Article(id=1239211864710771255, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, issueId=1239211861397270994, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.01.053, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1699027200000, receivedDateStr=2023-11-04, revisedDate=1708704000000, revisedDateStr=2024-02-24, acceptedDate=1710950400000, acceptedDateStr=2024-03-21, onlineDate=1773380731989, onlineDateStr=2026-03-13, pubDate=1739635200000, pubDateStr=2025-02-16, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1773380731989, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-13, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1773380731989, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773380731989, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1239211861397270994, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, year='2025', volume='46', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='166', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=0, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1773380731200, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773384112372, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1239226043106652319, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, issueId=1239211861397270994, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1239226043106652320, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, issueId=1239211861397270994, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=53, endPage=70, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1239211864903709253, articleId=1239211864710771255, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, language=EN, title=Research Progress of Microchannel Heat Sink Structures Based on Single-Phase Flow, columnId=null, journalTitle=Journal of Refrigeration, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Microchannel cooling, with its high heat transfer efficiency, low thermal resistance, and light weight advantages, is one of the most effective technologies for solving the problem of heat dissipation with high heat flux; however, it faces the issue of increased pressure drop. The microchannel structure determines the thermal-hydraulic performance. This study describes the research progress on single-phase liquid-cooled microchannel heat sinks in terms of domestic and international structural design to address this problem. Among them, single-phase heat dissipation structures are divided into variable cross-sectionals, flow disruption, pin-fin, double-layered, bionic, and hybrid-reinforced structures. The advantages and disadvantages of the heat transfer coefficient, pressure drop, comprehensive performance, and temperature uniformity were analyzed based on the principle of enhancing heat transfer in various structures. A cost analysis of the commonly used matrix materials and processing methods for microchannel heat sinks was conducted. Finally, we provided the prospect and development direction of microchannel heat sinks from an application perspective. The application of composite structures, integration of simulation and experimentation, advances in material science and processing technology, and the nexus of disciplines are noted as the focus of future structural research.

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Cui Xiaoyu, female, professor, School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, 86-13166199495, E-mail: . Research fields: refrigeration and cryogenic, heat transfer enhancement of heat exchanger.
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微通道冷却是解决高热流密度散热问题最有效的技术之一,具有传热效率高、热阻低、结构紧凑等优点,但同时存在压降增加的问题。微通道的结构是影响其流动与传热性能的重要因素。针对该问题,简述了国内外对单相液冷微通道散热器在结构设计方面的研究进展,分为通道几何结构、扰流结构、针肋结构、多层结构、仿生结构和复合强化结构。结合各结构强化传热的原理,分析其在传热系数、压降、综合性能、均温性等方面的优缺点,并对微通道散热器常用的基体材料与加工方法进行了成本分析。基于上述总结与介绍,从应用角度展望了微通道散热器的前景与发展方向,指出复合结构的应用、仿真与实验的结合、材料学与加工技术的进步以及学科交叉是今后结构研究的重点。

, correspAuthors=null, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
崔晓钰,女,教授,上海理工大学能源与动力工程学院,13166199495,E-mail:。研究方向:制冷与低温,换热器强化换热。
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Energy Science & Engineering, 2023, 11(10): 3869-3887., articleTitle=Comparative study of the parameters affecting the performance of microchannels′ heat exchangers: latest advances review, refAbstract=null)], funds=null, companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1239224519060157023, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211864710771255, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1239224519076934239, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211864710771255, companyId=1239224519060157023, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1239224519097905761, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211864710771255, companyId=1239224519060157023, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, 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label=Tab.1, caption=Typical microchannel heat sinks performance comparison, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
典型结构具体结构工质热流密度/(W/cm2Re/流量/流速热阻/(W/K)f/f0ηeff/ηeff,0ψ文献
通道几何结构矩形1006000.1071.001.00Wang Hongtao等[11]
三角形0.1300.711.61
梯形0.1120.971.14
波浪形3004001.562.530Sui Y.等[25]
扰流结构肋柱1006003.1003.381.275Zhang Shizhong等[40]
凹腔6106.5001.041.375Zhu Qifeng等[49]
凹腔+肋柱6003.6702.001.450Zhu Qifeng等[54]
