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Article(id=1239211861900587474, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, issueId=1239211861397270994, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.01.150, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1701532800000, receivedDateStr=2023-12-03, revisedDate=1709308800000, revisedDateStr=2024-03-02, acceptedDate=1711987200000, acceptedDateStr=2024-04-02, onlineDate=1773380731320, onlineDateStr=2026-03-13, pubDate=1739635200000, pubDateStr=2025-02-16, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1773380731320, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-13, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1773380731320, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773380731320, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1239211861397270994, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, year='2025', volume='46', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='166', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=0, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1773380731200, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773384112372, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1239226043106652319, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, issueId=1239211861397270994, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1239226043106652320, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, issueId=1239211861397270994, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=150, endPage=156, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1239211862110302676, articleId=1239211861900587474, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, language=EN, title=Experimental Investigation on Water Fouling Risk in Small Diameter Tubes of Chillers, columnId=null, journalTitle=Journal of Refrigeration, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Circulating water is used as the working medium in water-based chillers. Salt ions, such as calcium in circulating water, may precipitate during long-term operation, resulting in the attenuation of heat transfer performance. The application of small-diameter tubes in heat exchangers may lead to more prominent fouling problems. This study developed an accelerated fouling method to evaluate water fouling risk. The most typical operating conditions for water-based chillers were selected as the experimental conditions. The test samples included small diameter (5 mm) smooth tubes, with 7 mm smooth tubes selected for the control experiment. The experimental conditions include a circulating water inlet temperature of 60 ℃, a flow rate of 1 m/s, a foulant mass concentration of 800 mg/L, and a test time of 0-400 h. The results revealed that the total fouling mass was 39.5% higher and required fouling time was 17.6% shorter when comparing the 5 mm and 7 mm smooth tubes; the small diameter tubes had a larger total fouling mass and higher fouling rate. The heat transfer coefficients of the 5 mm and 7 mm tubes after fouling decreased by 12.5% and 9.7%, respectively, and the pressure drops increased by 50.6% and 10.4%, respectively, demonstrating a more severe heat transfer performance deterioration of small diameter tubes after fouling. The microscopic observation results of the fouling layer morphology demonstrated that the fouling layer in 5 mm tubes is a form of compact lamellar scaling, which is more difficult to remove compared with the 7 mm tube; therefore, the fouling risk should be considered when promoting the application of small diameter tubes in chillers.

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Ding Guoliang, male, professor, Ph. D. supervisor, Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 86-21-34206378, E-mail: . Research fields: simulation and optimization research for room air conditioner and utilization of new refrigerant.
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冷水机组中的换热管采用水作为工作介质，长期运行时水中的钙离子等盐分会析出并形成水垢，导致传热性能出现衰减；而冷水机组中小管径换热管的应用，可能会导致结垢问题更加突出。通过设计搭建加速结垢实验台并选取典型的结垢测试工况来对照分析常规尺寸换热管和小管径换热管的结垢特性。常规尺寸换热管选7 mm光管，小管径换热管选5 mm光管，结垢测试工况包括：循环水入口温度60 ℃、流速1 m/s、成垢溶液质量浓度800 mg/L、测试时间0~400 h。5 mm光管与7 mm光管相比，总结垢量增加了39.5%，结垢达到稳定所需时间缩短了17.6%，表明管径小型化后的管内结垢量更大、结垢速率更高。5 mm光管和7 mm光管结垢后的传热系数分别下降12.5%和9.7%，压降分别增加50.6%和10.4%，表明小管径换热管结垢后的传热性能恶化更严重。通过解剖发现5 mm管内结垢层为更紧密的片层状结构，相比于7 mm管更难去除，因此对于冷水机组推广小管径换热管的应用需要重点关注结垢风险。

