1239217294669304442, articleId=1239217294413451887, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, language=EN, title=Review on Catalytic Conversion Mechanism of Ortho-Para Hydrogen, columnId=1239217294312788587, journalTitle=Journal of Refrigeration, columnName=Hydrogen Liquefaction & Cryogenic Storage and Transmission, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Ortho-para hydrogen conversion in the hydrogen liquefaction process is significant for the long-term storage and long-distance transportation of liquid hydrogen. This paper outlines the differences in the properties of orthohydrogen and parahydrogen, reviews the research progress on the physical mechanisms and reaction kinetic models of the ortho-para hydrogen catalytic conversion process, and summarizes the performance of common catalysts. Finally, three mainstream schemes for ortho-para hydrogen conversion are compared. Research on the internal physical mechanisms and reaction kinetic models explores the conversion process from microscopic and macroscopic perspectives, respectively. Owing to the lack of experimental data, scholars have not yet formed a unified explanation for the surface characteristics of catalysts, which must be quantitatively validated. Furthermore, although nickel-based catalysts have higher catalytic efficiency, iron hydroxides and oxide catalysts are the main catalyst choices for ortho-para hydrogen conversion, considering the preparation, activation, and deactivation of catalysts and the characteristics of the liquefier. Among the three mainstream ortho-para hydrogen conversion schemes, the hydrogen liquefaction process with continuous conversion has the lowest energy consumption and is the future direction. Relevant research in China is still in its early stages and has great potential for development. This study provides theoretical guidance for the design and construction of ortho-para hydrogen catalytic conversion test benches.

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Wang Kai, male, Ph. D., researcher, Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, School of Energy Engineering, Zhejiang University, 86-17857140826, E-mail: . Research fields: liquid hydrogen storage and refueling, low-grade thermal energy recovery, etc.
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氢液化流程中正仲氢转化过程对于液氢的长时间储存与远距离运输具有极其重要的意义。概述了正仲氢的性质差异,综述了正仲氢催化转化过程的物理机制和反应动力学模型的研究进展,对常用催化剂进行了总结和性能对比。最后综述了正仲氢转化的3种主流方案,并对比了各方案的优缺点。物理机制和反应动力学分别从微观和宏观角度对正仲氢转化进行了研究,但由于催化剂表面的实验数据相对匮乏,学者对此尚未形成统一的论述和解释,迫切需要进行定量验证。在正仲氢转化的催化剂选择上,虽然镍基催化剂的催化效率更高,但综合考虑催化剂的制备、活化、失活以及氢液化器的工作特点,铁的氢氧化物及氧化物催化剂是主流的催化剂选择方案。此外,3种主流的正仲氢转化方案中采用连续转化过程的氢液化流程比能耗最低,是未来氢液化流程的发展方向,国内对此研究尚处于起步阶段,存在较大的发展空间。研究可为正仲氢催化转化实验台的设计和搭建等提供理论指导。