针肋结构菱形995000.2901.600.975夏国栋等[58]
长菱形0.1701.641.100
多层结构双层258100 mL/min0.2900.40Lei N.等[72]
三层0.2500.30
仿生结构蛛网型(CH2 OH)260210 mL/min0.8600.80吴龙文等[79]
鱼鳞型507401.1801.325申鑫等[82]
复合结构横断+涡流发生器1005961.331.450Feng Zhenfei等[88]
双层+侧壁肋1003954.0002.301.400K. Derakhshanpour等[89]
多孔+鱼鳞肋506501.251.480P. Dey等[98]
多孔鳍+微歧管5001.2 m/s23.9000.791.350陈超伟等[100]
), ArticleFig(id=1239224523610977076, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211864710771255, language=CN, label=表1, caption=典型微通道散热器性能对比, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
典型结构具体结构工质热流密度/(W/cm2Re/流量/流速热阻/(W/K)f/f0ηeff/ηeff,0ψ文献
通道几何结构矩形1006000.1071.001.00Wang Hongtao等[11]
三角形0.1300.711.61
梯形0.1120.971.14
波浪形3004001.562.530Sui Y.等[25]
扰流结构肋柱1006003.1003.381.275Zhang Shizhong等[40]
凹腔6106.5001.041.375Zhu Qifeng等[49]
凹腔+肋柱6003.6702.001.450Zhu Qifeng等[54]
针肋结构菱形995000.2901.600.975夏国栋等[58]
长菱形0.1701.641.100
多层结构双层258100 mL/min0.2900.40Lei N.等[72]
三层0.2500.30
仿生结构蛛网型(CH2 OH)260210 mL/min0.8600.80吴龙文等[79]
鱼鳞型507401.1801.325申鑫等[82]
复合结构横断+涡流发生器1005961.331.450Feng Zhenfei等[88]
双层+侧壁肋1003954.0002.301.400K. Derakhshanpour等[89]
多孔+鱼鳞肋506501.251.480P. Dey等[98]
多孔鳍+微歧管5001.2 m/s23.9000.791.350陈超伟等[100]
), ArticleFig(id=1239224523741000506, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211864710771255, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=Summary of performance indicators for common thermal conductive materials, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
材料种类导热系数/[W/(m·K)]密度/(g/cm3价格/(元/kg)
4008.9269
2382.7019
1512.3011
不锈钢15~307.70~7.9314
氧化铝173.603
碳化硅/铝1753.0390
碳化硅/铜280~3607.00~9.0092
金刚石2 000~2 3203.47~3.502 000
金刚石/铝350~7503.00250
金刚石/铜400~9305.00302
), ArticleFig(id=1239224523850052417, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211864710771255, language=CN, label=表2, caption=常见基体材料及参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
材料种类导热系数/[W/(m·K)]密度/(g/cm3价格/(元/kg)
4008.9269
2382.7019
1512.3011
不锈钢15~307.70~7.9314
氧化铝173.603
碳化硅/铝1753.0390
碳化硅/铜280~3607.00~9.0092
金刚石2 000~2 3203.47~3.502 000
金刚石/铝350~7503.00250
金刚石/铜400~9305.00302
), ArticleFig(id=1239224523963298635, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211864710771255, language=EN, label=Tab.3, caption=Typical structure microchannel heat sink processing methods and costs, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
典型结构加工方法加工成本
通道几何结构湿法蚀刻
干法蚀刻
微电火花处理
微机械切削
扰流结构干法蚀刻
微机械切削
激光切割
针肋结构湿法蚀刻
干法蚀刻
激光切割
多层结构3D打印
激光切割
仿生结构3D打印
微机械切削
激光切割
热压/注塑成型
复合结构微机械切削
烧结
气相沉积
3D打印
激光切割
), ArticleFig(id=1239224524068156239, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211864710771255, language=CN, label=表3, caption=典型结构微通道散热器加工方法及成本, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
典型结构加工方法加工成本
通道几何结构湿法蚀刻
干法蚀刻
微电火花处理
微机械切削
扰流结构干法蚀刻
微机械切削
激光切割
针肋结构湿法蚀刻
干法蚀刻
激光切割
多层结构3D打印
激光切割
仿生结构3D打印
微机械切削
激光切割
热压/注塑成型
复合结构微机械切削
烧结
气相沉积
3D打印
激光切割
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单相液冷微通道散热器结构研究进展
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赵颉 , 崔晓钰
制冷学报 | 2025,46(1): 53-70
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制冷学报 | 2025, 46(1): 53-70
单相液冷微通道散热器结构研究进展
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赵颉, 崔晓钰
作者信息
  • 上海理工大学能源与动力工程学院 上海 200093

通讯作者:

崔晓钰,女,教授,上海理工大学能源与动力工程学院,13166199495,E-mail:。研究方向:制冷与低温,换热器强化换热。
Research Progress of Microchannel Heat Sink Structures Based on Single-Phase Flow
Jie Zhao, Xiaoyu Cui
Affiliations
  • School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093, China
出版时间: 2025-02-16 doi: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.01.053
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微通道冷却是解决高热流密度散热问题最有效的技术之一,具有传热效率高、热阻低、结构紧凑等优点,但同时存在压降增加的问题。微通道的结构是影响其流动与传热性能的重要因素。针对该问题,简述了国内外对单相液冷微通道散热器在结构设计方面的研究进展,分为通道几何结构、扰流结构、针肋结构、多层结构、仿生结构和复合强化结构。结合各结构强化传热的原理,分析其在传热系数、压降、综合性能、均温性等方面的优缺点,并对微通道散热器常用的基体材料与加工方法进行了成本分析。基于上述总结与介绍,从应用角度展望了微通道散热器的前景与发展方向,指出复合结构的应用、仿真与实验的结合、材料学与加工技术的进步以及学科交叉是今后结构研究的重点。

Microchannel cooling, with its high heat transfer efficiency, low thermal resistance, and light weight advantages, is one of the most effective technologies for solving the problem of heat dissipation with high heat flux; however, it faces the issue of increased pressure drop. The microchannel structure determines the thermal-hydraulic performance. This study describes the research progress on single-phase liquid-cooled microchannel heat sinks in terms of domestic and international structural design to address this problem. Among them, single-phase heat dissipation structures are divided into variable cross-sectionals, flow disruption, pin-fin, double-layered, bionic, and hybrid-reinforced structures. The advantages and disadvantages of the heat transfer coefficient, pressure drop, comprehensive performance, and temperature uniformity were analyzed based on the principle of enhancing heat transfer in various structures. A cost analysis of the commonly used matrix materials and processing methods for microchannel heat sinks was conducted. Finally, we provided the prospect and development direction of microchannel heat sinks from an application perspective. The application of composite structures, integration of simulation and experimentation, advances in material science and processing technology, and the nexus of disciplines are noted as the focus of future structural research.

