Article(id=1195000463394320698, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, issueId=1195000462479966923, articleNumber=1001-2494(2025)07-0680-15, orderNo=null, doi=10.11669/cpj.2025.07.003, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1728316800000, receivedDateStr=2024-10-08, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1762839912507, onlineDateStr=2025-11-11, pubDate=1744041600000, pubDateStr=2025-04-08, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1762839912507, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-11, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1762839912507, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1762839912507, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1195000462479966923, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, year='2025', volume='60', issue='7', pageStart='665', pageEnd='776', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1762839912289, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1762840003355, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1195000844501365697, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, issueId=1195000462479966923, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1195000844501365698, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, issueId=1195000462479966923, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=680, endPage=694, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1195000463633396028, articleId=1195000463394320698, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, language=EN, title=The Role of the Gut Microbiome in Chronic Kidney Disease and Potential Therapeutic Effects of Curcumin, columnId=null, journalTitle=Chinese Pharmaceutical Journal, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Chronic kidney disease(CKD)is a major disease that seriously endangers human health and life, with high morbidity and mortality. It is an urgent problem to find effective treatment methods to control the development. many studies have found that intestinal flora and its metabolites are closely related to the occurrence and development of CKD. Curcumin(CUR)have been shown to be effective in acute kidney injury and CKD. However, CUR has extremely low bioavailability after oral administration and absorption, and the material basis and process mechanism of its pharmacological effects have been controversial. In recent years, the regulatory effect of CUR on intestinal microecology has been extensively studied. It has been reported that high concentrations of CUR exist in the gastrointestinal tract after oral administration, which may mainly play a direct regulatory role in the gastrointestinal tract. Furthermore, a newly proposed theory suggests that CUR may exert its renal protective effects indirectly by affecting the “gut-kidney axis”. Therefore, this review will mainly discuss the close relationship between gut microbiota and its metabolites with CKD, and the therapeutic strategies of CUR targeting gut microbiota to improve CKD, including regulating the composition of gut microbiota, protecting the intestinal mucosal barrier, regulating intestinal inflammatory signal transduction, increasing the content of short-chain fatty acids(SCFAs), and enhancing of gut microbiota-mediated biotransformation of CUR. The future prospect is assessed by us that the metabolites of CUR and microorganisms can beneficially delay the onset and progression of CKD by targeting the intestinal flora and propose the unresolved scientific issues in this area.

, correspAuthors=Xulong CHEN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Cheng LI, Weiwei ZHA, Jiangwen SHEN, Qing XIA, Ting LI, Lin LI, Zhenyu HU, Hongli JIANG, Puxun TIAN, Xulong CHEN), CN=ArticleExt(id=1195002134547640323, articleId=1195000463394320698, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, language=CN, title=肠道微生物组在慢性肾脏疾病中的作用和姜黄素的潜在治疗策略, columnId=1190352408384471863, journalTitle=中国药学杂志, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

慢性肾脏病是严重危害人类健康和生命的主要疾病,发病率高,死亡率高,寻找有效控制疾病发展的治疗手段是亟待解决的难题。大量研究显示,肠道菌群及其代谢产物与慢性肾脏病的发生发展密切相关。姜黄素(curcumin,CUR)作为一种天然的多酚类植物提取物,具有显著的抗炎、抗氧化特性,被报道应用于急性肾损伤和各种原因导致的慢性肾脏病。然而,经口服消化吸收后CUR的生物利用度极低,其药理学效应产生的物质基础和过程机制一直备受争议。近年来,CUR对肠道微生态的调节作用得到了广泛的研究,这可能与口服后胃肠道中滞留的高浓度的CUR在胃肠道中发挥直接的调节作用有关。一个新提出的理论可以解释CUR的肾脏保护作用,即CUR通过影响“肠-肾轴”间接作用于肾脏。因此,本综述将主要讨论肠道菌群及其代谢产物与慢性肾脏病的密切关联,CUR介导肠道菌群改善慢性肾脏病的治疗策略,包括调节肠道菌群组成、保护肠道黏膜屏障、调节肠道炎症信号传导、提高肠道菌群代谢产物短链脂肪酸含量及肠道菌群对CUR的生物转化,为CUR介导肠道菌群治疗慢性肾脏病的研究提供参考。