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王凯,男,博士,研究员,浙江大学能源工程学院,制冷与低温研究所,17857140826,E-mail:。研究方向:液氢储运及加注、低品位热能回收等。
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文献美国加拿大欧洲日本印度中国
唐璐等[4](2011)214.08124.429.12.70.6
M. Aasadnia等[5](2018)214.08129.427.82.70.6
陈双涛等[6](2020)>326.08024.025.54.0
Zhang Zhenyang等[7](2022)214.08624.427.32.74.5
Zhang G.等[8](2023)395.57941.73.933.8
), ArticleFig(id=1239217309231927552, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239217294413451887, language=CN, label=表1, caption=全球主要区域的液氢产量, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
文献美国加拿大欧洲日本印度中国
唐璐等[4](2011)214.08124.429.12.70.6
M. Aasadnia等[5](2018)214.08129.427.82.70.6
陈双涛等[6](2020)>326.08024.025.54.0
Zhang Zhenyang等[7](2022)214.08624.427.32.74.5
Zhang G.等[8](2023)395.57941.73.933.8
), ArticleFig(id=1239217309324202242, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239217294413451887, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=Summary of physical mechanisms of ortho-para hydrogen catalytic conversion, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
物理机制作用机理/因素作用范围
磁性机理(物理吸附)通过表面电场诱导范德华力相互作用和电多极相互作用低温:吸附分子距离较远
适用于磁性催化剂
解离机理(化学吸附)电子交换超精细转换模型
三阶电子交换超精细转换模型
高温:吸附分子距离较近
前者适用于抗磁性金属,后者适用于抗磁性绝缘体
), ArticleFig(id=1239217310775431430, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239217294413451887, language=CN, label=表2, caption=正仲氢催化转化物理机制总结, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
物理机制作用机理/因素作用范围
磁性机理(物理吸附)通过表面电场诱导范德华力相互作用和电多极相互作用低温:吸附分子距离较远
适用于磁性催化剂
解离机理(化学吸附)电子交换超精细转换模型
三阶电子交换超精细转换模型
高温:吸附分子距离较近
前者适用于抗磁性金属,后者适用于抗磁性绝缘体
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正仲氢催化转化机理研究综述
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花亦怀 1 , 李秋英 1 , 程昊 1 , 白昊川 2 , 张涵玮 2 , 刘文睿 2 , 王凯 2 , 邱利民 2
制冷学报 | 氢液化与低温储运 2025,46(5): 12-23
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制冷学报 | 氢液化与低温储运 2025, 46(5): 12-23
正仲氢催化转化机理研究综述
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花亦怀1, 李秋英1, 程昊1, 白昊川2, 张涵玮2, 刘文睿2, 王凯2 , 邱利民2
作者信息
  • 1中海石油气电集团有限责任公司 北京 100028
  • 2浙江大学制冷与低温研究所 杭州 310027

通讯作者:

王凯,男,博士,研究员,浙江大学能源工程学院,制冷与低温研究所,17857140826,E-mail:。研究方向:液氢储运及加注、低品位热能回收等。
Review on Catalytic Conversion Mechanism of Ortho-Para Hydrogen
Yihuai Hua1, Qiuying Li1, Hao Cheng1, Haochuan Bai2, Hanwei Zhang2, Wenrui Liu2, Kai Wang2 , Limin Qiu2
Affiliations
  • 1.CNOOC Gas & Power Group, Beijing, 100028, China
  • 2.Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
出版时间: 2025-10-16 doi: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.05.012