赵颉, 崔晓钰. 单相液冷微通道散热器结构研究进展. 制冷学报, 2025 , 46 (1) : 53 -70 . DOI: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.01.053
Jie Zhao, Xiaoyu Cui. Research Progress of Microchannel Heat Sink Structures Based on Single-Phase Flow[J]. Journal of Refrigeration, 2025 , 46 (1) : 53 -70 . DOI: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.01.053
近年来,集成电子器件逐渐向高度小型化的方向发展,未来集成器件的热流密度可达1 000 W/cm2[1]。据统计,80%的芯片故障是由高温造成的,因此迫切需要找到更高效的散热技术,于是微通道散热技术应运而生。微通道散热器相比于常规尺度散热器不仅具有更大的传热面积和更高的散热效率,还更加紧凑、轻便,特别适用于处理空间受限或对重量敏感场景下高热流密度器件的散热问题[2]。目前应用最广泛的冷却方式为单相液体冷却,单相液体冷却应用简单,稳定性强,但工质充注量大,摩擦阻力也更大。微通道单相液冷技术在一些领域已得到应用,如大功率LED光源发热结的快速冷却[3]、太阳能电池的冷却[4-5]、数据中心的CPU芯片冷却[6]、高速列车牵引系统的IGBT模块冷却[7]、燃料电池散热[8]、火箭推进器冷却等[9]。根据散热需求采用合理的微通道结构对提高传热性能有重要作用,因此研究人员在微通道的结构设计上进行了大量工作。对于单相液冷微通道,强化结构的设计基于边界层重建与二次流动,促进流体混合,改变流体流路等思路,其中不同结构各自具有独特的优点。本文结合国内外研究进展,总结了单相液冷微通道散热器在结构设计上的发展进程以及不同结构对压降和传热性能的影响,分析了影响不同结构应用成本的因素,最后对其发展方向及应用前景进行了展望。
通常,描述微通道散热器的性能使用摩擦系数、泵送功率、努塞尔数、热阻和热效率等作为评价指标。为了更好地描述微通道散热器的综合性能,通常还采用对比的方法对强化结构的性能进行评价,即将强化结构和相同工况下水力直径相等的光滑微通道对应的传热与阻力增强因子相除。
综合性能因子[2]表示为:
式中:NuaveNu0,aveff0分别为强化结构和光滑微通道的平均努塞尔数与摩擦系数。ψ能够评价微通道散热器的整体性能,即努塞尔数与摩擦阻力的增幅之比。
通过改变微通道的几何结构能够增加传热面积,改变流动模式,进而提高流量分配和温度的均匀性。其中又分为纵横比、截面形状和流道形状的改变。
D. B. Tuckerman等[10]率先提出了用于高热通量散热的微通道散热器。在宽为50 μm、间隔为50 μm、深为302 μm的矩形通道中研究水的单相流动,其散热量高达790 W/cm2,这样的散热性能远远超过了传统换热方式的水平。矩形截面微通道由于加工简单、成本可控、流动稳定、方便堆叠与集成的特性,仍是现阶段关注的重点。合理的结构设计对提升其流动与传热性能有重要影响,其中通道宽度与高度是影响性能的关键几何参数,通常采用无量纲参数纵横比(βAR=Hch/Wch)描述。研究人员对不同纵横比的矩形微通道的性能进行了研究并试图找到最佳配置。Wang Hongtao等[11]采用去离子水为工质,在雷诺数Re为200~700、热通量为100 W/cm2工况下,设计加工了βAR=1.030~20.333不等的12种矩形微通道并展开实验研究。结果表明:在相同的Re下,βAR越高,热阻越小,压降和传热系数越高。但当βAR提高至11.442时,热阻和压降变化的梯度变缓,因此判断当βAR=8.904~11.442时可以为矩形微通道提供最佳的热效率。Ma Yinjie等[12]βAR=1~10的矩形微通道进行数值研究也发现了类似的现象,当βAR>5时,继续增加βAR不会显著降低热阻,由此推断βAR为5时为最佳配置。
国内外学者对于通道截面形状对流动与传热性能的影响进行了大量研究。除矩形截面外,对三角形[13-14]、梯形[15-16]截面的研究成为热点,但对于何种截面为最优截面存在分歧[17-18]。Wang Hongtao等[11]认为产生分歧的原因是忽略了水力直径和通道数对性能的影响,于是在保持两者相等的情况下,对矩形、梯形和三角形截面的微通道进行了数值模拟。结果表明,矩形截面的压降最大,三角形截面的压降最小。当泵功为1 W时,三角形和梯形截面的热阻分别比矩形截面高11.82%和1.01%,此时矩形截面的传热系数分别比三角形和梯形高约25.83%和24.47%。
还有学者对比了更多不同几何形状截面微通道的压降和传热性能,A. A. Alfaryjat等[19]加工了具有相同水力直径的六边形、圆形、菱形截面的微通道,在Re为100~1 000、热通量为500 kW/m2工况下进行实验研究。结果表明,六边形截面微通道的传热系数和压降比圆形截面、比菱形截面分别高3.5%、8.6%和24.0%、3.3%,但菱形截面微通道的平均表面温度最低。不同截面形状的微通道如图1所示。V. S. Duryodhan等[20]设计了两种具有发散与收敛截面的微通道(图1(b))。实验证明,发散与收敛截面的压降可以等效于相同水力直径下直通道的压降。随后在Re为30~240、热通量为0.3~9.5 W/cm2工况下进行数值模拟[21-22]。结果表明,发散和收敛截面均能够比平直截面表现出更好的流动传热性能,其中收敛截面的压降和努塞尔数均大于发散截面。