, correspAuthors=陈绪龙, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*陈绪龙,男,博士,副主任药师,硕士生导师 研究方向:中药制剂及其临床药理学 Tel:(0792)2180137
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李成,女,博士研究生 研究方向:慢性肾脏病发病机制

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2 Department of Kidney Transplantation, Nephropathy Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710000, China
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2 西安交通大学第一附属医院肾病医院肾移植科, 西安 710000
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李成,女,博士研究生 研究方向:慢性肾脏病发病机制

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李成,女,博士研究生 研究方向:慢性肾脏病发病机制

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慢性肾脏病
类型
研究
项目
肠道菌群相对丰度的变化 参考
文献
增加 下降
IgA肾病 一项来自24个队列的18 340人的大规模多民族全基因组关联分析(GWAS) 放线菌纲、丹毒科、考拉杆菌属毛螺菌属、丹毒目 副拟杆菌属、瘤胃球菌属 [24]
127例未接受治疗的IgA肾病患者 大肠埃氏菌属-志贺菌属、假单胞菌属、毛霉菌属、瘤胃球菌科UBA1819、瘤胃球菌科CAG-352 毛螺菌属、毛螺菌科ND3007组、Fusicatenibacter、毛螺菌科NC2004组、毛螺菌科UCG-001、毛螺菌科UCG-004、毛螺菌科UCG-010,未分类的毛螺菌科、阴沟杆菌属、罗姆布茨菌属 [25]
来自孟德尔随机化研究-芬兰数据库(FINNGEN)的IgA肾病GWAS数据 丁酸梭菌属 属:肠杆菌属
科:消化菌科、普氏菌科
[26]
35例IgA肾病患者 拟杆菌属 双歧杆菌属、普雷沃菌属9 [27]
糖尿病肾病 432例偶发糖尿病 奇特龙梭菌、梭状芽孢杆菌、Tyzzerella nexilis、活泼瘤胃球菌 Alistipes putredinis、华德萨特菌、Alistipes indistinctus [28]
180例糖尿病肾病(DKD)患者 门:变形菌门、放线菌门、协同细菌门、广古菌门、髌骨细菌门、疣微菌门、蓝细菌门
属:大肠埃希氏菌-志贺菌属、肠杆菌科未知属、阿克曼杆菌属、双歧杆菌属、优杆菌属、阴性杆菌属、醋酸厌氧杆菌属
门:拟杆菌门
属:拟杆菌属、栖粪杆菌属
[29]
荟萃分析包括578例糖尿病患者 门:变形菌门、放线菌门、拟杆菌门
科:棒状杆菌科、肠杆菌科、韦荣菌科
属:肠球菌属、柠檬酸杆菌属、大肠杆菌属、克雷伯菌属、阿克曼菌属、萨特菌属、不动杆菌属
种:大肠埃希菌
门:厚壁菌门
科:毛螺菌科
属:罗氏菌属、普雷沃菌属、双歧杆菌属
[30]
15例DKD患者 粪便拟杆菌、普雷沃菌属MSX73、巴恩斯菌属、Alistipes ihumii、粪便拟杆菌CAG_120、坦纳雷拉菌属CAG_51、副拟杆菌属20_3 梭状芽孢杆菌属、真杆菌属、罗斯拜瑞菌、毛螺菌属、肠杆菌属 [31]
狼疮性肾炎(LN) 荟萃分析纳入138例LN患者和
5种不同类型LN小鼠模型
门:变形菌门
属:链球菌属
种:活泼瘤胃球菌
厚壁菌门与拟杆菌门的比值 [32]
16例系统性红斑狼疮患者 活泼瘤胃球菌 / [33]
雌性系统性红斑狼疮(NZBWF1)
小鼠
门:拟杆菌门、变形菌门
科:紫单胞菌科、鞘脂杆菌科
属:副拟杆菌属、土地杆菌属、橄榄形菌属、梭状芽孢杆菌属
门:厚壁菌门 [34]
B6SKG老鼠 拟杆菌目、拟杆菌、分节丝状菌 科:双歧杆菌科、瘤胃菌科 [35]
膜性肾病 8例膜性肾病患者 门:梭杆菌门、变形菌门
属:普罗菲登斯菌属、类香味菌属、副拟杆菌属
门:厚壁菌门
属:毛螺菌属、罗氏菌属、巨单胞菌属、巨球型菌属、梭杆菌属、阿克曼菌
[36]
荟萃分析包括290名原发性膜性肾病患者 门:变形菌门
属:链球菌属、
消化链球菌科_incertae_sedis
门:厚壁菌门
属:毛螺菌属
[37]
高血压肾病 雄性自发性高血压大鼠 门:厚壁菌门
科:梭菌科
门:拟杆菌门
科:拟杆菌科、乳杆菌科、
双歧杆菌科
属:普雷沃菌属-9
[38]
高尿酸血症肾病 雄性昆明小高尿酸血症肾病模型 厚壁菌门与拟杆菌门的比值
属:葡萄球菌属
属:拟杆菌属、灰色拟普雷沃菌、Kneothrix、瘤胃球菌属、艾森伯格菌属 [39]
雄性C57BL/6j小高尿酸血症肾病模型 门:放线菌门、变形菌门、螺旋体菌门
科:毛螺菌科、红蝽菌科、理研菌科
属:脱硫弧菌属、肠杆菌属、粪杆菌属、幽门螺杆菌、乳杆菌属、副拟杆菌属
门:拟杆菌门
科:瘤胃球菌科
属:瘤胃球菌UCG 013、链球菌属
[40]
), ArticleFig(id=1195056077193614279, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1190317699101192196, articleId=1195000463394320698, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