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氢液化流程中正仲氢转化过程对于液氢的长时间储存与远距离运输具有极其重要的意义。概述了正仲氢的性质差异,综述了正仲氢催化转化过程的物理机制和反应动力学模型的研究进展,对常用催化剂进行了总结和性能对比。最后综述了正仲氢转化的3种主流方案,并对比了各方案的优缺点。物理机制和反应动力学分别从微观和宏观角度对正仲氢转化进行了研究,但由于催化剂表面的实验数据相对匮乏,学者对此尚未形成统一的论述和解释,迫切需要进行定量验证。在正仲氢转化的催化剂选择上,虽然镍基催化剂的催化效率更高,但综合考虑催化剂的制备、活化、失活以及氢液化器的工作特点,铁的氢氧化物及氧化物催化剂是主流的催化剂选择方案。此外,3种主流的正仲氢转化方案中采用连续转化过程的氢液化流程比能耗最低,是未来氢液化流程的发展方向,国内对此研究尚处于起步阶段,存在较大的发展空间。研究可为正仲氢催化转化实验台的设计和搭建等提供理论指导。

正仲氢  /  催化转化  /  机理研究  /  反应动力学  /  催化剂

Ortho-para hydrogen conversion in the hydrogen liquefaction process is significant for the long-term storage and long-distance transportation of liquid hydrogen. This paper outlines the differences in the properties of orthohydrogen and parahydrogen, reviews the research progress on the physical mechanisms and reaction kinetic models of the ortho-para hydrogen catalytic conversion process, and summarizes the performance of common catalysts. Finally, three mainstream schemes for ortho-para hydrogen conversion are compared. Research on the internal physical mechanisms and reaction kinetic models explores the conversion process from microscopic and macroscopic perspectives, respectively. Owing to the lack of experimental data, scholars have not yet formed a unified explanation for the surface characteristics of catalysts, which must be quantitatively validated. Furthermore, although nickel-based catalysts have higher catalytic efficiency, iron hydroxides and oxide catalysts are the main catalyst choices for ortho-para hydrogen conversion, considering the preparation, activation, and deactivation of catalysts and the characteristics of the liquefier. Among the three mainstream ortho-para hydrogen conversion schemes, the hydrogen liquefaction process with continuous conversion has the lowest energy consumption and is the future direction. Relevant research in China is still in its early stages and has great potential for development. This study provides theoretical guidance for the design and construction of ortho-para hydrogen catalytic conversion test benches.

ortho-para hydrogen  /  catalytic conversion  /  mechanism study  /  reaction kinetics  /  catalyst
花亦怀, 李秋英, 程昊, 白昊川, 张涵玮, 刘文睿, 王凯, 邱利民. 正仲氢催化转化机理研究综述. 制冷学报, 2025 , 46 (5) : 12 -23 . DOI: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.05.012
Yihuai Hua, Qiuying Li, Hao Cheng, Haochuan Bai, Hanwei Zhang, Wenrui Liu, Kai Wang, Limin Qiu. Review on Catalytic Conversion Mechanism of Ortho-Para Hydrogen[J]. Journal of Refrigeration, 2025 , 46 (5) : 12 -23 . DOI: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.05.012