除了对通道截面进行改造,随着加工技术的进步,部分学者提出可以通过改变内部流道形状以进一步提高传热性能。M. Khoshvaght-Aliabadi等[23]设计了一种正弦形(波浪形)微通道(图2(a))。研究表明,随着Re的增加,正弦结构所需泵功比平直结构大2.5~7.8倍,热阻最多比平直通道降低约57.4%,原理是当流体流经凸起处时,会产生名为迪恩涡的二次流使流体混合增强从而强化传热。H. A. Mohammed等[24]设计了振幅为0.062 5~0.250 0的波浪形微通道,在Re为100~1 000、热通量为100 W/m2工况下数值研究发现,随着振幅的增加,传热系数与压降均逐渐增加且高于平直微通道。总体而言,当振幅在0.062 50~0.218 75具有最佳的传热性能。Sui Y.等[25]据此提出梯级振幅布置的优化设计方案,能够在不改变通道紧凑度的情况下更好地提高局部传热性能。然而,上述学者均从模拟的角度进行分析,并未进行实验验证,Huang Houxue等[26]在振幅为0.05~0.40的正弦微通道内实验研究了Re为5~823、热负荷为0~180 W工况下去离子水的流动与传热性能,实验结果与上述模拟预测趋势相同。基于上述研究可知,正弦形微通道虽然带来较高的压降,但通常能提供较高的传热系数,在某些情况下使其成为高热流密度电子器件冷却的更优选择。
还有一种流道形状为锯齿形微通道,通道中同时存在迪恩涡和混沌平流两种流动机制从而产生强烈的流动混合效应。Peng Yi等[27]设计制造了4种不同角度(30°~90°)的锯齿形微通道(图2(b)),在质量流量为10~45 g/min、热源初始温度为50~75 ℃工况下对其进行实验研究。结果表明,减小锯齿角度能够改善传热性能,当锯齿角度为30°时具有最高的传热系数和最低的热阻。当质量流量为25 g/min,热源初始温度为75 ℃时,45°的锯齿角具有最好的表面均温性,并且随着角度从45°增至90°逐渐恶化。胡玉茹[28]对锯齿形微通道内部流场进行数值模拟,观察到流体在尖角处会受到离心力作用产生速度梯度从而增强扰动,使其压降高于同工况下的直通道。
综上可知,微通道散热器的纵横比和截面形状趋向多样化,包括不同尺寸的矩形、圆形和多边形微通道,在未来也可能会出现更多的异型截面微通道。而非平直流道可以通过增强流动混合强化传热,其中波浪形和锯齿形微通道由于性能优异且易于制造,在未来很可能得到广泛应用。在半导体、新能源汽车等领域快速发展的时代背景下,微通道的尺寸在未来可能会进一步减小,同时具有可伸缩、可调整的纵横比或截面/流道形状,以适应不同尺寸和形状的热源。
除了对微通道的截面和流道形状进行优化,在微通道中加工肋柱也能够增加传热面积,通常是沿通道侧壁或底面的凸起,能够促进流体与流动边界层和热边界层的混合,因此该结构能够更有效地移除热量,但也会使压降增加。常见的肋柱形状有矩形[29-30]、三角形[31-32]和半圆形[33-34]。肋柱形状对传热性能有不同程度的改善,为了确定最优的侧壁肋柱形状,M. M. U. Rehman等[35-36]Re为100~1 000、热负荷为100 W/cm2工况下对微通道内的椭圆形、梯形、水滴形和矩形肋(图3(a))进行数值模拟。结果表明,椭圆形肋具有全局最高的努塞尔数Nu,而矩形肋的Nu最低;Re<600时,椭圆肋表现出最好的综合性能;除此之外水滴肋为最优结构。
除了肋柱的形状设计,关于肋柱布置形式对流动与传热性能的影响也有讨论。T. Desrues等[37-38]对布置侧壁垂直矩形肋(VR, vertical rib)和横向肋(SR, spanwise rib)的微通道进行数值模拟,证明其具有强化传热和增加压降的特性。Wang Guilian等[39]将VR与SR结合设计的新型肋称为双向肋(BR, bidirectional rib),如图3(b)所示,在Re为100~1 000、热通量为100 W/cm2工况下对其进行实验和数值研究,并与VR和SR进行了对比。结果表明,在相同的流量下,BR的Nu比VR、SR分别高1.4~2.0倍、1.20~1.42倍,因为BR通过中断热边界层并在垂直方向和水平方向上诱导流动混合来提供更高的传热性能。但由于BR具有更大的流动阻碍面积,所以摩擦阻力比VR、SR分别高8.85倍、4.42倍。
Wang Ruijin等[30]Re为62.5~625.0、热负荷为100 W/cm2工况下,对单排和双排布置的倾斜矩形肋结构(图3(c))进行了数值模拟。研究发现,倾斜布置的肋在不影响传热性能的基础上能够有效减小压降,且双排布置的传热性能优于单排布置。Zhang Shizhong等[40]设计了一种三叶型肋(图3(d)),采用了3组不同的布置形式,研究表明,与光滑微通道相比,全壁布置具有全局最高的ψ为1.13~1.61。
凹腔的作用与肋柱相似,均是通过增加传热面积,干扰热边界层的中断和再发展以及通过涡流混合实现强化传热。但侧壁加工凹腔能够降低流速,凹腔中形成的涡流能够将滑动摩擦转化为滚动摩擦从而显著抑制流动阻力的增加。
Ma D. D.等[41]设计了侧壁具有对称三角形凹腔的结构(图4(a))并进行数值模拟。相比于光滑微通道,其Nu提高了1.56~1.29倍。E. Bayrak等[42-44]设计了对称或偏置的矩形、半圆形、梯形的侧壁凹腔结构(图4(b))。实验或模拟研究证明,与光滑微通道相比,传热性能均得到了不同程度的强化。部分学者对于最优的侧壁凹腔结构并未达成统一意见[44-48]。Zhu Qifeng等[49]为了系统地对比各凹腔结构的流动与传热性能,设计了矩形、三角形、梯形、水滴形和半圆形结构偏置凹腔(图4(c))。在Re为190~610、热通量为100 W/cm2工况下进行数值研究。结果表明,矩形凹腔的压降最低,三角形凹腔压降最大,但同时也具有最高的Nu和最高的综合性能因子,因此三角形凹腔在改善流动与传热方面具有显著优势。此外,赵星霖等[50]针对凹腔的布置方式对传热性能的影响进行探索,设计了两面开槽和四面开槽的微通道(图4(d))。结果表明,两面开槽与四面开槽结构的平均传热系数相比于光滑通道分别提高了33.8%和40%。