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丁国良，男，教授，博士生导师，上海交通大学制冷与低温工程研究所，021-34206378，E-mail：。研究方向：制冷空调装置的仿真、优化与新工质应用。
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Agricultural Water Management, 2021, 248: 106757., articleTitle=Effects of coupling multiple factors on CaCO3 fouling in agricultural saline water distribution systems, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1239224533736026170, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=1988, volume=1, issue=null, pageStart=3, pageEnd=17, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[20], rfOrder=27, authorNames=MOFFAT R J, journalName=Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, refType=null, unstructuredReference=MOFFAT R J. Describing the uncertainties in experimental results[J]. 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1冷水机组；2水浴水箱；3搅拌式加药水箱；4成垢溶液充注口；5水泵；6流量计；7针阀；8截止阀；9水浴水箱；10实验样件；11温度采集仪；12压力表。

, figureFileSmall=PRU5M7WbWwH1fXLo2Mimhw==, figureFileBig=bYNHTZXiq+5hyT0iMP8EHA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1239224527503291305, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=EN, label=Fig.2, caption=Fouling mass change with time for two types of samples, figureFileSmall=aJyrWlbgksC4CEgfK5eG9w==, figureFileBig=7PM9rmbC8BAAtr3p/ncucw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1239224527578788781, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=CN, label=图2, caption=两种样件的结垢质量随时间的变化, figureFileSmall=aJyrWlbgksC4CEgfK5eG9w==, figureFileBig=7PM9rmbC8BAAtr3p/ncucw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1239224527671063471, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=EN, label=Fig.3, caption=‘Honeycomb’ loose porous structure of fouling layer, figureFileSmall=z3NM0DAi+biBwp4eY0ivpw==, figureFileBig=6wqsLImZ+3stooX/0goipA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1239224527746560945, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=CN, label=图3, caption=结垢层“蜂窝状”微观形貌, figureFileSmall=z3NM0DAi+biBwp4eY0ivpw==, figureFileBig=6wqsLImZ+3stooX/0goipA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1239224527847224246, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=Test section parameters, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数数值
盘绕直径/m0.2
管径/mm5、7
测试段间距/mm10
), ArticleFig(id=1239224527952081850, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=CN, label=表1, caption=测试段参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数数值
盘绕直径/m0.2
管径/mm5、7
测试段间距/mm10
), ArticleFig(id=1239224528056939453, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=Test conditions parameters, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数数值
入口温度/℃60
流速/(m/s)1
pH7.5
成垢溶液浓度/(mg/L)800
测试时间/h0~400
), ArticleFig(id=1239224528165991361, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=CN, label=表2, caption=实验工况参数, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数数值
入口温度/℃60
流速/(m/s)1
pH7.5
成垢溶液浓度/(mg/L)800
测试时间/h0~400
), ArticleFig(id=1239224528287626178, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=EN, label=Tab.3, caption=Measurement accuracy and calculation error, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
实验参数仪器/计算变量量程精度/误差
流量流量计(DN-10)200~1 200 L/h±0.5%
温度温度传感器(JK808)-200~1 800 ℃±0.5%
压力压力表(Asmik)0~100 kPa±0.5%
样件质量分析天平(JJ224BF)0~220 g±0.1 mg
结垢量计算变量 ±2.6%
压降计算变量 ±3.4%
), ArticleFig(id=1239224528514118597, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=CN, label=表3, caption=仪器测量精度及计算参数误差, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
实验参数仪器/计算变量量程精度/误差
流量流量计(DN-10)200~1 200 L/h±0.5%
温度温度传感器(JK808)-200~1 800 ℃±0.5%
压力压力表(Asmik)0~100 kPa±0.5%
样件质量分析天平(JJ224BF)0~220 g±0.1 mg
结垢量计算变量 ±2.6%
压降计算变量 ±3.4%
), ArticleFig(id=1239224528598004680, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=EN, label=Tab.4, caption=Variation of heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop before and after fouling, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
实验参数传热系数/[W/(m2·K)]压降/kPa
5 mm光管7 mm光管5 mm光管7 mm光管
结垢前1 334.61 268.311.35.8
结垢后1 253.8145.4 117.06.4
变化情况下降12.5%下降9.7%增加50.6%增加10.4%
), ArticleFig(id=1239224528820302797, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=CN, label=表4, caption=结垢前后的传热系数和压降的变化, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
实验参数传热系数/[W/(m2·K)]压降/kPa
5 mm光管7 mm光管5 mm光管7 mm光管
结垢前1 334.61 268.311.35.8
结垢后1 253.8145.4 117.06.4
变化情况下降12.5%下降9.7%增加50.6%增加10.4%
