Article(id=1195816329602183535, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, issueId=1195816324862624679, articleNumber=1001-2494(2024)24-2306-09, orderNo=null, doi=10.11669/cpj.2024.24.002, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1702396800000, receivedDateStr=2023-12-13, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763034430169, onlineDateStr=2025-11-13, pubDate=1734796800000, pubDateStr=2024-12-22, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763034430169, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-13, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763034430169, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763034430169, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1195816324862624679, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, year='2024', volume='59', issue='24', pageStart='2299', pageEnd='2406', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1763034429040, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763034724390, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1195817563738390939, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, issueId=1195816324862624679, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1195817563738390940, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, issueId=1195816324862624679, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2306, endPage=2314, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1195816329807704433, articleId=1195816329602183535, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, language=EN, title=Research Progress in Respiratory and Intestinal Mucosal Immunity and Vaccines, columnId=null, journalTitle=Chinese Pharmaceutical Journal, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Infectious diseases are always a hot topic in global public health, and their transmission routes and mechanisms have attracted much attention. From the perspective of transmission routes, mucosal infection routes account for a large proportion, and pathogens can enter human body through the surface mucosa of different organs to cause disease, making the mucosa become the front line of human immune defense. In the structure of human body, the respiratory tract and intestine are the key contact interfaces between the human internal environment and the outside world, and their mucosal immune system plays a crucial role in protecting the body from pathogens. Therefore, the activation of the respiratory tract which is directly exposed to the external environment, and the mucosal immune system of the gastrointestinal tract which is the largest immune organ, can effectively cut off the route of infection, which is of great significance. In this paper, the complex interaction between epithelial cells and immune cells was analyzed from the structural and cellular components of respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract, and the mechanism of antigen activation of mucosal immune response was described. By collecting relevant information on respiratory and intestinal mucosal vaccines and summarizing their advantages, the current challenges in this area are faced, with the intention that new ideas for further exploration and research on the development of effective mucosal vaccines will be hoped for.

, correspAuthors=Aiping ZHENG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yingqi LIU, Houru LIU, Fan MENG, Zehong CHEN, Wanting FENG, Haonan XING, Aiping ZHENG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1195816802560290914, articleId=1195816329602183535, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, language=CN, title=呼吸道与肠道黏膜免疫及疫苗的研究进展, columnId=1190352408384471863, journalTitle=中国药学杂志, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

传染性疾病一直是全球公共卫生热议的话题,其传播途径和机制备受关注。从传播途径看,黏膜感染途径是重要的病原感染途径之一。在人体结构中,呼吸道和肠道作为人体内部环境与外界交换的关键接触界面,其黏膜免疫系统在保护机体免受病原体侵袭方面发挥着至关重要的作用。因此,激活直接暴露于外部环境的呼吸道,以及拥有最大免疫器官的胃肠道的黏膜免疫系统,可以有效切断传染途径,研究意义重大。本文从呼吸道和胃肠道的结构组成和细胞成分入手,对抗原激活机体黏膜免疫反应的机制进行阐述。通过汇集有关呼吸道和肠道黏膜疫苗的相关信息,总结其优势以及当前所面临的挑战,期望为深入探索和研究有效的黏膜疫苗的发展领域提供新思路。

, correspAuthors=郑爱萍, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
* 郑爱萍,女,博士,研究员 研究方向:黏膜递送系统 Tel: (010)66931694
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刘瑛琪,女,硕士研究生 研究方向:黏膜疫苗递送载体的构建

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IL-2-白细胞介素-2;IL-4-白细胞介素-4;IL-5-白细胞介素-5;IL-6-白细胞介素-6;IL-10-白细胞介素-10。

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疾病 疫苗类型 抗原 接种途径 参考文献
流感 减毒活疫苗 血凝素/神经氨酸酶 鼻喷 [35]
流感 灭活疫苗 血凝素和佐剂 鼻喷 [36]
流感 腺病毒载体 血凝素 鼻喷 [37]
流感 减毒活疫苗 血凝素和神经氨酸酶 鼻喷 [38]
流感 减毒活疫苗 血凝素和神经氨酸酶 鼻喷 [39]
流感 腺病毒载体 血凝素 鼻喷 [40]
新型冠状病毒 流感病毒载体 受体结合域 鼻喷 [41]
新型冠状病毒 腺病毒载体 刺突蛋白 鼻喷 [42]
新型冠状病毒 腺病毒载体 刺突蛋白 口腔雾化吸入 [43]
百日咳 减毒活疫苗 百日咳鲍特菌 鼻喷 [44]
结核病 病毒载体 分泌蛋白 雾化吸入+皮下注射 [45]
呼吸道合胞病毒 蛋白亚单位 预融合单边和细菌样颗粒 鼻喷 [46]
呼吸道合胞病毒 减毒活疫苗 减毒病毒颗粒 鼻滴 [47]
呼吸道合胞病毒 减毒活疫苗 减毒病毒颗粒 鼻滴 [48]
呼吸道合胞病毒 减毒活疫苗 减毒病毒颗粒 鼻滴 [49]
呼吸道合胞病毒 减毒活疫苗 减毒病毒颗粒 鼻喷 [50]
呼吸道合胞病毒 减毒活疫苗 减毒病毒颗粒 鼻滴 [51]
), ArticleFig(id=1196082143517524642, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, articleId=1195816329602183535, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