通过碳减排来控制全球变暖在全球逐渐达成共识,氢能因其环境友好、热值高等优点成为全球可持续能源经济发展的新趋势[1]。氢气低密度、低沸点的特性为大规模、长距离储运带来挑战。常压下液态氢的密度为70.9 kg/m3,约为标准气态氢密度850倍,非常适合长途和长时间存储。即使将气态氢压缩至35 MPa甚至70 MPa,体积储氢密度也低于液氢[2],固体储运[3]的部分研究仍处于实验室阶段,推广难度较大。有机液体储运[3]目前处于前期发展阶段,仍需要进一步研究。因此,液氢储运有望成为大规模、长距离运输的主要储氢方法。全球液氢产量分布如表1所示,世界主要经济体和国家陆续发布大力发展氢能产业的战略规划,以抢占氢能技术领域的制高点。
正仲氢的催化转化是氢气液化过程中的关键技术。随着温度的降低,正氢会逐渐转化为仲氢并释放热量,虽然自发转化速率较低,但若液化过程中不采用正仲氢转化,10 d内将有约50%的液氢因正仲氢转化热而蒸发[9]
此外,由于转化热和温度基本呈负相关,因此应在温度较高时利用催化剂进行催化,加速正仲氢转化以减小制冷负荷[10]。根据正仲氢催化转化过程在氢液化流程中的发生条件,目前正仲氢转化形式主要有等温、绝热和连续3种形式。其中连续转化将催化剂填充在绕管式换热器或板翅式换热器中,同时耦合流动、传热以及催化3方面,具有设计灵活、低温冷量需求小等优点,可以有效满足大型氢液化装置的需要,代表了最先进的氢液化方案和发展趋势。然而,连续转化式低温氢气换热器内氢气温降大、物性变化剧烈,且催化材料催化反应速率及转化热随温度变化,氢气流动传热与正仲氢催化转化过程紧密耦合、互为约束,其机理复杂但当前尚未明晰,欠缺协同考虑流动传热与催化转化特性的强化设计方法。与国外相比,我国对氢液化技术研究起步相对较晚,正仲氢催化转化技术研究亦刚起步。
鉴于此,本文首先概述了正仲氢性质的差异,指出催化转化过程的重要性;进一步综述了正仲氢催化转化内部物理机制和反应动力学的研究进展,并对催化剂的种类、制备、活性等方面的研究现状展开介绍;最后依据3种不同正仲氢转化方式的发展现状对比了各自的优缺点,重点总结了连续转化的相关研究成果,以明确正仲氢催化转化技术中的重点难点,为未来氢液化装置的大规模发展和应用提供参考。
根据组成氢分子的原子自旋方向的不同,如图1所示,氢分为正氢、仲氢2种自旋异构体。正氢(o-H2)的2个原子自旋方向相同,仲氢(p-H2)的2个原子自旋方向相反,二者的波函数彼此正交,分别处于奇数和偶数旋转量子数的自旋态。仲氢分子的磁矩为0,正氢分子的磁矩是质子磁矩的2倍。这导致2种氢分子的化学性质虽然相同,但具有不同的光学、热学与磁学性质。此外,2种氢分子统计退化度的不同导致低温下的热力学性质产生显著差异。特别是比热,在100 K的低温状态下,仲氢的比热为1.38 J/mol,而正氢的比热为26.4 J/mol,是前者的19倍。
正仲氢的平衡组分比例是温度的函数。在室温下,处于平衡状态的氢(即正常氢)由75%浓度的正氢和25%浓度的仲氢组成,此处浓度指正氢/仲氢占全部氢分子的摩尔分数(后文未具体指明的浓度均指摩尔分数)。随着温度的降低,平衡氢中仲氢的浓度逐渐上升,在温度为20 K时,平衡氢中仲氢浓度为99.8%。在氢液化过程中,液氢会存在自发缓慢的正氢向仲氢转化的过程,该过程是放热的。仲氢平衡浓度和转化热随温度的变化如图2所示。转化热和温度基本呈负相关,但非简单的线性关系。在温度为21~23 K时,放热量高达1 063 J/mol,而液氢的汽化潜热为954 J/mol,明显超过了液氢的蒸发热[11]。即使不考虑液氢储罐的漏热,正氢向仲氢的转化热均会导致储罐内液氢大量蒸发而损失,这对于液氢的储运过程极其不利。因此正仲氢催化转化在氢液化过程中是必不可少的环节。
另一方面,仲正转化是正仲转化的逆反应。低温下处于平衡态的氢随着温度的升高逐渐偏离平衡态,仲氢会逐渐转化为正氢并吸收热量,自发情况下该反应的速率很慢。在合适情况下使用催化剂加速仲正转化可以获得冷能,达到被动制冷的效果,有望用于液氢储罐绝热性能强化中[12-13]
针对正仲氢以上性质的差异,正仲氢催化转化过程的内部物理机制研究和反应动力学研究分别从微观和宏观角度出发,探究正仲氢催化转化过程的机理。
正仲氢转化理论的研究始于1933年。L. Farkas等[14]首次报道了正氢可以被顺磁性物质催化转化为仲氢。E. Wigner[15]提出催化剂催化正氢向仲氢的转化是磁性机理,顺磁性分子可与存在非零磁矩的氢分子产生相互作用,从而加速正仲氢转化过程,且催化剂的催化活性与催化剂的磁矩有关。并进一步得到了如式(1)所示的速率常数k的依赖关系[16-17]。之后很多年该机制被当作各种催化剂表面和含杂质的固氢或液氢中正仲转化的定性理论模型。
式中:k为速率常数,1/s;ρ为氢气密度,g/cm3T为氢气温度,K。
由于E. Wigner提出的理论仅限于液氢温度,1997年,Y. Y. Milenko等[18]在此基础上进一步研究,得到了温度为17~32 K、压力为50 000 kPa的液体以及温度为40~120 K、压力为2 000~70 000 kPa的气体中的自然正仲氢转化率。Y. Y. Milenko等对于H2的气相,提出了一种正仲氢转化的定量理论。与E. Wigner的理论不同,该理论考虑了速度(即温度)对分子最近距离的影响,得到如式(2)所示的速率常数k的依赖关系,其绝对值以及对温度的依赖性与实验数据更符合。
式中:A为由Lennard-Jones势参数计算出的常数,用于量化2个分子间的相互作用强度,J·m12m为氢气质量,kg;v为气体分子的特征速度,m/s。
J. Turkevich等[19]通过对正仲氢转化的研究证实了低温下磁性机理的重要性。K. Fukutani等[20]综述了氢分子正仲转化的理论和实验研究的进展,文章指出20世纪60年代以前对磁性材料表面的正仲氢转化进行了大量研究,可能原因是E. Wigner模型在当时被当作定性理论模型。然而,磁性材料的表面磁性结构只有通过最近发展的表面敏感探针,如自旋极化光发射、掠入射核共振散射等才能澄清。