), ArticleFig(id=1239224528954520533, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=EN, label=Tab.5, caption=Fouling layer morphology change of smooth tube with time, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
结垢层形貌生长阶段
5 mm7 mm
起始阶段：呈零星球状分布
生长阶段：呈晶簇分布
稳定阶段：呈片层状分布
), ArticleFig(id=1239224529080349653, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=CN, label=表5, caption=光管结垢层形貌随时间的变化, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
结垢层形貌生长阶段
5 mm7 mm
起始阶段：呈零星球状分布
生长阶段：呈晶簇分布
稳定阶段：呈片层状分布
), ArticleFig(id=1239224529181012956, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=EN, label=Tab.6, caption=Average thickness and maximum thickness of fouling layer in 5 mm tube and 7 mm tube, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
项目5 mm7 mm
结垢层形貌
结垢层云图
平均厚度/μm80.862.4
最大厚度/μm239.3276.4
), ArticleFig(id=1239224529277481949, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1238823019242635269, articleId=1239211861900587474, language=CN, label=表6, caption=两种管径结垢层的平均厚度和最大厚度, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
项目5 mm7 mm
结垢层形貌
结垢层云图
平均厚度/μm80.862.4
最大厚度/μm239.3276.4
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冷水机组换热管小管径化的结垢风险分析
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李钰涵 1 , 詹飞龙 1 , 丁国良 1 , 骆名文 2 , 岳宝 2 , 李丰 2 , 李宁 2 , 邵艳坡 3 , 马超 3 , 张欢 3
制冷学报 | 2025,46(1): 150-156
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制冷学报 | 2025, 46(1): 150-156
冷水机组换热管小管径化的结垢风险分析
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李钰涵1, 詹飞龙1, 丁国良1 , 骆名文2, 岳宝2, 李丰2, 李宁2, 邵艳坡3, 马超3, 张欢3
作者信息
  • 1上海交通大学制冷与低温工程研究所　上海　200240
  • 2美的暖通设备有限公司　佛山　511468
  • 3美的制冷设备有限公司　佛山　528311

通讯作者:

丁国良，男，教授，博士生导师，上海交通大学制冷与低温工程研究所，021-34206378，E-mail：。研究方向：制冷空调装置的仿真、优化与新工质应用。
Experimental Investigation on Water Fouling Risk in Small Diameter Tubes of Chillers
Yuhan Li1, Feilong Zhan1, Guoliang Ding1 , Mingwen Luo2, Bao Yue2, Feng Li2, Ning Li2, Yanpo Shao3, Chao Ma3, Huan Zhang3
Affiliations
  • 1.Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
  • 2.GD Midea HVAC Equipment Co., Ltd., Foshan, 511468, China
  • 3.GD Midea Refrigeration Equipment Co., Ltd., Foshan, 528311, China
出版时间: 2025-02-16 doi: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.01.150
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摘要
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冷水机组中的换热管采用水作为工作介质，长期运行时水中的钙离子等盐分会析出并形成水垢，导致传热性能出现衰减；而冷水机组中小管径换热管的应用，可能会导致结垢问题更加突出。通过设计搭建加速结垢实验台并选取典型的结垢测试工况来对照分析常规尺寸换热管和小管径换热管的结垢特性。常规尺寸换热管选7 mm光管，小管径换热管选5 mm光管，结垢测试工况包括：循环水入口温度60 ℃、流速1 m/s、成垢溶液质量浓度800 mg/L、测试时间0~400 h。5 mm光管与7 mm光管相比，总结垢量增加了39.5%，结垢达到稳定所需时间缩短了17.6%，表明管径小型化后的管内结垢量更大、结垢速率更高。5 mm光管和7 mm光管结垢后的传热系数分别下降12.5%和9.7%，压降分别增加50.6%和10.4%，表明小管径换热管结垢后的传热性能恶化更严重。通过解剖发现5 mm管内结垢层为更紧密的片层状结构，相比于7 mm管更难去除，因此对于冷水机组推广小管径换热管的应用需要重点关注结垢风险。

Circulating water is used as the working medium in water-based chillers. Salt ions, such as calcium in circulating water, may precipitate during long-term operation, resulting in the attenuation of heat transfer performance. The application of small-diameter tubes in heat exchangers may lead to more prominent fouling problems. This study developed an accelerated fouling method to evaluate water fouling risk. The most typical operating conditions for water-based chillers were selected as the experimental conditions. The test samples included small diameter (5 mm) smooth tubes, with 7 mm smooth tubes selected for the control experiment. The experimental conditions include a circulating water inlet temperature of 60 ℃, a flow rate of 1 m/s, a foulant mass concentration of 800 mg/L, and a test time of 0-400 h. The results revealed that the total fouling mass was 39.5% higher and required fouling time was 17.6% shorter when comparing the 5 mm and 7 mm smooth tubes; the small diameter tubes had a larger total fouling mass and higher fouling rate. The heat transfer coefficients of the 5 mm and 7 mm tubes after fouling decreased by 12.5% and 9.7%, respectively, and the pressure drops increased by 50.6% and 10.4%, respectively, demonstrating a more severe heat transfer performance deterioration of small diameter tubes after fouling. The microscopic observation results of the fouling layer morphology demonstrated that the fouling layer in 5 mm tubes is a form of compact lamellar scaling, which is more difficult to remove compared with the 7 mm tube; therefore, the fouling risk should be considered when promoting the application of small diameter tubes in chillers.