基于呼吸道免疫的黏膜疫苗

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
疾病 疫苗类型 抗原 接种途径 参考文献
流感 减毒活疫苗 血凝素/神经氨酸酶 鼻喷 [35]
流感 灭活疫苗 血凝素和佐剂 鼻喷 [36]
流感 腺病毒载体 血凝素 鼻喷 [37]
流感 减毒活疫苗 血凝素和神经氨酸酶 鼻喷 [38]
流感 减毒活疫苗 血凝素和神经氨酸酶 鼻喷 [39]
流感 腺病毒载体 血凝素 鼻喷 [40]
新型冠状病毒 流感病毒载体 受体结合域 鼻喷 [41]
新型冠状病毒 腺病毒载体 刺突蛋白 鼻喷 [42]
新型冠状病毒 腺病毒载体 刺突蛋白 口腔雾化吸入 [43]
百日咳 减毒活疫苗 百日咳鲍特菌 鼻喷 [44]
结核病 病毒载体 分泌蛋白 雾化吸入+皮下注射 [45]
呼吸道合胞病毒 蛋白亚单位 预融合单边和细菌样颗粒 鼻喷 [46]
呼吸道合胞病毒 减毒活疫苗 减毒病毒颗粒 鼻滴 [47]
呼吸道合胞病毒 减毒活疫苗 减毒病毒颗粒 鼻滴 [48]
呼吸道合胞病毒 减毒活疫苗 减毒病毒颗粒 鼻滴 [49]
呼吸道合胞病毒 减毒活疫苗 减毒病毒颗粒 鼻喷 [50]
呼吸道合胞病毒 减毒活疫苗 减毒病毒颗粒 鼻滴 [51]
), ArticleFig(id=1196082143609799331, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, articleId=1195816329602183535, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
疾病 疫苗类型 抗原/表位 剂型 批准机构/年份
小儿麻痹症 活性减毒疫苗 脊髓灰质炎病毒 水剂 FDA/1961
霍乱 亚单位疫苗 霍乱弧菌rCTB 胶囊 NMPA/2003
婴儿腹泻 活性重排疫苗 轮状病毒 水剂 FDA/2006
婴儿腹泻 活性减毒疫苗 轮状病毒RIX4414株 水剂 FDA/2008
霍乱 灭活疫苗 霍乱弧菌 水剂 WHO/2013
急性肠胃炎 活性减毒疫苗 沙门氏菌咽 胶囊 FDA/2013
发热性急性呼吸道疾病 腺病毒载体疫苗 腺病毒4型和7型 片剂 FDA/2011
霍乱 活性减毒疫苗 霍乱弧菌 水剂 FDA/2015
), ArticleFig(id=1196082143710462628, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, articleId=1195816329602183535, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

已获批的肠道黏膜疫苗

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疾病 疫苗类型 抗原/表位 剂型 批准机构/年份
小儿麻痹症 活性减毒疫苗 脊髓灰质炎病毒 水剂 FDA/1961
霍乱 亚单位疫苗 霍乱弧菌rCTB 胶囊 NMPA/2003
婴儿腹泻 活性重排疫苗 轮状病毒 水剂 FDA/2006
婴儿腹泻 活性减毒疫苗 轮状病毒RIX4414株 水剂 FDA/2008
霍乱 灭活疫苗 霍乱弧菌 水剂 WHO/2013
急性肠胃炎 活性减毒疫苗 沙门氏菌咽 胶囊 FDA/2013
发热性急性呼吸道疾病 腺病毒载体疫苗 腺病毒4型和7型 片剂 FDA/2011
霍乱 活性减毒疫苗 霍乱弧菌 水剂 FDA/2015
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疫苗类型 疾病 抗原 接种途径 参考文献/临床实验编号
灭活疫苗 手足口病 HEV71 壳聚糖和海藻酸递送载体 [55]
弱毒化疫苗 伤寒 伤寒Vi抗原 白蛋白壳聚糖基质微球 [56]
腺病毒载体疫苗 流感 来自H5N1病毒的血凝素 腺病毒4型 [57]
腺病毒载体疫苗 流感 来自H1N1病毒的血凝素 腺病毒5型 Ⅱ期
腺病毒载体疫苗 COVID-19 前刺蛋白 腺病毒5型 Ⅰ/Ⅱ期
腺病毒载体疫苗 COVID-19 前刺蛋白和核衣壳 腺病毒5型 Ⅰ期
腺病毒载体疫苗 乙型肝炎 乙型肝炎病毒 黑猩猩腺病毒 Ⅰ期
亚单位疫苗 - OVA 花粉颗粒或豚草花粉 [58,59]
亚单位疫苗 - OVA 鞭毛蛋白和甘露胺包被的聚(酸酐)NPs [60]
亚单位疫苗 - BSA 多孔硅NPs [61]
亚单位疫苗 幽门螺杆菌感染 重组尿素酶亚单位B(rUreB) 富含CPP的PEG基NPs [62]
亚单位疫苗 乳链球菌感染 来自B群链球菌的表面免疫原蛋白(SIP) PMMMA-PLGA [63]
DNA疫苗 婴儿腹泻 A轮状病毒VP6 DNA 聚(乳酸-共-乙二醇)微粒 [64]
DNA疫苗 腹泻 LTB(L)、STXB(S)和CTXB(C) 壳聚糖NPs [65]
DNA疫苗 乙型肝炎 乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)表面抗原HBsAg PLGA NPs [64,66]
DNA疫苗 HIV gp160 聚(D,L-乳酸-共-乙二醇)(PLG)微粒 [67]
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基于肠道免疫的黏膜疫苗