另一方面,随着电子能量损失光谱的发展,P. Avouris等[21]在20世纪80年代利用电子能量损失光谱实验报道了抗磁性物质催化下的正仲氢快速转化的实验结果,即抗磁性表面上正仲氢转化速率一般仅需要几分钟,标志着正仲氢转化机理研究新时代的开始。
根据基底的不同,在抗磁性金属表面,E. Ilisca[22]在1991年提出的电子交换超精细接触模型解释了非磁性金属表面正仲氢转化的机理,是目前最被广泛接受的非磁性金属表面转化模型。在该模型中正仲氢的转化分为2步,首先来自金属表面的一个电子通过超精细库伦激发被虚拟地转移至氢分子上,此时金属形成一个空穴,氢分子形成短暂的离子态。随后在电子返回的过程中,由于库伦和超精细接触相互作用的影响,发生了能量和角动量的转移,促进了核自旋和旋转态的变化,该模型预测的正仲氢转化时间为1~10 min。
从1992年开始,拉曼光谱和红外光谱通过激发分子的振动自由度来观察正仲氢的转化[23]。P. K. Schmidt等[24]在2001年通过研究Pd(210)表面的正仲氢催化转化,发现与磁性催化剂表面的物理吸附系统相比,H2与非磁性金属表面的结合更加强烈。K. Fukutani等[25]在2003年利用共振增强多光子电离法对Ag(111)上正仲氢转换时间进行了精确测量,首先通过色谱法制备非平衡氢气,并低温吸附在Ag(111)上,光刺激解吸后利用共振增强多光子电离对喷射分子进行激光时间分析,证实了电子交换超精细模型的准确性以及可能存在的光诱导。此后拉曼光谱[26]、核磁共振[27]、红外光谱[28]、共振增强多光子电离[29]、扫描隧道显微镜[30]等方法逐渐被应用于非磁性催化剂表面正仲氢转换的测量。H. Ueta等[31]通过脉冲分子束、光刺激解吸和共振增强多光子电离建立了一种新的实验方法,成功探测了表面上H2旋转状态随时间的演变,结果表明,分子化学吸附的H2在Pd(210)表面2 s后发生快速的正仲氢转化,符合基于电子交换超精细接触模型得到的理论结果。
在抗磁性绝缘体系统中,E. Ilisca等[32-33]在电子交换超精细接触模型的基础上提出了三阶电子交换超精细转换模型。该模型涉及3个主要的物理过程,进而促进抗磁性绝缘体表面的正仲氢转化。其中,第1步为在抗磁性固体基态中,电子自旋-轨道耦合引入磁性激发,为后续的自旋和能量转移提供必要的激发态;第2步为通过电子与固体分子间排斥作用实现电子自旋和分子自旋的交换,修改了分子的电子结构;第3步为通过磁性超精细接触作用,将电子的自旋角动量转移到原子核上,完成核自旋的转换。
除了不同基底材料以外,T. Sugimoto等[34]针对电场效应存在下的正仲氢转化提出了电场诱导转换模型,该模型研究了氢分子和仲氢分子在非静态固体水表面上的正仲氢转换过程,指出非晶态固体水表面巨大的且不均匀的电场通过斯塔克效应混合了分子电子态的奇偶性,并显著增强了分子的单子单重态和三重态之间的自旋-轨道耦合,通过分子内超精细接触相互作用,诱导了正仲氢转化。
表2总结对比了正仲氢催化转化的不同物理机制。由于物理吸附和化学吸附的吸附能通常分别约为30 meV和1 eV,在低温下,较低的热动能不足以形成较强的化学键,同时较弱的热运动使分子更容易通过较弱的范德华力与表面发生相互作用,物理吸附占据主导作用。在高温下,较高的热动能使化学键的形成与维持成为了可能,化学吸附更为重要。
综上所述,虽然近些年正仲氢转化过程中的物理吸附与化学吸附机理研究已有一些进展,但仍然面临实验数据不足的问题。为了深入理解正仲氢转化过程的内在机制,还需要更多的实验和理论依据。
正仲氢转化反应动力学理论的研究目的主要是计算不同工况下的转化速率常数和转化率,这些工况通常由温度、压力、催化剂种类、催化剂表面积等因素决定。正仲氢催化属于气-固相催化反应(非均相反应),发生在气-固界面,反应主要在固体颗粒催化剂内表面上进行。反应的宏观动力学顺序如下:
1)反应物气体从主流通过气体表面膜扩散至催化剂颗粒的外表面(①);
2)反应物气体通过催化剂孔隙扩散至其内部表面(②);
3)反应物气体在催化剂表面上吸附(③);
4)表面反应(④);
5)产物气体从催化剂表面解吸出来(⑤);
6)产物通过孔隙从催化剂内部表面向外扩散(⑥);
7)产物气体从催化剂表面经过表层膜扩散(⑦)。
正仲氢转化机理的宏观动力学分析主要包含以下步骤:1)实验观察:通过设置不同的流速、压力、热载荷和反应常数等变量,测量实验中正氢和仲氢的浓度随时间的变化情况;2)宏观动力学方程的构建:基于正仲氢的反应机理,假设潜在的速率控制步骤,并据此推导宏观动力学方程;3)确定速率控制步骤:利用实验数据检验推导出的宏观动力学方程,从而确认在不同实验条件下哪一方程最准确;4)机理阐述:综合研究结果,详细描述正氢分子在催化剂表面被转化为仲氢分子并返回气流的全过程,明确整个催化转化中的控制步骤,并最终形成相关依赖关联式来描述该过程。
1960年,D. H. Weitzel等[35]设计了一套等温转化器,通过热导率测量了出口仲氢浓度,根据实验结果,D. H. Weitzel等[36]发现一阶动力学与实验结果更加吻合,据此提出了一阶动力学模型。一阶动力学模型忽略膜和孔的扩散效应,同时不考虑吸附和解吸过程,认为平衡反应是唯一对转化有特殊影响的过程[37]。其反应速率常数的表达式如式(3)所示,一阶速率常数不一定依赖于氢气的物质的量浓度,但对平衡摩尔分数的依赖性十分明显:
式中:为反应速率,mol/s;为氢气的物质的量浓度,mol/L;为正氢浓度;为该温度下正氢的平衡浓度;k+为固有的反应速率常数,1/s;kfirst为调整后的反应速率常数,1/s。
一阶动力学模型假设反应速率和反应物浓度呈线性关系,在正仲氢转化过程中具有较好的数据相关性,尤其在较低覆盖度的情况下。但当浓度较高或者高压时,其他动力学模型如Langmuir-Hinshelwood动力学模型或Elovich动力学模型更能解释实际的催化过程。
在随后的研究过程中,H. L. Hutchinson等[38]对选用氧化铁凝胶作为催化剂,在温度为77 K下进行了正仲氢等温转化,发现相较于一阶动力学,考虑吸附与解吸过程并假设其满足Langmuir吸附等温线时的预测结果与实验结果更加符合,进而提出了Langmuir-Hinshelwood动力学模型。该模型认为正氢向仲氢的转化发生在催化剂表面,假设表面是均匀的,反应物在不同表面位点的吸附解吸速率相同:
式中:o-H2表示正氢分子;p-H2表示仲氢分子;下标ads表示正氢/仲氢分子在催化剂表面上的吸附状态;分别为正氢/仲氢到催化剂表面的吸附速率常数和正氢/仲氢从催化剂表面脱附的脱附速率常数,1/s。
H. L. Hutchinson等[38]应用Langmuir-Hinshelwood动力学模型,研究了反应速率和平衡步骤的所有可能组合,得到了7种总反应速率。对于所有情况,总反应速率均可用简化公式(5)表示,其与C. M. Cunningham等[39]得到的液相转化的关系式类似。总速率常数与氢气的总摩尔浓度成反比。
式中:kk′分别为Langmuir-Hinshelwood动力学模型中的正仲氢转化反应常数和吸附反应常数,1/s;为正氢吸附过程的速率常数,1/s;为正氢向仲氢转化过程的速率常数,1/s;为仲氢脱附过程的速率常数,1/s;C1、C2、C3均为常数,取决于不同的假设组合。
Langmuir-Hinshelwood动力学模型在处理数据时的相对便捷使其成为设计用途的首选模型。但在随后的研究中,P. Donaubauer等[40]在Hutchinson研究基础上第一次结合了压力、温度对可逆一阶动力学和Langmuir-Hinshelwood动力学的影响,发现一阶反应动力学模型更为准确。因此当考虑到压力等因素的影响时,需要对Langmuir-Hinshelwood动力学模型的一些基本假设进行修正进而解释实验数据的变化[41],例如进一步考虑吸附热的非均匀性或吸附剂分子之间的相互作用,可以更加有效地预测实验中速率常数的变化。
随着研究的深入,越来越多的模型被不断提出。Freundlich动力学模型假设吸附过程满足Freundlich吸附,描述了非均匀的表面吸附过程,但并不能像一阶动力学模型和Langmuir-Hinshelwood动力学模型一样准确描述实验数据。此外,E. Ilisca[22]指出由于其并未考虑表面其他分子的相互作用,因此在表面化学特征细节方面有所欠缺,不能充分反映机理。
Temkin动力学模型假设吸附过程满足Temkin吸附等温线,认为吸附热与表面覆盖度呈线性相关,该模型在中等覆盖范围适用性较好,并且更适合具有较高表面均匀度的催化剂表面,不适用于不均匀表面或存在复杂相互作用的系统。
Elovich动力学模型假设吸附速率随着表面覆盖度的增加而减少,且未考虑表面上其他分子的干扰,因此描述的反应速率并不能反映机理。O. Wilhelmsen等[41]基于Elovich模型,假设吸附与解吸过程为真正的速率控制步骤,认为转化速率与氢气浓度呈线性关系,实现了对实验数据的较好拟合。Xu Pan等[42]分别使用一阶动力学模型、Langmuir-Hinshelwood动力学模型以及Elovich动力学模型进行了计算,发现Elovich动力学模型与实验结果吻合性最好。
总体而言,宏观动力学是研究化学反应速率和机理的一个分支,考虑了流体的流动特性、传质和传热等因素对反应速率的影响。对于低温正仲氢催化剂,其反应涉及多相反应、传质速率、反应器形状等复杂因素。为了获得更可靠的动力学分析模型,未来的工作应包括在更广泛的范围内对催化剂活性进行实验研究。
在孤立状态下,正氢到仲氢的跃迁极为缓慢,理论时间尺度为2020 s[20],比宇宙的年龄还要长。与其他物质相互作用所带来的扰动会催化正仲氢的转化,自1933年Farkas和Sachsse发现顺磁性分子可以诱导正氢和仲氢在气相中发生相互转化,许多学者对正仲氢转化反应的催化剂进行了研究。目前铁基催化剂、镍基/铬基催化剂等类型的催化剂常被用于正仲氢催化转化[43-44]。本节将从制备工艺、活化工艺以及综合性能角度,对现有成熟的不同种类正仲氢转化催化剂展开对比和总结。
铁基催化剂具有成本低、安全性能好等优点,具备良好的催化性能,是最常用的正仲氢自旋转化催化剂[45]
早在20世纪50年代,D. H. Weitzel等[46]就开始使用沉淀法制备铁基催化剂。在此基础上,T. Das等[47]采用沉淀法,发现采用氢氧化钠或氢氧化钾作为碱性溶液,水作为溶剂,前驱体溶液的物质的量浓度为0.1 mol/L,在温度为393 K下煅烧12 h时,可以获得催化活性最高的铁基催化剂。同时在制备过程中,沉淀步骤应缓慢进行,保证前驱体溶液和碱性溶液混合良好,洗涤步骤应彻底去除沉淀物表面多余的碱性溶液。目前铁氧物的制备方法可分为气相法、液相法和固相法,主要包括沉淀法、水热/溶剂热法、溶胶-凝胶法、高温分解法和模板法[48]
对于常规氧化铁凝胶催化剂的活化,D. H. Weitzel等[3549]推荐的方法是将催化剂在压力为0.133 kPa和温度为383 K下抽真空16~20 h,R. M. Bliesner等[50-51]的研究证实了活化对于提高催化剂活性的必要性。P. L. Barrick等[52]设计了测试催化活性的实验台,发现催化剂床内温度上升越快,催化剂的活性越高。D. Gini等[53]指出一定范围内温度的提高有利于提高催化性能,但当活化温度超过433 K会导致活性衰减。J. Essler等[54]进一步研究了温度为293、353、363、393、433 K活化后的催化性能,证实了温度为433 K下活化的催化剂具备最高的催化性能。对于铁氢氧化物、铁氧化物及其混合体系催化剂的活化,可以将催化剂在温度为383~423 K下加热以及压力为13.33~26.66 Pa下抽真空放置24 h,之后在大气压力下的氢气流中活化[11]。国内许多学者也对铁基催化剂的活化进行了研究,中国科学院大连化学物理所[55]在1988年采用铁盐和碱性沉淀剂为原料,成功制备了水氧化铁催化剂,发现只要原料气纯化好,在温度为413 K下活化处理,即可得到催化性能良好的水氧化铁催化剂。