李钰涵, 詹飞龙, 丁国良, 骆名文, 岳宝, 李丰, 李宁, 邵艳坡, 马超, 张欢. 冷水机组换热管小管径化的结垢风险分析. 制冷学报, 2025 , 46 (1) : 150 -156 . DOI: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.01.150
Yuhan Li, Feilong Zhan, Guoliang Ding, Mingwen Luo, Bao Yue, Feng Li, Ning Li, Yanpo Shao, Chao Ma, Huan Zhang. Experimental Investigation on Water Fouling Risk in Small Diameter Tubes of Chillers[J]. Journal of Refrigeration, 2025 , 46 (1) : 150 -156 . DOI: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.01.150
正文
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冷水机组因传热效率高、能耗低广泛应用于商业建筑中[1]。采用循环水作为工作介质流经换热管时，循环水中的盐离子可能由于溶解度的变化而不断析出并沉积在管壁上，导致管内结垢层的形成[2]。管内结垢层会大幅减小工作介质流动面积、增加壁面热阻，造成传热效率衰减。国内水机中央空调产品用冷水机组主要采用管径为7 mm的翅片管式换热器，管内走水、管外与空气进行热交换，该类型的换热器可根据应用场景作为冷凝器或蒸发器。Shen Chao等[3]发现，管内结垢层的存在导致换热器传热能力下降30%~40%。因此，需要在换热器设计前期就考虑管内结垢的风险。
5 mm小管径换热管是减少用铜量、降低成本的必然方向，在冷水机组中具有广泛的应用前景[4-6]。有研究表明，使用5 mm小管径的换热器换热能力比7 mm管径的换热器高10%，成本降低50%以上。然而，使用小管径换热管替换大管径换热管来强化换热的同时会带来更大的结垢风险，因为5 mm管中的结垢层可能占据更大的流动面积，导致传热恶化更加严重[7-9]。因此，有必要评估管径小型化后管内结垢层的生长特性。
已有对循环水管内结垢层生长的研究主要集中于10~20 mm大管径[10-12]，缺乏对小于7 mm小管径管内结垢层生长的研究。循环水管内结垢层的主要成分是碳酸钙析晶污垢，单个晶体尺寸为0.5~10 μm，由方解石、文石、球霰石3种晶型构成，多个晶体互相连接生长形成肉眼可见的结垢层[13-14]。影响结垢层生长的因素包括结构因素和工况因素。结构因素包括管径和管内壁结构，结垢量随管径的增大而减小，螺纹管比光管具有更好的抑垢性能[15-16]。工况因素包括成垢溶液浓度(本文涉及的浓度均指质量浓度)和流速。成垢溶液浓度影响最终结垢质量，流速与结垢质量成反比[17-19]。
为了验证使用5 mm管替换7 mm管的可行性，必须研究管径小型化后的结垢风险。本文的目的是在冷水机组常见的工况下，实验对照分析用5 mm管代替7 mm管的结垢风险。
1 7 mm管和5 mm管加速结垢对比测试方法
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1.1 实验目的
实验目的是在相同的加速结垢测试工况下，对照分析5 mm光管和7 mm光管的结垢特性。
结垢特性的评价方式包含3个方面：1)总结垢量和结垢达到稳定所需时间；2)结垢后的传热系数和压降变化；3)结垢层微观形貌观测。
加速结垢的测试工况参数包括成垢溶液浓度、流速、入口温度和pH。
1.2 实验回路与装置
管内结垢实验台的原理图和照片如图1所示，实验台主要包括成垢溶液模块、流量控制模块、测试段和数据收集模块。