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疫苗类型 疾病 抗原 接种途径 参考文献/临床实验编号
灭活疫苗 手足口病 HEV71 壳聚糖和海藻酸递送载体 [55]
弱毒化疫苗 伤寒 伤寒Vi抗原 白蛋白壳聚糖基质微球 [56]
腺病毒载体疫苗 流感 来自H5N1病毒的血凝素 腺病毒4型 [57]
腺病毒载体疫苗 流感 来自H1N1病毒的血凝素 腺病毒5型 Ⅱ期
腺病毒载体疫苗 COVID-19 前刺蛋白 腺病毒5型 Ⅰ/Ⅱ期
腺病毒载体疫苗 COVID-19 前刺蛋白和核衣壳 腺病毒5型 Ⅰ期
腺病毒载体疫苗 乙型肝炎 乙型肝炎病毒 黑猩猩腺病毒 Ⅰ期
亚单位疫苗 - OVA 花粉颗粒或豚草花粉 [58,59]
亚单位疫苗 - OVA 鞭毛蛋白和甘露胺包被的聚(酸酐)NPs [60]
亚单位疫苗 - BSA 多孔硅NPs [61]
亚单位疫苗 幽门螺杆菌感染 重组尿素酶亚单位B(rUreB) 富含CPP的PEG基NPs [62]
亚单位疫苗 乳链球菌感染 来自B群链球菌的表面免疫原蛋白(SIP) PMMMA-PLGA [63]
DNA疫苗 婴儿腹泻 A轮状病毒VP6 DNA 聚(乳酸-共-乙二醇)微粒 [64]
DNA疫苗 腹泻 LTB(L)、STXB(S)和CTXB(C) 壳聚糖NPs [65]
DNA疫苗 乙型肝炎 乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)表面抗原HBsAg PLGA NPs [64,66]
DNA疫苗 HIV gp160 聚(D,L-乳酸-共-乙二醇)(PLG)微粒 [67]
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呼吸道与肠道黏膜免疫及疫苗的研究进展
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刘瑛琪 1, 2 , 刘厚汝 2 , 孟繁 1 , 陈泽虹 1 , 冯婉婷 1 , 邢昊楠 2 , 郑爱萍 2, *
中国药学杂志 | 综述 2024,59(24): 2306-2314
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中国药学杂志 | 综述 2024, 59(24): 2306-2314
呼吸道与肠道黏膜免疫及疫苗的研究进展
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刘瑛琪1, 2, 刘厚汝2, 孟繁1, 陈泽虹1, 冯婉婷1, 邢昊楠2, 郑爱萍2, *
作者信息
  • 1 中国人民解放军军事科学院军事医学研究院毒物药物研究所, 北京 100850
  • 2 华北理工大学药学院, 河北 唐山 063210
  • 刘瑛琪,女,硕士研究生 研究方向:黏膜疫苗递送载体的构建

通讯作者:

* 郑爱萍,女,博士,研究员 研究方向:黏膜递送系统 Tel: (010)66931694
Research Progress in Respiratory and Intestinal Mucosal Immunity and Vaccines
Yingqi LIU1, 2, Houru LIU2, Fan MENG1, Zehong CHEN1, Wanting FENG1, Haonan XING2, Aiping ZHENG2, *
Affiliations
  • 1 Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100850, China
  • 2 North China University of Science and Technology, Hebei 063210, China
出版时间: 2024-12-22 doi: 10.11669/cpj.2024.24.002
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传染性疾病一直是全球公共卫生热议的话题,其传播途径和机制备受关注。从传播途径看,黏膜感染途径是重要的病原感染途径之一。在人体结构中,呼吸道和肠道作为人体内部环境与外界交换的关键接触界面,其黏膜免疫系统在保护机体免受病原体侵袭方面发挥着至关重要的作用。因此,激活直接暴露于外部环境的呼吸道,以及拥有最大免疫器官的胃肠道的黏膜免疫系统,可以有效切断传染途径,研究意义重大。本文从呼吸道和胃肠道的结构组成和细胞成分入手,对抗原激活机体黏膜免疫反应的机制进行阐述。通过汇集有关呼吸道和肠道黏膜疫苗的相关信息,总结其优势以及当前所面临的挑战,期望为深入探索和研究有效的黏膜疫苗的发展领域提供新思路。

呼吸道  /  胃肠道  /  免疫系统  /  黏膜免疫  /  黏膜疫苗

Infectious diseases are always a hot topic in global public health, and their transmission routes and mechanisms have attracted much attention. From the perspective of transmission routes, mucosal infection routes account for a large proportion, and pathogens can enter human body through the surface mucosa of different organs to cause disease, making the mucosa become the front line of human immune defense. In the structure of human body, the respiratory tract and intestine are the key contact interfaces between the human internal environment and the outside world, and their mucosal immune system plays a crucial role in protecting the body from pathogens. Therefore, the activation of the respiratory tract which is directly exposed to the external environment, and the mucosal immune system of the gastrointestinal tract which is the largest immune organ, can effectively cut off the route of infection, which is of great significance. In this paper, the complex interaction between epithelial cells and immune cells was analyzed from the structural and cellular components of respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract, and the mechanism of antigen activation of mucosal immune response was described. By collecting relevant information on respiratory and intestinal mucosal vaccines and summarizing their advantages, the current challenges in this area are faced, with the intention that new ideas for further exploration and research on the development of effective mucosal vaccines will be hoped for.