基于上述研究可知,微通道散热器的压降和传热性能均与流动状态高度耦合,因此将各种扰流结构集成在微通道中引起了研究人员的极大兴趣,其中肋柱与凹腔是应用较为广泛的强化手段。凹腔的存在不会阻碍流体的流动,通常会提供较好的传热性能和较低的压降增幅,适用于许多对能耗有要求的场景。肋柱虽然具有更好的传热性能,但通常伴随着较高的压降。因此,在特定应用中需要结合如传热性能、压降、能耗、制造难度和应用环境等对两者进行选用,以最大程度地满足散热需求。
在微通道中同时添加肋柱和凹腔是另一种强化传热的手段,该组合结构能够有效增加传热面积,还能在强化传热的同时最大限度地降低压降。Zhai Y. L.等[51]以水为工质,在Re为100~1 000、热负荷为100 W/cm2工况下对具有半圆形凹腔和4种不同形状肋柱的微通道(图5(a))进行了数值研究。研究发现,凹腔组合矩形肋的ψ始终最低,当Re>300时,凹腔组合半圆肋的ψ最高。此外,Li Yifan等[52-53]提出了三角形凹腔组合不同形状肋的微通道(图5(b-c)),数值研究表明,所有的组合结构均具有强化传热、降低流体与壁面平均温差的特性,其中三角形偏置凹腔和侧壁构造前向水滴形肋的组合结构具有最高的ψ
还有一种肋柱位于微通道底部,称为中断肋,其形状也会影响散热性能。Zhu Qifeng等[54]在侧壁矩形凹腔的基础上设计了矩形、菱形、三角形、椭圆形4种不同形状的中断肋(图5(d))。在Re为100~900、热通量为100 W/cm2工况下进行数值模拟。结果表明,当Re<500时,矩形肋的ψ最高,除此之外椭圆形肋的ψ最高。M. A. Alfellag等[55]提出了一种基于梯形凹腔的椭圆中断肋的结构(图5(e))。在Re为100~1 200、热通量为100 W/cm2工况下进行数值模拟,研究表明,开槽的椭圆肋能够更好地提高综合性能,在特定结构布置下具有最大的ψ为1.37。
近年来,凸起与凹坑的强化结构获得了更多的关注,它是一种特殊的肋柱与凹腔结构,具有加工简单、成本可控的优点,在电子设备冷却和生物医疗设备等方面得到应用。M. M. U. Rehman等[56]在矩形微通道壁面加入凸起与凹坑,并考虑了不同布置方式(图5(f))对流动与传热性能的影响。在Re为100~1 000、热通量为50~100 W/cm2工况下对其进行数值模拟。结果表明,与光滑微通道相比,全壁布置对齐凸起的平均Nu最多增加了115%,而摩擦系数最多增大了152%,具有全局最高的ψ
综上可知,肋柱和凹腔的组合结构在增加传热面积、降低压降增幅、改善湍流效应、增强流体混合方面优势显著。但其设计与制造过程复杂,为了确定最佳形状、尺寸及排列方式,需要更多的设计与制造成本,此外还可能引起流动不稳定性,这在某些应用场景是不可接受的。在未来的应用中,应综合考虑其优势和局限性,根据散热场景进行定制和优化,同时需要使用计算流体力学模拟和实验验证来确定最优的结构设计,以实现最佳的综合性能。
近10年来,一些学者利用边界层重建和二次流动的概念将微通道侧壁去除,仅在底部添加肋柱,设计了针肋微通道,它是解决高热通量问题的另一种散热结构。相比于光滑微通道,除了增加传热面积外,针肋间的流动形态更为复杂,能够有效地强化传热并改善进出口流场分布。部分学者就针肋形状对流动与传热性能的影响进行了研究。Wang P.等[57]制造了圆形、方形、菱形和水滴形4种不同形状的微针肋散热器(图6(a))。采用去离子水为工质,在Re为150~750工况下进行实验研究,结果表明,水滴形肋的Nu最高,其次是菱形、圆形和方形;菱形肋的压降最低,其次是方形、水滴形和圆形;菱形肋的ψ最高,对于改善流动与传热性能最有帮助。
除了上述规则几何形状的针肋,部分学者从优化流场的角度出发设计了异形针肋。夏国栋等[58]设计了长菱形针肋(图6(b))。该结构不仅能够拓展传热面积,还可以避免针肋尾部涡脱落造成的阻力损耗。采用去离子水为工质进行实验和数值研究发现,与相同尺寸的圆形、菱形针肋相比,长菱形针肋具有全局最高的Nuψ。为解决单一圆形针肋在尾部容易形成大面积的回流,使尾部侧面传热面积无法利用的问题,崔珍珍等[59]设计了一种圆形针肋穿叉布置三角形小肋的组合式针肋(图6(c))。三角形小肋的存在能够破坏边界层的发展,在圆肋尾部形成纵向涡,减小尾部回流,增强流场的扰动,提高流场和温度均匀性。采用水为工质进行数值模拟发现,与不含尾部肋的圆形针肋相比,压降最多增加76%,Nu最多增加118%。当冲角θ为30°时,具有最高的综合性能因子1.42~1.62。
针肋排布方式、布置密度、纵横比也会对散热器的性能有重大影响。Liu Zhigang等[60-61]研究表明,叉排的摩擦系数大于顺排,且随针肋高度的增加而减小,与顺排布置相比,叉排布置的传热系数更大。E. Rasouli等[62]以PF-5060为冷却工质,在Re为8~1 189、热通量为0~100 W/cm2工况下,对不同节距比和纵横比的微针肋进行数值模拟(图6(d))。研究发现,当节距比或纵横比其中一个保持不变时,随着另一参数的增大,Nu增大而流动压降减小。杨宇辰等[63]对孔隙率为0.743和0.836的微针肋进行数值研究发现,在相同Re下,孔隙率越大,Nu也越大,这是因为更大的孔隙率促进了针肋尾部涡的形成,加强了通道内流体的混合和扰动。冯帅[64]提出微针肋直径的最佳范围是100~200 μm,孔隙率的最佳范围是0.65~0.85。为了解决芯片表面温度沿流向分布不均匀的问题,提出了一种梯级分布针肋微流道,在保证孔隙率为0.72的前提下,沿流动方向针肋直径依次为200、150、100 μm(图6(e))。与均匀布置相比,梯级分布设计使中下游形成传热强化区,平均传热系数最多增加了36.8%,同时改善了芯片表面温度均匀性。P. Bhandari等[65]通过改变肋高度设计了7种具有相同传热面积的阶梯式针肋散热器(图6(f))。以去离子水为工质进行数值研究发现,相比于均匀阵列结构,阶梯式结构的传热系数最多增加约25%。高度递增的结构有利于增强流体混合,能够实现更高的传热系数,但同时也产生了更大的压降,其中三阶梯式递增配置始终表现出全局最优的综合性能。