成垢溶液模块用于提供入口温度和成垢溶液浓度一定的工作介质，包含冷水机组、水浴水箱、搅拌式加药水箱和成垢溶液充注口。冷水机组采用低温恒温槽来实现对工作介质入口温度的控制。水浴水箱尺寸为40 cm×40 cm×60 cm，与冷水机组相连，将自来水加热至指定温度。搅拌式加药水箱置于水浴水箱中，通过自来水水浴对其中的成垢溶液进行加热。搅拌式加药水箱中盛放配置好的高浓度碳酸钙悬浊液，上部配置搅拌电机，用于将水箱中的高浓度碳酸钙悬浊液搅拌均匀。成垢溶液充注口由带有四分球阀的刻度桶充当，其中盛放高浓度碳酸钙悬浊液。设置成垢溶液充注口的原因是随着实验的进行，一些碳酸钙会在橡胶管中沉淀，为了保持实验过程中进入测试段的碳酸钙总浓度不变，需定时将该部分碳酸钙补充进搅拌式加药水箱中。
流量控制模块用于为整个实验台工作介质提供动力和调整流量，包含变频循环水泵、流量计、针阀和截止阀。变频循环水泵选取陶瓷转子水泵，100档变频调节，并联合针阀与截止阀来实现对工作介质流量的精确调节。流量计采用智能涡轮流量计，可实现对工作介质流量的监控。
测试段和数据收集模块用于放置实验测试样件和采集实验数据，包含分流器、实验样件、水浴水箱、温度采集仪和压力表。分流器与16根测试样件相连，将主流路中的工作介质分流至16根测试段中。测试段采用并联方式接入实验台，本设计可实现同时对多根样件测量，提高实验效率。水浴水箱中盛放自来水，其中放置一个可控温加热棒和一个小型造浪器；可控温加热棒通过设置一个给定的温度，使测试段在实验过程中所处的水环境温度保持不变；小型造浪器为功率7 W的潜水泵，用于保持水浴水箱上下层的自来水温度一致。温度采集仪和压力表为数据采集模块，温度采集仪每秒自动生成一个数据，实现对测试段进出口温度的测量采集；压力表使用智能数字压力表，实现对测试段进出口压力的测量采集。
实验台运行过程为：配置好的成垢溶液经水浴加热，到达指定温度后流经水泵加压，经过分流器将流体工质分为16路，流经每个测试段；通过泵功率和截止阀、针阀的开度调整工作介质的流量；使用温度采集仪和压力表收集进出口工作介质的温度和压力，最后各分路工作介质汇合后返回加药水箱。为保证实验结果的可信性，每种样件进行6组平行实验。每隔5 h取出一根测试段，使用烘干箱进行烘干，使用分析天平称重，然后放回实验回路，直到测试段质量不再随时间变化，计算得到测试段结垢量；通过测试段进出口温度和压力变化计算得到结垢后的传热系数和压降；将结垢达到稳定后的测试段进行解剖，拍摄管内结垢层微观形貌。
1.3 实验样件与工况
实验样件选取典型的空调器用铜质光管，管径为5 mm和7 mm，管壁厚为0.2 mm。将测试样件加工盘绕，保持单根测试段总长为2 m不变，盘绕直径为0.2 m。该设计可以减少实验台占用空间，增长工质流程，提高结垢效率。测试段尺寸如表1所示。
实验中使用的实验工况参数如表2所示。测试工况选取冷水机组常见的冷却水入口温度60 ℃、流速1 m/s、pH 7.5；其中，冷却水中的碳酸钙浓度设置为800 mg/L，是常温下碳酸钙在水中溶解度的1 000倍。设置高碳酸钙浓度是为了能够在短时间内快速达到实际运行多年后的结垢效果，管内结垢生长达到稳定的时间可以控制在0~400 h。
2 数据处理与分析
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2.1 数据处理方法
实验中需要计算得到的参数是成垢溶液浓度、结垢量、传热系数和压降，可以直接读取的数据是测试段进出口温度和压力。
成垢溶液的配置使用CaCl2分析纯和Na2CO3分析纯按照一定比例混合。
成垢溶液质量浓度c的表达式为：
式中：c为成垢溶液质量浓度，mg/L；为CaCl2分析纯的物质的量，mol；为CaCl2分析纯的摩尔质量，取111 g/mol；为Na2CO3分析纯的物质的量，mol；为Na2CO3分析纯的摩尔质量，取106 g/mol；V为水箱体积，本实验中为24 L。
结垢量m的表达式为：
式中：m为测试段的碳酸钙结垢量，g；mi、m0分别为实验前、后测试段样件的质量，g。
传热系数K的表达式为：
式中：K为总传热系数，W/(m2·℃)；cp为水的比定压热容，J/(kg·℃)；为水的质量流量，kg/s；Tout为出口温度，℃；Tin为入口温度，℃；A为换热管表面积，m2；ΔT为测试段进出口水温的平均温差，℃。