respiratory tract  /  gastrointestinal tract  /  immune system  /  mucosal immunity  /  mucosal vaccines
刘瑛琪, 刘厚汝, 孟繁, 陈泽虹, 冯婉婷, 邢昊楠, 郑爱萍. 呼吸道与肠道黏膜免疫及疫苗的研究进展. 中国药学杂志, 2024 , 59 (24) : 2306 -2314 . DOI: 10.11669/cpj.2024.24.002
Yingqi LIU, Houru LIU, Fan MENG, Zehong CHEN, Wanting FENG, Haonan XING, Aiping ZHENG. Research Progress in Respiratory and Intestinal Mucosal Immunity and Vaccines[J]. Chinese Pharmaceutical Journal, 2024 , 59 (24) : 2306 -2314 . DOI: 10.11669/cpj.2024.24.002
人体黏膜部位的总表面积约为400 m2,呼吸道、胃肠道、生殖、眼部是人体的四大黏膜部位[1-2]。黏膜作为病原体入侵人体的第一道防线,直接暴露或直接接触外界环境,因此,需要有效的黏膜防御机制来阻止病原体最初的侵袭[3-4]。呼吸道和胃肠道黏膜具有不同的特征,但这两种黏膜细胞都排列着柱状上皮细胞,带有纤毛(呼吸道)或微绒毛(胃肠道),它们是体内和环境之间的物理屏障,并作为免疫系统的哨兵进行监视。
呼吸道和胃肠道在抵抗病原体方面最为突出,呼吸道和胃肠道表面由一层薄薄的渗透层组成,具有气体交换、食物吸收等生理功能。目前,世界上传染性较高的疾病仍然通过黏膜途径进行传播,包括胃肠炎、急性上呼吸道传染、肺结核、流感及新型冠状病毒感染等疾病。为避免受到病原体不断的威胁,人体激活黏膜免疫系统抵抗外来病原体入侵机体。呼吸道及肠道的黏膜免疫系统分为两个主要的区域,即免疫诱导位点和免疫效应位点[4]。免疫诱导位点区域由黏膜相关淋巴组织(mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue, MALT)组成,包括肠道相关淋巴组织(gut-associated lymphoid tissue,GALT)、鼻咽相关淋巴组织(nasal-associated lymphoid tissue,NALT)和支气管相关淋巴组织(bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue,BALT),作为抗原接触的主要区域,触发特异性免疫反应。在这些淋巴结中,B细胞和T细胞经历活化、克隆扩增和分化为B和T效应细胞,并从诱导部位迁移到黏膜各部位的效应器部位[5]。免疫效应位点是抗体和免疫细胞活化后能够发挥特定功能的区域,其位于黏膜结缔组织上皮下基质内。黏膜固有层(lamina propria,LP)是免疫效应部位,效应位点也是抗体产生和细胞介导的免疫的位点,含有丰富的效应 T细胞、浆细胞、巨噬细胞和树突状细胞(dendritic cells,DCs),不同黏膜组织的免疫系统也表现出反映不同结构功能的独特特征[6]
本文聚焦呼吸道和肠道的黏膜免疫反应机制,对目前针对呼吸道及肠道黏膜疫苗的研究进行阐述,希望为后续针对呼吸道及肠道免疫的黏膜疫苗的研发和应用提供思路。
呼吸道是一个错综复杂的系统,既促进气体交换又促进血液氧合,同时在外部环境、血液和组织部位之间形成物理和免疫屏障[7]。许多病原体,包括病毒、细菌、真菌和原生动物病原体都可靶向呼吸道内的细胞进行复制,对屏障部位造成直接损伤,引发炎症相关的组织损伤,病原体入侵呼吸道所导致的疾病仍然是人死亡的主要因素之一。
呼吸道由上呼吸道和下呼吸道组成。位于上呼吸道的眼内NALT是最早接触病原体的MALT,与小肠的派尔集合淋巴结一样具有典型的滤泡相关上皮(包含 M 细胞)、滤泡区(B 细胞区)、滤泡间区(T 细胞区)、输出淋巴管和高内皮静脉等结构;BALT是位于下呼吸道的MALT,结构与 NALT 相似[8]。呼吸道丰富的细胞环境存在着上皮细胞、内皮细胞和间充质细胞,形成了跨越整个气道和肺组织的连续物理屏障(图1)。存在于上皮细胞中的纤毛细胞可产生用于传导感染或组织损伤信号的生长因子,并分泌包括表面活性剂、补体、黏蛋白和抗菌肽(antimicrobial peptides, AMPs)等抗菌因子[9]。内皮细胞通过促进免疫细胞的渗透,协助呼吸组织的免疫响应起到抗炎作用。位于上皮层以下的区域的间充质细胞,具有多重功能,可在稳态时合成细胞外基质(extracellular matrix, ECM)成分以及产生生长因子,从而支持肺部的正常结构和功能[10]。在急性炎症期间,间充质细胞产生促炎细胞因子和趋化因子以及重组ECM的基质蛋白酶。除了结构细胞外许多非循环的组织驻留免疫细胞,包括肺泡巨噬细胞(alveolarmacrophage, AMs)、先天淋巴样细胞(in-nate lymphoid cell,ILC)、非常规T细胞和适应性组织驻留淋巴细胞,构成了呼吸道的专用免疫室[11]。接触抗原后,来自肺间质(巨噬细胞、树突状细胞)或外周(中性粒细胞、自然杀伤细胞INK1、单核细胞)的前哨成纤维细胞和动态再循环细胞对损伤部位产生反应[12]。适应性免疫细胞(血浆B细胞、CD4和CD8T+细胞)在整个肺组织中提供抗原特异性反应[13]