综上可知,针肋结构是一种高效的强化传热结构,通常位于通道底部,通过增加传热面积,破坏流动边界层,引发湍流的方式提高传热性能,但同时存在压降过大的问题。对于针肋形状、排列方式、布置密度、布置高度的进一步研究有利于提高其综合性能。针肋微通道在电子设备散热、绿色化工等多个领域具有广泛的应用潜力。
上述单层微通道中随着单相流体沿热源流动,会出现流体温度升高的问题,导致流程方向均温性较差,严重时甚至会影响发热器件的正常运行。为此,K. C. Wong等[66-68]提出了双层微通道结构(图7(a)),它能够使更多的冷却工质流经散热器的顶层和底层以消散更多的热量。Wu J. M.等[69]研究单层和双层微通道的热阻、壁面温度、压降等参数发现,与单层结构相比,采用逆流布置的双层微通道散热器不仅能够降低热阻,而且能够降低基底表面的最高温度和流向温升,同时压降也大幅降低。然而双层布置结构顶部工质的温度总是高于底部入口处工质的温度,这不可避免地导致顶部的中高温下游工质加热底部的中低温上游工质。Leng Chuan等[70-71]为了防止这种加热效应,提出一种具有截断顶部通道的新型双层微通道散热器(图7(b)),进一步降低了总热阻和底面的最大温差。
N. Lei等[72]设计制造了1~5层的矩形微通道结构(图7(c))对其进行实验研究。在总流量相同的情况下,由于单个通道中的流速降低,多层结构的压降远小于单层的压降,且层数越多,压降越小。同时多层微通道的传热性能强于单层结构,且层数越多,热阻越小。当流量增至一定范围时,单层通道中流态转变为湍流。而多层通道中仍为层流,剧烈的扰动会赋予单层结构更高效的传热强化效果。
基于上述研究可知,多层微通道能够提供更大的传热面积,有助于提高传热效率,同时也具有更复杂的流路,有助于流体的混合和分配。在实际应用中,平衡传热面积与流量分配的问题是设计与应用多层微通道的重点与难点,应根据流体物性及流速等因素进行取舍。
仿生结构微通道是一种灵感来源于生物学的设计,利用生物系统中的结构和原理来改善微通道的性能。该设计方法旨在模仿生物体系中的一些功能,以实现更有效的流体分配、传热、混合等过程。Peng Yi等[73-74]根据植物叶片的叶脉结构,设计了叶脉分形微通道散热器(图8(a))并数值研究其流动与传热性能。在热通量为100 W/cm2、流量为10 mL/s工况下,该结构的表面最大温差相比于平直通道降低了75%,压降降低了57%。
为了适配常见的方形芯片,徐国强等[75]设计了一种Y型微通道结构(图8(b))并以水为工质对其进行数值模拟。在Re为1 118、热通量为10 W/cm2时,Y型结构的截面最高温度比平直通道低1.4 ℃,压降低13 kPa。并指出在研究工况范围内,通道级数为3级、分叉角度为60°、分支数为2时为最优的布置结构。马欣荣等[76]进一步设计了双层Y形结构并在热通量为2.5×103 W/m2工况下进行数值研究。在传热面积相同,入口速度为1 m/s时,相比于单层Y型结构,双层逆流Y形结构的截面最高温度降低了3.1 ℃,压降减少了755.2 Pa。
刘显茜等[77]借鉴昆虫翅膀,设计了一种仿生翅脉微通道(图8(c))。采取体积分数为50%的乙二醇溶液作为冷却液,在Re为643.23、传热系数为2 W/(m2·K)工况下对其进行数值研究。结果表明,仿生翅脉结构的表面最高温度比平直结构降低了3.01 K,压降降低了87 Pa。董涛等[78]和吴龙文等[79]也分别从昆虫中得到灵感,分别设计制造了仿蜂巢结构微通道(图8(d))和蛛网结构微通道(图8(e)),用于电子芯片散热。研究表明,与平直流道相比,仿生分形流道在拓展传热面积、提高散热量、减少泵功、降低发热器件表面最大温差及提升温度分布均匀性等方面具有独特优势,且效果通常随分形级数的增加而增加。Chen Yongping等[80-81]受哺乳动物循环与呼吸系统的启发,建立了肺气管分形微通道散热器(图8(f))的模型。在入口流速为1m/s、入口温度为20 ℃、芯片功耗为30 W工况下,肺气管型微通道的表面最大温差最多比平直通道低14.3 ℃。申鑫等[82]借鉴鱼鳞和鲨鱼皮盾鳞结构,设计了一种鱼鳞仿生结构微通道(图8(g-h)),在Re为290~1 180、热流密度为50 W/cm2工况下进行数值模拟,研究表明,新型微通道的ψ均在1.05~2.08,综合性能获得显著提升。其中品字形排布的等比劈缝鱼鳞结构由于压降更低,二次流扩散面积及有效传热面积较大,因此综合性能最好。
综上所述,学者们从植物、昆虫、动物等生物体系中得到启发从而设计了各种仿生微通道。目前大部分仿生微通道能够降低流阻,减小尺寸与质量,同时由于其高效的冷却工质传输特性,具有均温性强的特点,能够有效解决电子设备因局部热点而出现的故障,在集成芯片热管理领域的发展中具有很大的竞争力。仿生结构微通道的发展仍然是一个活跃的研究领域,在该领域跨学科研究和合作非常重要,需要利用生物学、机械工程、材料科学和流体力学的知识来推动创新。目前对于仿生微通道散热器的研究大多集中于理论与数值计算,今后的研究可以侧重于实验装置的研制以测试其实际冷却性能。
随着电子设备集成度的提高,单一形式的微通道散热器在某些场景已经无法满足散热需求。为了解决这一挑战,研究人员将不同的强化结构进行组合,设计了复合强化结构微通道,使其应用领域进一步拓展。