压降Δp的表达式为：
式中：Δp为进出口压降，kPa；pin、pout分别为测试段进、出口的压力，kPa。
2.2 误差分析
实验中的工作介质流量、温度、压力以及样件质量可通过设备仪器直接测量得到，其误差范围由设备仪器精度决定；测试段结垢量和压降的误差为计算误差，可通过R. J. Moffat[20]方法分析得到。具体误差分析如表3所示。
3 分析与讨论
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3.1 结垢量随时间的变化
5 mm光管和7 mm光管的结垢量随时间的变化如图2所示。由图2可知，管径减小结垢量增大，5 mm光管结垢量比7 mm光管结垢量大39.5%。在流速和成垢溶液浓度相同的工况下，影响结垢量的因素是壁面温度，由于5 mm管的管内壁传热总面积小于7 mm管，在管内走60 ℃水时，5 mm管的壁面温度大于7 mm管，壁面温度越高，碳酸钙析晶覆盖率越大。
结垢达到稳定所需时间与管径有关，管径越小，结垢达到稳定所需时间越短，5 mm光管结垢达到稳定所需时间比7 mm光管缩短了17.6%。总结垢质量由范德华力和壁面剪切力决定，范德华力是分子间作用力，受分子直径和碰撞几率影响，控制碳酸钙在壁面的析出生长；壁面剪切力由管内扰流决定，对垢层有剥蚀作用。小管径5 mm管中，分子间碰撞几率增大，范德华力的作用大于壁面剪切力，容易互相连接生成尺寸较大的结垢层，因此小管径5 mm管结垢速率比7 mm大，可靠运行的时间缩短。
结垢量随时间分为3个阶段：起始阶段、生长阶段和稳定阶段。起始阶段出现在实验前期，碳酸钙晶胞在工作介质中和壁面上生成，此时主要以热力学不稳定的球霰石为主。生长阶段出现在实验中期，晶胞逐渐生长成为更稳定的晶粒，相邻的晶粒互相连接成为连续的结垢层，此时主要以文石和方解石为主。稳定阶段出现在实验后期，在壁面上的结垢层发生老化；在结垢层与工作介质接触的地方，碳酸钙析晶污垢重复球霰石—文石—方解石的生长顺序，一边受到范德华力与老化的结垢层连接，一边受到工作介质的剪切力而重新溶解，此时结垢层达到动态平衡，不随时间变化。
实验前期，结垢量随时间的变化很小；当结垢层生长到达生长阶段时，结垢量随时间的变化速率先增大再减小；在结垢层达到稳定阶段时，结垢量随时间无明显变化，结垢量达到动态稳定。
3.2 结垢后的传热系数和压降变化
5 mm光管和7 mm光管结垢后的传热系数及压降变化如表4所示。由表4可知，结垢后的换热管传热系数与结垢前的清洁状态相比均有下降，结垢后的5 mm光管与清洁管相比传热系数下降12.5%，结垢后的7 mm光管与清洁管相比传热系数下降9.7%。
清洁状态下5 mm光管传热系数大于7 mm管，随着结垢层生成，两种管径换热管的传热系数均有下降，5 mm管的传热系数下降程度大于7 mm管。当结垢达到稳定时，5 mm光管的传热系数仍大于7 mm光管，这是由于5 mm管达到稳定时的结垢量大于7 mm管，碳酸钙结垢层的导热系数仅为金属铜的万分之一，所以结垢达到稳定后，5 mm管的传热系数恶化程度大于7 mm管。
由表4还可知，结垢后的换热管压降与结垢前的清洁状态相比均有上升，结垢后的5 mm光管与清洁管相比压降增加了50.6%，结垢后的7 mm光管与清洁管相比压降增加了10.4%。清洁状态下5 mm光管进出口压降大于7 mm管，随着结垢层生成，两种管径换热管的进出口压降均有上升，5 mm管的进出口压降增幅大于7 mm管。当结垢达到稳定时，5 mm光管的进出口压降仍大于7 mm光管。结垢层在内壁的生长占据本身的流道，使工作介质可流通的流道直径变小，进出口压降增加。7 mm管结垢后的压降增幅更小，因此在实际空调器中使用5 mm管径换热管的换热器需设计更高的额定功率余量。
3.3 结垢层微观形貌
为了有针对性的设计管内除垢方法，需要观测结垢层的微观形貌。将结垢实验不同阶段的样件取出，解剖后使用扫描电子显微镜(scanning electron micro-scope，SEM，)拍摄微观形貌，结果如表5所示。