黏液由杯状细胞产生,黏液蛋白、细胞因子、补体因子、AMPS、分泌性IgA(SIgA)和排列在气道和黏膜屏障部位的共生细菌的复合体组成,覆盖在气道的管腔表面。肺实质和下呼吸道组织的黏膜免疫反应和急性炎症中存在的细胞和免疫因子,黏膜层内嵌有分泌的先天免疫因子,包括AMPS、蛋白酶、乳铁蛋白和补体,它们的作用是进一步减少外来物质进入肺部。由上皮层浆细胞产生的分泌性免疫球蛋(sIgA和sIgM)存在于呼吸道黏液层表面,靶向抗原引起的特异性免疫反应并与先天免疫共同发挥作用[14]。新粒细胞在先天免疫细胞中起重要作用,可产生额外的因子(IL-8和弹性蛋白酶)来进一步召集免疫细胞[NK细胞、单核细胞和嗜酸性粒细胞][15]。间充质细胞、上皮细胞和内皮细胞产生蛋白酶进行重塑细胞外基质的产物为免疫细胞的进一步召集发出信号,并为免疫细胞提供空间[16]。上皮细胞还释放局部细胞因子信号,以激活常驻的ILCs、肺间质巨噬细胞(interstitial macrophages,IMs)和DCs,无论是组织内的还是召集的细胞,可产生炎症细胞因子(TNF-ɑ, IL-1β、IL-6、IL-8、IFN-Ⅰ、IFN-Ⅱ、IFN-Ⅲ、GMCSF)或免疫调节因子(IL-10、TGF-β、IL-1Ra)的平衡,以阻止病原体入侵及在体内复制。
肠道是机体主要消化器官,也是机体重要免疫器官,处于机体免疫防御的最前线,肠道中黏膜是机体与病原发生相互作用的主要场所,肠道的黏膜免疫系统主要是肠道相关的淋巴样组织,其中包括了派尔集合淋巴结、肠系膜淋巴结、肠道上皮细胞下的固有层,还有一些独立的淋巴滤泡。它们之间相互联系,又相互独立,组成了肠道免疫的屏障。在遇到病原体入侵的时候,首先抵御病原体的是肠道的屏障结构,如果屏障结构受到损坏的话,那我们的肠道黏膜免疫系统就会启动。
胃肠道的不同部位存在绒毛和隐窝等形态特征,小肠黏膜表面的微小指状绒毛通过肠壁上皮细胞的延伸形成,这些细胞紧密排列并形成隔离环境的屏障[17]。绒毛上的微细结构包括微绒毛,进一步增加了吸收表面积,小肠按绒毛长度依次细分为十二指肠、空肠、回肠三段。绒毛之间的深陷隐窝主要存在于大肠并可分泌黏液保护肠道黏膜,大肠按降序细分为盲肠、近端结肠、横结肠、远端结肠和直肠。胃肠道的结构见图2
肠道免疫系统主要由肠道上皮细胞(intestinal epithelial cell,IEC),肠上皮内淋巴细胞(intraepithelial lymphocyte, IEL)、固有层淋巴细胞(lamina propria lymphocyte, LPL)及派尔集合淋巴结(Peyer'patch, PP)等组成。参与肠道黏膜免疫的主要功能细胞的IEC可按其主要功能进行分类:柱状上皮细胞和M细胞主要参与吸收,潘氏细胞、杯状细胞、内分泌细胞参与分泌,它们呈单层紧密排列,组成肠道上皮组织并覆盖于黏膜表面。潘氏细胞位于肠道隐窝底部,分泌抗菌肽,缝合素,抗菌酶等抗菌分子杀灭入侵细菌,分泌糖蛋白信号分子和乳酸代谢分子调节肠道干细胞增殖和分化。肠细胞形成紧密连接,是肠道黏膜的主要物理屏障,表面的微绒毛结构增大了与外界物质接触的表面积,刷状缘表面分泌多种蛋白质降解酶,对肠腔中的蛋白质等进行充分降解和吸收[18]。杯状细胞是维持上皮细胞屏障功能的一群特化细胞,分泌多种黏液蛋白,组成黏液屏障,通过疏水作用结合肠道细菌抗原蛋白,进而限制外来物质侵入肠黏膜[19]。M细胞是一种存在于肠道上皮组织中特化的抗原转运细胞,细胞表面无微绒毛结构,不分泌消化酶和黏液,因此抗原物质更容易通过 M 细胞进入肠黏膜派氏淋巴结中,被树突细胞摄取、加工并呈递给T细胞,进而激活免疫应答和促进浆细胞分泌IgA抗体来防御入侵肠道细菌[20]
肠上皮内淋巴细胞是机体内最大的淋巴细胞群,在抵御感染和抗肿瘤方面具有重要作用,其中IEL和LPL是肠道主要免疫细胞[21]。LPL存在大量的树突细胞、巨噬细胞、B细胞、T细胞和ILC等[22]。ILC是近年来发现的一类重要的天然免疫细胞亚群,可引起天然免疫和特异性免疫,可被病原体迅速激活并产生辅助性T细胞(Th)相同的细胞,即ILC1、ILC2、ILC3和ILCreg细胞,对应于T细胞中的Th1、Th2、Th17及Treg,在肠道黏膜免疫中发挥重要作用[23]。PP是分布在小肠壁上具有“穹顶状”结构的特殊淋巴组织,GALT的PP中分布着B细胞及T细胞等免疫细胞。在大肠、小肠内的独立淋巴滤泡包含B细胞,保护肠道免受感染。PP、独立淋巴滤泡、小肠绒毛内的淋巴经淋巴管汇集在引流的肠系膜淋巴结处[24]
黏膜是机体免疫系统的第一道防线,研究表明小剂量的抗原即可引起保护性反应,通过黏膜接种疫苗将提供局部和全身免疫反应[25],黏膜免疫反应可分为3个不同阶段(图3),了解呼吸道和肠道黏膜免疫反应机制对疫苗研发具有重要的启示。