其中,在横断区内布置中断肋的复合结构受到了广泛关注[83-84]。Chai Lei等[85]在横断区布置5种中断肋(图9(a))。采用去离子水为工质对其进行数值研究。结果表明,复合结构的传热系数与压降均大于各单一结构,其中横断区复合椭圆肋表现出最佳的综合性能。类似地,A. Datta等[86]将横断区,中断肋与渐缩渐扩结构复合,设计了如图9(b)所示的结构,指出具有内部渐缩结构的中断肋能够实现最优的综合性能。涡流发生器(VG, vortex generator)也是一种特殊的中断肋,它能够产生强烈的纵向涡以加强流动扰动,增强流体的混合效果,从而改善传热性能。G. Biswas等[87]对内置涡流发生器的微通道综合性能进行研究,并与光滑微通道进行对比,发现内置涡流发生器的微通道的ψ相比于光滑微通道可提高约40%。Feng Zhenfei等[88]提出了一种在横断区布置纵向涡流发生器对(LVG, longitudinal vortex generator)的结构(图9(c))。采用去离子水为工质,在Re为133~596、热通量为100 W/cm2工况下进行数值模拟,研究表明,LVG存在最佳布置参数,在该布置下能够获得最大的ψ为1.45。
还有部分学者将双层微通道与扰流结构进行复合,K. Derakhshanpour等[89]在双层微通道侧壁设置了半圆形肋(图9(d))。半圆肋的加入导致热边界层和混沌平流的再发展,进而导致传热系数显著提高。D. Debbarma等[90]通过在双层微通道中布置凹坑和凸起,以水为工质,在Re为89~924、热通量为100 W/cm2工况下进行数值模拟,研究表明,同时布置凸起和凹坑结构的散热器的Nu比光滑双层通道提高了36%,壁面最大温差降低了63%。
在单相液冷散热中,微通道虽然能够有效提高传热性能,但所需的代价通常是泵送功率的提高。如何改善表面结构,减小流动阻力已成为关键技术问题之一。其中一种方案是在微通道中使用纳米结构的超疏水表面,如霍素斌[91]制备出了具有超疏水特性的铝基微通道,实验证明流动阻力最多可减少40%。这是由于超疏水表面产生了“滑移效应”,降低了流体在壁面处的流动阻力。然而,高质量的纳米结构微通道壁面制造困难,因此Chuan Leng等[92]引入了烧结多孔结构作为超疏水结构的替代解决方案并证实多孔结构表面上同样可以引起“滑移效应”。
基于上述设计理念,一些基于多孔介质的新型复合微通道开始发展。R. Moosavi等[93-94]把横向涡流发生器(TVG, transverse vortex generator)与多孔介质微通道复合(图10(a))。在Re为125~1 000、热通量为100 kW/m2工况下对其进行数值研究。结果表明,布置有TVG结构的多孔微通道比光滑微通道的传热系数最多高12倍,压降相比于未添加多孔介质的微通道有所降低。Wang Shuolin等[95]将多孔材料作为双层微通道的侧壁(图10(b)),试图在达到较好的传热性能的同时降低压降。以水为工质,在Re为65~200、热通量为100 W/cm2工况下进行数值模拟。结果表明,在Re相同的情况下,相比于双层实心壁面结构,虽然泵送功率降低了45.3%~48.5%,但热阻增加了14.8%~16.2%,从而使传热恶化。Li Xianyang等[96]对该结构进行优化,将实体壁面较好的导热性能与多孔材料降低压降的特性结合,设计出上层采用多孔壁、下层采用实心壁的复合结构(图10(c))。在Re为194~392、热通量为100 W/cm2工况下对改进的结构与单层实心、单层多孔、双层实心和双层多孔4种结构进行性能对比。结果表明,改进的设计相比于其余4种结构的热阻降低了9.27%~14.98%,温度均匀性提高了14.57%~58.04%。
S. Boland等[97]提出了一种具有波浪形顶部多孔翅片的双层微通道散热器(WTPF, wavy top porous fins),如图10(d)所示。由于正弦结构引起的二次流和顶部多孔肋中的流动混合效应,在Re为214~389、热通量为100 W/cm2时,WTPF的热阻比实心肋双层直微通道低约3.7%~13.9%。
多孔介质与仿生微通道的复合结构也受到了部分学者的关注。P. Dey等[98]设计了一种仿生鱼鳞型多孔肋结构(图10(e))。在Re为200~1 100、热通量为50 W/cm2工况下进行数值模拟,研究表明,与光滑微通道相比,设置实心和多孔鱼鳞型肋的最大传热系数分别增强了78.8%和78.1%,摩擦系数分别升高了48.5%和37.8%,最大ψ分别为1.56和1.60。因此,多孔鱼鳞结构能够更好地实现传热和压降之间的平衡。Wang M.等[99]设计了二阶蜂窝肋结构(图10(f))并分别对其填充固体和多孔介质。在Re为50~150、热通量为50 W/cm2工况下对其进行数值模拟,结果表明,具有二阶蜂窝多孔肋的微通道的ψ最高,相比于实心肋的Nu增加了0~1.6%,压降减少了81.1%~81.7%。
综上可知,某些复合强化结构通常会在相邻微通道的横断区内布置扰流结构,在促进横向流体的运输和混合的同时引入湍流来破坏热边界层和流动边界层。此外,基于多孔介质的复合强化结构则能够在增加传热面积的同时产生“滑移效应”以显著降低流阻。复合强化结构可以根据特定的应用需求进行非标定制,在热管理领域中具有重要意义。目前,限制其发展的主要问题是工艺的复杂性,因此在实际应用中需要根据散热需求与应用成本进行取舍。
前文介绍了在单相液冷技术中典型的6种微通道散热器结构,将各典型结构的热阻、摩擦系数、热效率、综合性能因子等性能参数进行横向的量化对比,如表1所示。
虽然微通道散热器的结构优化通常对提高流动与传热性能具有很好的效果,但不可避免地会导致成本增加,而加工成本也是每一种几何结构散热器最终是否具有实用价值的重要因素,基体材料成本、设计复杂性与工艺复杂性在决定微通道散热器加工成本时起到关键作用。其中材料选择需要根据实际应用场景与材料的价格进行取舍,而设计复杂性和工艺复杂性一般会相互影响,越复杂的设计通常需要更精密的加工工艺。
选择高导热系数的材料通常是微通道散热器设计的核心,材料价格是影响成本的因素之一。常见的微通道基体材料及参数对比[101-102]表2所示。
目前,最常使用的基体材料为铜、铝、硅3种,均相对容易加工且易于获取,能够满足微通道复杂形状和微细结构的需求,在大规模制造时具有性价比[103]。铜具有良好的导热性能和机械强度,常见于计算机、服务器等需要高效散热的应用中;铝则因为相对较低的成本和轻质化使其在消费电子产品、航空航天领域得到广泛应用。铜相对铝更加昂贵,因此铝成为市场上应用最多的散热器基体材料。硅的导热系数相对较低,更多的应用于半导体和微电子领域,如能源、化工、生物、司法等领域的微流控芯片就是直接在硅基芯片上加工微流道进而对流体进行精确操控[104]