由表5可知，起始阶段碳酸钙晶体首先以球状球石的形态在铜管内表面分散式析出结晶。生长阶段碳酸钙晶体为球状球石、针状文石、正方体方解石3种混合，有的壁面位置结垢层生长速率大于其他位置，可见结垢层在管内并非均匀分布。稳定阶段结垢层晶体互相连接老化，呈片层状结构，此时污垢层极难被剥蚀，稳定性高。
进一步提高SEM放大倍数，可见管内结垢层主要为稳定的片层状，在结垢层上表面出现“蜂窝状”疏松多孔结构，结果如图3所示。碳酸钙晶体分为球状的球石、针状的文石和正方体状的方解石，溶解度依次下降，稳定性依次上升。溶液中的碳酸钙析出形成球石，生成的球石经历溶解—再结晶过程，一部分转化为热力学更稳定的文石相。针状文石相互连接，经过复杂的晶型、晶胞变化，形成“蜂窝状”疏松多孔结构。“蜂窝状”结构中间的孔作为天然的结晶点位，促进晶体向热力学更稳定的方解石发展。3种晶型相互连接固化，形成完整的片层状，标志着结垢层的老化。
为了定量分析5 mm管和7 mm管内结垢层的厚度，使用材料型正置激光共聚焦显微镜扫描垢层，结果如表6所示。从形貌和云图中得出在有效区域内铜管切片上结垢层的平均厚度为5 mm管80.8 μm、7 mm管62.4 μm，最大厚度5 mm管为239.3 μm、7 mm管为276.4 μm，5 mm管结垢层的平均厚度大于7 mm管，5 mm管结垢层的最大厚度占管径的4.7%，7 mm管结垢层的最大厚度占管径的3.9%，5 mm管结垢堵塞的风险更大。
4 结论
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本文设计并搭建了换热管内加速结垢实验台，在相同的加速结垢测试工况下对比分析了5 mm光管和7 mm光管的结垢量、结垢后的传热系数和压降、结垢形貌，得到如下结论：
1）管径小型化会使析晶颗粒物在管壁的碰撞沉积概率增大，从而有利于结垢层互相连接生长；在本文测试工况下，5 mm光管的最大结垢量比7 mm光管高39.5%，且5 mm光管结垢达到稳定所需时间比7 mm光管少17.6%。
2）5 mm光管达到结垢稳定后的传热性能恶化程度比7 mm光管更严重；在本文测试工况下，5 mm光管结垢稳定后的传热系数相比于7 mm光管分别下降12.5%和9.7%，压降分别增加50.6%和10.4%。
3）5 mm光管内结垢形貌主要呈现为紧密的片层状型式，7 mm光管内结垢形貌主要呈现为“蜂窝状”疏松多孔状型式，导致5 mm光管内结垢层更密实且更难以去除。
文献
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2025年第46卷第1期
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doi: 10.12465/j.issn.0253-4339.2025.01.150
  • 接收时间：2023-12-03
  • 首发时间：2026-03-13
  • 出版时间：2025-02-16
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  • 收稿日期：2023-12-03
  • 修回日期：2024-03-02
  • 录用日期：2024-04-02
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作者信息
    1上海交通大学制冷与低温工程研究所　上海　200240
    2美的暖通设备有限公司　佛山　511468
    3美的制冷设备有限公司　佛山　528311

通讯作者:

丁国良，男，教授，博士生导师，上海交通大学制冷与低温工程研究所，021-34206378，E-mail：。研究方向：制冷空调装置的仿真、优化与新工质应用。
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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