铁基催化剂具备良好的热稳定性,但Zhou Han等[56]指出随着与空气接触时间的增长,催化剂活性也随之变低,这意味着铁基催化剂一般需要密封避光保存。针对流经填料层可能带来的压降问题,J. H. Kim等[57]使用铁改性沸石为催化剂,在77 K下对正仲氢转化进行了研究,证实了改进后的铁基催化剂具备优越的流动性能。B. Da Silva Falcão等[58]在温度为77 K下对美国molecular products limited公司生产的商用正仲氢转化催化剂Ionex®的失活进行了研究,发现即使氢气中只含有135.8×10-6体积分数水分,也会导致相变的发生,增加压降的同时减少可用的催化剂活性位点。Xu Hong等[59]的研究证实了掺杂元素是提高铁基催化剂催化活性的有效手段,且催化性能与掺杂元素的不成对电子数成正比。
与铁基催化剂相比,镍基/铬基催化剂催化效率更高。但负载Ni/Cr催化剂活化后是一种易燃物,与空气接触之后的自燃会导致不可逆的失活。
A. V. Zhuzhgov等[60]分别通过沉淀和离心热活化得到了工业Al2O3基底和Al2O3基底,使用Ni(NO32·6H2O作为前驱体化合物,将所有样品在温度为383 K的空气中干燥6 h,之后在温度为400 K下煅烧4 h,利用单次湿浸渍法制备了负载型镍催化剂,最终得到了8%±1%Ni/Al2O3催化剂。J. H. Kim等[61]参考S. Das等[62]的程序合成了介孔SBA-15二氧化硅模板,采用硬模板法制备了介孔Cr2O3粉末用于77 K下的正仲转化研究。
对于镍基催化剂的活化,目前广泛使用的方法是在氢气气流中逐步升温还原,这一升温还原过程一般取决于基底材料[63],目前常用的基底可以分为SiO2和Al2O3 2种。对于Al2O3基底的负载镍基催化剂,A. V. Zhuzhgov等[60]推荐将催化剂首先在383 K氢气流下将样品干燥10 h,去除吸附水,之后在523 K氢气流下将样品初步还原4 h,以去除表面氧化物,最后在(603±5)K的氢气流下持续6 h,以确保样品表面形成活性镍表面层,A. V. Zhuzhgov等[60]还指出由于活化后的镍基催化剂在空气中可能会自燃,需要对其进行钝化,在温度约为303 K下逐步增加氧气浓度,从而在镍表面形成一层氧化物,起到保护作用,钝化后的镍基催化剂需要再度活化才能继续使用。对于SiO2基底的负载镍基催化剂,一般需要在温度为473~523 K活化更长时间。对于铬基催化剂的活化,J. H. Kim等[61]研究了温度为423~573 K煅烧3 h后的介孔Cr2O3粉末,结果表明在温度为423 K煅烧后的介孔Cr2O3粉末具有最高的催化活性。
1956年,D. S. Chapin等[64]在研究正仲氢转化速率常数时选用Cr2O3-Al2O3作为催化剂。A. H. Singleton等[65]采用高比表面积的硅酸镍作为催化剂,获得仲正氢转化反应动力学的实验数据。I. F. Silvera[66]选择负载Ni的SiO2,在20.4 K的低温下制备高纯度仲氢。A. V. Zhuzhgov等[60]研究了在Ni/Al2O3催化下的正仲氢转化,结果表明体积反应速率常数位于2.2~2.4 mol/(cm3·s)。
目前负载Cr的SiO2催化剂(CrO-SiO2,OXISORB®)已经可以商业化生产,由掺杂2%~3%CrO的SiO2载体组成,不能在空气中或有任意水分的情况下使用[67]。M. Hartl等[68]利用中子振动光谱对比了2种商业化催化剂Ionex®与OXISORB®催化下的正仲氢转化,结果表明与Ionex®相比,OXISORB®的比表面积更大,与氢的结合更不紧密,氢气更容易吸附和解吸,并且表面的流动性更大。但由于氢易燃性和镍基/铬基催化剂自燃性的冲突,将其用于正仲氢转化的实际应用较少。
除了常见的催化剂外,为了探究正仲氢转化的真正机理,其他材料在正仲氢转化过程中的催化作用也得到了广泛研究。O. A. Boeva等[69]研究了γ-Al2O3上负载的纳米金颗粒对正仲氢转化的催化作用,发现催化剂具有很高的催化活性,且比催化活性与颗粒尺寸无关。M. Hiller等[70]对单晶硅晶格间隙的正仲氢转化进行了研究,通过拉曼光谱测定了温度为77 K时的转化速率常数。S. Yucel等[71]对10~27 K范围内石墨表面上的仲正氢转换率进行了测定,结果表明,在低温下石墨表面的仲正氢转化速率高且稳定。K. Niki等[29]和S. Andersson等[72]分别研究了Ag、Cu催化下的正仲氢转化,观察到了十分迅速的正仲氢转化。
总体而言,综合氢液化器的工作特点以及不同种类催化剂的性质差异,铁的氢氧化物以及氧化物型催化剂是正仲氢转化过程最合适以及最成熟的催化剂。
根据正仲氢催化转化过程在氢液化流程中的发生条件,目前主要有等温转化、绝热转化和连续转化3种转化方式。
正仲氢等温转化是指氢气在恒定温度下发生的正氢向仲氢的转化。由于正仲氢转化反应是一个放热反应,随着反应的进行,反应器内温度会逐渐升高,因此实现等温转化条件的关键在于如何有效的降低正仲氢转化反应的放热效应对反应器内温度的影响。
20世纪50年代,D. H. Weitzel等[35]研究了水合氧化铁颗粒催化下的等温转化,得到了反应器在不同压力和温度下出口仲氢浓度随氢气空速的关系。20世纪60年代,N. Wakao等[73]设计了一个液氮温度下的等温转化实验台,使用镍基催化剂研究了压力为206~6 963 kPa范围内的正仲氢转化。这些等温转化的实验数据为后续的正仲氢转化研究提供了重要参考。
近年来的等温转化研究主要集中在测试氢气流经填料层的流动特性以及催化性能上,Fu Juntao等[74]在温度为77 K和氢气进口气流速度为60~80 mL/min的条件下设计了正仲氢的等温催化转化实验台,如图4所示,测试了不同铁基催化剂的催化性能以及压降流动特性。该等温转化实验台由氢气预冷盘管、转化器、液氮容器、测量仪和气相色谱仪5部分组成。Zhou Han等[63]采用Ionex®作为催化剂,在77 K下设计了一个小型等温转化器研究其催化性能。H. Abe等[75]设计了一个小型的等温转化器用于研究77 K下不同正仲氢催化剂的催化性能。
等温转化的结构简单可靠,催化剂用量少。一些早期建设的氢液化工厂以及实验室用小型反应器普遍采用等温转化类型[76],并依靠制冷剂相变保证反应温度。长时间进行的等温转化需要大量消耗用来吸收转化热的制冷剂,或者需要制冷机来维持反应器所处的等温条件,经济性相对较差。