碳化硅具有比硅单质更高的导热系数,但也更加脆硬,给加工制造过程带来了挑战,为此,R. J. Kee等[105]提出了一种压力层压集成结构新技术,将铝、铜等金属材料添加至碳化硅粉末中形成复合材料,能够大幅降低制造难度,具有一定成本效益。
随着电子器件热流密度的迅速增长,迫切需要具有更高导热系数的材料,金刚石作为微通道基体材料具有极高的硬度,极好的导热性能,还具有较好的抗腐蚀性和电绝缘性。虽然金刚石具有这些独特的优点,但由于价格昂贵、加工难度较大,使其在大规模生产应用中受到限制。近年来,对于金刚石/铜基复合材料的研究得到重视,它结合了金刚石优异的导热系数和铜的韧性,同时还具有较小的密度和相对低廉的价格[106],是最有发展前景的新型基体材料之一。
在微通道中实现微尺度强化结构的制造也对加工工艺提出了挑战,随着先进制造方法的发展,可以使用蚀刻(湿法/干法)、微机械切削工艺、微电火花处理、激光切割技术、烧结、气相沉积、热压注塑成型和3D打印等方法进行加工制造,不同工艺也造成成本不同,归纳Deng D.等[107-108]提到的典型结构微通道散热器的加工方法与成本,如表3所示。
表3可知,湿法蚀刻、烧结、微机械切削、微电火花处理的加工成本较低,通常可以用来加工结构相对简单的微通道结构。而干法蚀刻、3D打印、热压/注塑成型、气相沉积、激光切割的成本较高,能够用来加工如多层结构、仿生结构以及复合结构等设计复杂度较高的结构。但每一种加工技术也有其特有的缺陷,如蚀刻技术耗时长,而且一般与有毒的化学溶液相关;烧结工艺难以精确控制最终产品的形状和尺寸;微机械切削容易产生切削毛刺和刀具磨损;微电火花处理和气相沉积的生产率低,难以实现大规模生产;3D打印的几何精度和表面平坦度较差;热压/注塑成型的壁厚很难控制;激光切割设备昂贵,加工时间长,并导致通道表面光洁度差[2,107]。总之,在选用微通道加工工艺时,应同时考虑加工精度与加工成本之间的关系。
微通道冷却技术是一种高效的冷却技术,通过对近年来成果的调研可知,对于微通道散热器结构优化的方向旨在提高其传热系数或均温性的同时尽可能降低压降。本文基于单相液冷微通道的结构对流动与传热性能影响的角度进行综述,提炼出6种典型的结构,针对不同的强化结构可得到如下结论:
1)不同结构微通道散热器的流动与传热特性各异。通过改变纵横比,截面和流道的几何形状能够改变传热面积或增强扰动;侧壁或底部的肋柱和凹腔以及针肋结构是基于边界层重建,流动中断与增强流体混合角度设计的强化结构;多层结构能够显著降低压降和流速,降低壁面的流向温升;仿生结构通过改变流道布置,能够提升发热器件表面的温度均匀性。面对日益复杂的散热场景,需要深入理解各结构的强化传热机理与特性,做到因地制宜,扬长避短,更好地发挥不同结构的作用。
2)复合结构微通道一般能将各结构的特点结合,适应更广泛的应用场景。各强化结构的复合并非简单地堆砌,也并非一定具有更优的性能,其应用建立在对各基础强化结构的深入理解上。目前制约复合结构微通道应用的主要原因是其在材料、设计、制造、装配等工艺方面具有局限性,批量生产成本较高,随着新的加工技术与材料的研发应用,复合结构微通道将会日趋成熟,成为具有广泛应用前景的新型散热设备。
3)在微通道散热器的工业应用与商业化中,降低加工成本是首要任务,其中加工成本主要由基体材料和工艺复杂度决定。在基体材料方面,近年来散热器基体材料主要集中于铜、铝、硅,但随着电子器件热流密度的提高,金刚石/铜复合材料由于其高导热系数和相对较低的成本具有突出的应用前景。在加工技术方面,归纳了蚀刻、微机械切削工艺、微电火花处理、激光切割技术、烧结、气相沉积、热压注塑成型和3D打印等制造方法的成本与局限性。对于强化结构的工艺选择,应同时考虑加工精度与加工成本之间的关系。
4)单相液冷微通道散热器的结构研究仍处于不断演进的阶段,目前的研究方向侧重于增加传热面积和改善流动形态。在结构方面,未来微通道散热器将继续向小型化、复合化发展。在材料方面,未来的发展可引入纳米涂层技术、碳纳米管、石墨烯和金属有机骨架材料,改变微通道的表面特性和纹理。在学科交叉方面,可引入自动化智能控制系统,以实时监测和调整控温策略,从而最大程度地提高散热效率。
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2025年第46卷第1期
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doi: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.01.053
  • 接收时间:2023-11-04
  • 首发时间:2026-03-13
  • 出版时间:2025-02-16
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  • 收稿日期:2023-11-04
  • 修回日期:2024-02-24
  • 录用日期:2024-03-21
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    上海理工大学能源与动力工程学院 上海 200093

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崔晓钰,女,教授,上海理工大学能源与动力工程学院,13166199495,E-mail:。研究方向:制冷与低温,换热器强化换热。
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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