当病原体侵入黏膜时,黏膜固有免疫系统中的各种成分,如黏液层、黏膜上皮细胞、巨噬细胞、树突状细胞等,会立即识别和应对这些病原体。这些成分会采取一系列措施,包括释放抗微生物蛋白、调动巨噬细胞吞噬病原体、激活其他免疫细胞等,以迅速清除病原体并阻止其进一步扩散。这种快速的反应使得黏膜固有免疫系统成为阻止病原体侵入并遏制感染扩散的第一道防线,同时,固有免疫应答阶段产生的 IL-6、IL-12 和TNF-α 等炎症细胞因子也有助于抗原特异性T细胞和B细胞的活化。
呼吸道与肠道黏膜表面上的抗原须穿过上皮屏障被运送到MALT才能激发黏膜免疫反应,在黏膜表面,可通过M细胞转运至DC细胞,或通过抗原呈递细胞CD103+DCs(呼吸道)或者CX3CR1+DC(肠道)直接延伸其细胞突起进行接触捕获从而穿过其上皮层,并将其呈递给CD4+T细胞和CD8+T细胞,以启动特异性抗原免疫应答,因此DC可成为连接固有免疫反应和适应性免疫反应的桥梁; DCs和CD4+T细胞之间通过CD40/CD40配体相互作用以及与分泌IgA相关的细胞因子,如转化生长因子(TGF)-β、IL-2、IL-4、IL-5、IL-6和IL-10等细胞因子,在诱导部位诱导B细胞进行免疫球蛋白IgA类别转换,介导机体免疫耐受,维持黏膜免疫平衡和保护机体免受病原体侵害[26]
CD4+T细胞分泌IL-4和IL-10,以及直接将完整蛋白抗原呈递给 B 细胞等方式诱导B细胞IgA类别转换,这些细胞因子能诱导上皮细胞进入抗病毒状态[27]。B细胞进入淋巴结,经过外周血液,迁移到效应部位,如肠道基质区域,然后通过Th2型细胞因子(如IL-5和IL-6)等细胞因子可促进B细胞向分泌IgA的浆细胞转化[28]。而Th1型IFN-γ、IL-17和IL-22使巨噬细胞加强对感染细胞和病原体的吞噬作用,使上皮细胞分泌AMPS,加强紧密连接,促进增殖和修复等[29],CD8+T细胞被激活后开始分化成效应器细胞(CTL),释放细胞毒素,如穿孔素和引发凋亡的分子,以摧毁感染或异常细胞。这个过程有助于清除潜在威胁并维护免疫健康。浆细胞分泌多聚体IgA抗体,通过与黏膜上皮细胞中的基底侧多聚体Ig受体(pIgRs)结合而内吞。产生的多聚体IgA-pIgR复合物被运输到顶层表面,然后被切割成SIgA。同时,B细胞在分化为浆细胞后,可分泌抗原特异性IgG,IgA和IgM抗体到效应位点[30]。面对同样病原体,这些存在于黏膜表面的抗体能够快速识别并应对病原体再次入侵,使得机体能够更快、更有效地应对再次感染。针对于黏膜疫苗的开发,鼻腔及黏膜入口递送黏膜疫苗可能是诱导有效的黏膜免疫应答的一个合乎逻辑和有吸引力的策略[31]
黏膜免疫针对黏膜表面,特别是呼吸道和肠道等黏膜,这是多数传染病致病体进入机体的首要入口。黏膜免疫与传统免疫的区别具体表现在免疫位置、免疫细胞与功能、抗体的表达的不同等方面。
传统免疫通过肌内注射或皮下注射疫苗等方式,诱导全身产生免疫反应。黏膜免疫则是应用疫苗通过口服、滴鼻或喷雾、诱导消化道、呼吸道黏膜免疫动物,诱导局部产生黏膜免疫反应和适当的全身免疫反应。
黏膜免疫的特异性主要表现在对黏膜表面感染的抵抗,而其他免疫可能更专注于对其他组织或系统的感染的应对,黏膜免疫相较传统免疫细胞的T细胞、B细胞、巨噬细胞和树突状细胞之外,还具有独特的免疫细胞:M细胞、上皮内淋巴细胞和肠黏膜上皮细胞。同时,黏膜免疫与传统免疫在功能也上有所不同,归巢现象是黏膜免疫特有现象,在黏膜部位致敏的免疫细胞,经胸导管进入血液循环,逐步分化成熟,在特异归巢受体的介导下,约80%的免疫细胞归巢到致敏部位的黏膜固有层或上皮内,发挥免疫效应功能。另外约20%的免疫细胞进入其他黏膜部位,发生效应反应,使不同黏膜部位的免疫反应相联系,形成一个广泛的共同黏膜免疫系统网络。
传统的注射疫苗在体内主要产生血清IgG抗体,黏膜免疫能够诱导抗原特异性黏膜SIgA和全身IgG抗体,从而对机体提供双重保护,接种黏膜疫苗是诱导高传播疾病的群体免疫的有效途径。
因此黏膜免疫从组成和解剖组织学上都与系统免疫不同,但对于机体健康来讲,黏膜免疫系统是对系统免疫系统的完善,是一个更有效的补充。
呼吸道黏膜疫苗包括减毒活疫苗、腺病毒载体疫苗、重组病毒疫苗、亚单位疫苗、核酸疫苗等,目前仅有针对流感病毒的减毒活疫苗已获批上市,其他类型的呼吸道黏膜疫苗绝大部分仍处于研发阶段。Arevalo等[32]使用D39株腺病毒载体递送肺炎链球菌抗原在BALB/c雌性小鼠鼻内接种疫苗,小鼠体内可产生较高的IgG抗体。Ainai等[33]用注射灭活甲型流感(hemagglutinin 5 neuraminidase 1,H5N1)疫苗以鼻内喷雾剂的形式接种人类志愿者,使其鼻腔有较高水平的IgA抗体应答,诱导机体产生一定水平的黏膜免疫。Hassan等[34]的研究表明,单剂量腺病毒疫苗2019新型冠状病毒(severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2,SARS-CoV-2)在小鼠体内可诱导中和抗体,增加全身和黏膜IgA抗体免疫应答以及T细胞反应,并在后续实验中几乎完全阻止成年小鼠呼吸道感染SARS-CoV-2。其他现有针对呼吸道免疫的黏膜疫苗可见表1