正仲氢绝热转化是指氢气在绝热环境中发生正氢向仲氢的转化。其不加外部冷源,产生的转化热使反应氢温度上升,实现绝热转化的关键在于隔离反应器与外部空间的热传递。
J. Essler等[77]设计了如图5所示的小型的绝热转化器,由1个带液氮浴的双壁低温容器、1个长度为7 m的浸入式热交换器和1个内部热隔离的绝热转化器组成。该绝热转化器通过测量反应过程中的温度变化,可以计算得到出口仲氢浓度。在随后的研究中,J. Essler等[54]利用该实验台进一步研究了仲氢测量方法的准确性以及催化剂的催化活性。
为了有效降低反应器与外部环境的换热,绝热转化反应器可以布置在真空环境下,并包裹变密度多层隔热材料。氢液化流程中绝热转化采用独立转化器,一般布置在换热器出口,可在多个不同温区的换热器之间布置多段绝热催化转化,相较于等温转化较为单一的冷却温区,实现了不同温区的梯级冷却,因而绝热转化方式获得了更广泛的应用[78]。但绝热转化完成后升温的原料氢需要返回上一级换热器被再次冷却,流程较复杂。
连续转化的概念于1963年提出,将催化剂集成在换热器中,原料氢冷却降温与催化转化同时进行。理想的连续转化过程中,正仲氢浓度始终保持在平衡浓度,且过程可逆。面向氢液化装置大型化和高效化的需求,填充催化剂的板翅式换热器由于具有较高的面密度,且结构紧凑、效率高、压降有限、设计灵活等优点,代表了最先进的氢液化方案和发展趋势。
针对连续转化,李启铭等[79]利用CFD对正仲转化催化与换热一体技术中采用的催化剂填料板翅式换热器微小翅片通道的流动换热性能进行了研究。P. Donaubauer等[40]通过对催化剂装填圆管进行压降实验以及对催化剂填充多孔通道进行数值模拟,对催化剂填充板翅式换热器的翅片设计参数进行了研究。除了板翅式换热器外,绕管式换热器也常被用于连续转化过程中。G. Skaugen等[80]模拟对比了板翅式换热器和绕管式换热器用作氢液化系统中正仲氢转化器的不可逆损失。刁希文[2]设计了一套宽温区多模式的正仲氢催化转化性能测试平台测试了温度为20~77 K的正仲氢转化,可以选择等温转化、绝热转化,并近似实现了多段连续转化。
在实际应用中,部分工业气体行业的领军企业如Linde、Praxair等已将连续转化应用于落地建造的氢液化工厂。位于德国Leuna的林德氢液化装置如图6所示,于2007年投入使用,产能为5.5 t/d。该流程新增一个换热器替代液氢浴,同时在换热器内部填充转化催化剂,最终氢气液化能耗为11.9 kW·h/kg,但换热器的相关数据和设计细节未见报道。
连续转化的效率和低温换热器的设计息息相关,国外已经形成了数据-软件-产品较完备的研发链条,国内总体上还处于起步阶段,仍存在较大发展空间。对于该方面的实验研究,公开报道显示,国内航天六院一○一所自主研制了使用连续正仲氢转化换热器的氢液化系统,于2023年4月开车成功。中国科学院理化技术研究所联合中科富海同样研制了使用连续正仲氢转化换热器的氢液化系统。
综上所述,连续转化是目前的主流趋势,一般分段布置在液氮至液氢温区,效果显著。但在实际应用中,根据生产规模、仲氢比例、纯度要求等因素可以选择不同转化方式的组合。
本文对正仲氢催化转化机理的相关文献进行了综述,旨在探讨该领域的研究进展和潜在发展方向。通过系统性的文献总结,得到如下结论:
1)正仲氢的催化转化在高温和低温下存在2种不同的主导机理:高温下氢分子的解离与重组而发生的正仲氢转化(解离机理)以及低温下顺磁性物质的非均匀磁场能改变氢分子中原子核的自旋取向而发生的正仲氢转化(磁性机理)。其中解离机理在不同基底材料或外界环境下存在不同的适用模型。
2)关于正仲氢催化转化过程的所有反应动力学模型均有其适用范围,用来预测反应速率的准确性均有所欠缺,目前比较受认可的模型是一阶动力学和Langmuir-Hinshelwood动力学。未来的工作应包括在更广泛的范围内对催化剂活性进行实验研究以修正现有模型。
3)铁基催化剂在正仲氢转化过程中最具应用潜力,但通常表现出相对较低的活性,需要进行催化剂设计和改进,以提高其催化性能。
4)正仲氢转化可以分为等温转化、绝热转化和连续转化3种形式,其中连续转化代表了最先进的发展趋势,国外已经形成了数据-软件-产品较完备的研发链条,但国内对于该方面的研究仍处于起步阶段。
随着氢能产业的快速发展,正仲氢催化转化机理的研究取得了显著进展,但仍存在反应机理不明、实验数据欠缺等问题。国内更是尚处于起步阶段,需要在该方面加大研究力度以指导低温换热器的设计与制造,催化剂的设计和优化等。
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2025年第46卷第5期
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doi: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.05.012
  • 接收时间:2024-06-02
  • 首发时间:2026-03-13
  • 出版时间:2025-10-16
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  • 收稿日期:2024-06-02
  • 修回日期:2024-07-22
  • 录用日期:2024-09-02
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    1中海石油气电集团有限责任公司 北京 100028
    2浙江大学制冷与低温研究所 杭州 310027

通讯作者:

王凯,男,博士,研究员,浙江大学能源工程学院,制冷与低温研究所,17857140826,E-mail:。研究方向:液氢储运及加注、低品位热能回收等。
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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