免疫系统在肠道内的抗原识别和免疫调节,通常不需要高纯度的抗原,而是依赖于一系列机制来确保对有益微生物的宽容性和对潜在病原体的应对性[52]。Xie 等[53]研制了一种多价疫苗LHUC,通过连接幽门螺杆菌黏附蛋白A和尿素酶B亚基、过氧化氢酶,诱导小鼠产生特异性 IgG 和 IgA 抗体,激活体内 Th1、Th2 和 Th17 混合T细胞免疫反应,有效减少幽门螺杆菌在胃中的定植。Serradell等[53]研究将介导流感病毒入侵宿主细胞的关键蛋白血凝素制备成病毒样颗粒(virus like particles,VLP)疫苗以口服途径给药小鼠,在其体内可产生强烈的抗流感感染的免疫应答。Barackman等[54]利用LT-K63和LT-R72作为联合佐剂的HA亚单位疫苗在小鼠体内引发了显著的体液和黏膜免疫效应。已获批的胃肠道黏膜疫苗见表2,其他针对肠道黏膜的疫苗的研究见表3
目前,获批黏膜免疫的疫苗其中有八种口服疫苗,可用于预防霍乱、沙门氏菌、脊髓灰质炎病毒和轮状病毒等疾病。活性减毒流感疫苗仍然是唯一获得许可的鼻内疫苗。相较传统肌内注射疫苗上市的黏膜疫苗较少的包括黏膜疫苗的研发和生产过程十分复杂,需克服多项技术挑战,如寻找合适的载体、确定适当的给药途径以及确保疫苗的稳定性和安全性等。黏膜免疫系统的特殊性质增加了设计和开发黏膜疫苗的技术难度,需确保有效激发免疫反应同时避免不良反应或黏膜组织损伤。另外,缺乏通用且高效的黏膜递送系统限制了疫苗的开发和上市。监管要求可能更为严格,因黏膜疫苗涉及直接接触人体黏膜组织,监管机构可能要求更多的临床试验和监测数据,增加疫苗开发的时间和成本。
针对黏膜免疫的疫苗可以提供局部免疫保护,阻止病原体在黏膜上的侵袭和传播,从而预防相关疾病的发生,为更好提供更有效的预防疾病措施,降低呼吸道和肠道感染性疾病的发病率和传播风险与保障公共健康。应对和解决呼吸道和肠道黏膜疫苗的临床需求与研发困难,对于提升人类健康水平具有重要意义。
黏膜免疫疫苗的临床需求主要在于提供更有效的预防黏膜传播疾病的手段,改善疫苗接种的便利性和免疫效力,以及降低特定人群感染黏膜病原体的风险。黏膜疫苗可以预防呼吸道病毒、肠道病毒、黏膜真菌等引起的感染,包括像COVID-19这样的大流行呼吸道传染病。通过口服或鼻腔喷雾等黏膜途径接种,避免了注射的疼痛和使用注射器具,提高了接种便利性和可及性。此外,黏膜疫苗可以模拟自然感染的免疫应答过程,促进黏膜组织的免疫反应,从而提高免疫效力和持久性[68]。帮助预防通过黏膜传播的疾病流行,如流感、腮腺炎、麻疹等,并为婴幼儿、老年人、免疫抑制者等特定人群提供更好的免疫保护,降低其感染黏膜病原体的风险。
呼吸道和肠道等黏膜免疫反应开发的疫苗优势明显,针对临床需求,黏膜免疫疫苗同时还存在一些问题需要解决:
研发黏膜疫苗面临的首要问题是抗原易被黏液稀释和降解,限制抗原有效地递送至黏膜的上皮细胞[69]。研究表明,黏膜疫苗的设计模拟病原体的的电荷和大小等性质,会增加对抗原摄取的有效性[70]。除此之外,鼻腔黏膜纤毛与肠道黏膜绒毛的清除作用和细胞间的紧密连接组成的黏液屏障会阻碍机体摄取疫苗抗原,影响免疫反应[71]。为了克服黏膜层的细菌、黏液和消化酶影响疫苗抗原的稳定性和递送等障碍。有研究表明黏膜黏附剂、渗透增强剂、酶抑制剂和疫苗佐剂可提高疫苗抗原的免疫原性。同时在需要在增强免疫原性而不损害安全性。为此,一种方法是开发基于已经通过衰减或灭活病毒或细菌而变得无传染性的疫苗。另一种方法是使用重组病毒或细菌蛋白的亚单位疫苗,这些蛋白可以被渲染得足够免疫原性而不会导致反应原性。第三种有前途的黏膜疫苗开发方法是基于合成颗粒传递系统,设计成模拟天然病原体的免疫原性特性。与此同时,黏膜疫苗需要被设计激发引发持久的免疫应答,对机体提供长期的、保护性的适应性免疫记忆,疫苗的佐剂在一定程度上会有效解决上述问题,目前有研究者疫苗通过靶向DCs表面的抗体(如DEC205和DC-SIGN)或这些受体的天然配体(如甘露聚糖和甘露基化的脂质体)来靶向DCs[72]。此外,DCs其他的特异性靶点是C型凝集素结构域家族9成员A(CLEC9A),其激活能够促进抗体的产生[73]。总而言之,提高疫苗抗原的免疫原性黏膜上皮细胞的中的效力,从而增强对病原体的免疫保护作用。
具有较高稳定性和安全性的减毒活疫苗的黏膜疫苗,通过对病原体进行基因改造、温度处理、化学处理等方法改造,具有较高的安全性,但其仍然具有一定的程度的活性,对于婴幼儿、老年人或免疫功能低下者可能有潜在的致病性。瑞士曾批准并使用一种鼻用流感灭活疫苗,该疫苗使用大肠杆菌热不稳定肠毒素作为佐剂。然而,在该疫苗上市后的监测过程中发现,它与面部神经麻痹的发生有关,由于这一发现,该疫苗被终止使用[74]。由于疫苗抗原具有较高的免疫活性,黏膜疫苗的设计必须确保安全性,避免引发过度免疫反应或其他不良反应。
在疫苗研发的过程中,需要动物模型模拟人类的免疫应答水平,但两者之间存在较为明显的差异,如动物模型的肺部与肠道在大小、形状以及免疫细胞和微生物共生群等方面与人类有差异。人体Toll样受体包括TLR1到TLR10,而小鼠细胞则是TLR1到TLR9和TLR11到TLR13[75]。此外,人体有两种IgA亚类,在黏膜组织中均匀分布,而小鼠只表达一种IgA亚型,并且没有任何功能性的FcαRI同源物,不同物种的黏膜淋巴组织(如派尔集合淋巴结)在大小、数量、分布和组成上的差异也可能对免疫反应的产生产生根本性影响[76]。同时,个体差异性会影响对疫苗有效性的准确性评价,如黏膜微生物群与黏膜免疫系统之间的相互作用影响着营养物质、毒素、代谢产物和抗微生物化合物的水平。这个生态系统可影响黏膜疫苗的效力,因为疫苗抗原基本上需要与肠道中现有的大量微生物抗原竞争,以引起黏膜免疫系统的关注[77]。但在不同国家的不同收入水平的人体中其内共生菌有比较明显的差异[78],这对评估免疫应答水平有一定的影响。
通过检测唾液、鼻洗液和粪便样本中的疫苗诱导的IgA抗体水平来评估人类黏膜免疫应答是常见的方法。但在临床方面获得组织样本的难度限制了对黏膜细胞免疫应答的研究。从肺部和肠道等黏膜部位采样具有侵入性且令试验志愿者感到不舒适,有研究者利用基因组学、转录组学、蛋白质组学、代谢组学和数学建模等方法建立人类和实验动物模型中的免疫保护研究,可更好地了解黏膜疫苗的效力。在预临床研究和临床疫苗开发之间进行持续的信息交流,以确保为有效的黏膜疫苗提供改进的载体、佐剂和递送方案。
呼吸道和肠道黏膜疫苗的优势在于上皮细胞表面具有微绒毛,有助于高效吸收抗原。通过黏膜途径接种疫苗可以在黏膜和全身隔室引发免疫反应,以显著提高患者的依从性和给药效率[79]。通过鼻腔和口腔进入体内的病原体能够快速激活免疫反应,更迅速地诱导产生保护性免疫,从而有效预防呼吸道感染,如对大流行病SARS-CoV-2病毒的防范[80]。另外,鼻腔喷雾疫苗可通过非侵入性的鼻腔喷雾方式接种,无须注射和复杂的设备,适用于大规模接种,尤其在紧急情况下可以快速推广,敏感人群更容易接受此类接种疫苗方式。而针对通过食物或饮水容易摄入的病原体,如霍乱弧菌,可在肠道黏膜产生免疫反应,从而预防肠道感染,同时,因为其口服接种的方式在分发和接种上更为便利,可在一些资源匮乏的地区使用。虽然黏膜疫苗相较常规疫苗有以上众多优势,但其开发面临着一些挑战,如抗原递送到靶细胞必须通过黏膜流、胃酸、黏膜抗体和上皮衍生的抗菌物质(如防御素、他汀类药物)等黏膜屏障[81-82]。因此,需要开发呼吸道和肠道黏膜疫苗合适的给药方法和抗原递送载体,众多研究工作者现已投入到这一领域,寻求出更有效的给药方法及载体[83-85]。开发黏膜疫苗的另一个挑战在于评估接种后免疫效果的标准限制。通常,通过测量抗体滴度来评估疫苗的免疫效果,但对于黏膜疫苗,需要重新审视免疫检查的标准。由于获得黏膜取样的机会有限,尤其是对于侵入性措施如采集肺或肠组织样本,对黏膜免疫反应的评估受到一定限制。因此,寻找可适用于患者的黏膜免疫反应标准变得极为重要[86-87]。此外,在使用实验动物模型开发黏膜疫苗时,由于人类黏膜上皮细胞与实验动物存在较大的差异,将研究结果外推到人体时需谨慎对待[88]。因此,需综合考虑黏膜疫苗的特殊性质,确立切实可行的评估标准,以准确评估免疫效果。
总而言之,呼吸道和胃肠道黏膜疫苗虽然在抗原呈递途径方面有一些没有解决的困难,但因其可引起较强的细胞免疫及局部免疫反应的优势,在未来的应用中具有广阔的发展前景,期望随着疫苗研发技术的不断创新和研究的深入,通过黏膜免疫的接种方式能够为预防传染性疾病提供更多选择,并在全球公共卫生防控中发挥更重要的作用。
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2024年第59卷第24期
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doi: 10.11669/cpj.2024.24.002
  • 接收时间:2023-12-13
  • 首发时间:2025-11-13
  • 出版时间:2024-12-22
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  • 收稿日期:2023-12-13
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    1 中国人民解放军军事科学院军事医学研究院毒物药物研究所, 北京 100850
    2 华北理工大学药学院, 河北 唐山 063210

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* 郑爱萍,女,博士,研究员 研究方向:黏膜递送系统 Tel: (010)66931694
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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