不同类型慢性肾脏病(CKD)中肠道菌群组成和丰度的变化

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
慢性肾脏病
类型
研究
项目
肠道菌群相对丰度的变化 参考
文献
增加 下降
IgA肾病 一项来自24个队列的18 340人的大规模多民族全基因组关联分析(GWAS) 放线菌纲、丹毒科、考拉杆菌属毛螺菌属、丹毒目 副拟杆菌属、瘤胃球菌属 [24]
127例未接受治疗的IgA肾病患者 大肠埃氏菌属-志贺菌属、假单胞菌属、毛霉菌属、瘤胃球菌科UBA1819、瘤胃球菌科CAG-352 毛螺菌属、毛螺菌科ND3007组、Fusicatenibacter、毛螺菌科NC2004组、毛螺菌科UCG-001、毛螺菌科UCG-004、毛螺菌科UCG-010,未分类的毛螺菌科、阴沟杆菌属、罗姆布茨菌属 [25]
来自孟德尔随机化研究-芬兰数据库(FINNGEN)的IgA肾病GWAS数据 丁酸梭菌属 属:肠杆菌属
科:消化菌科、普氏菌科
[26]
35例IgA肾病患者 拟杆菌属 双歧杆菌属、普雷沃菌属9 [27]
糖尿病肾病 432例偶发糖尿病 奇特龙梭菌、梭状芽孢杆菌、Tyzzerella nexilis、活泼瘤胃球菌 Alistipes putredinis、华德萨特菌、Alistipes indistinctus [28]
180例糖尿病肾病(DKD)患者 门:变形菌门、放线菌门、协同细菌门、广古菌门、髌骨细菌门、疣微菌门、蓝细菌门
属:大肠埃希氏菌-志贺菌属、肠杆菌科未知属、阿克曼杆菌属、双歧杆菌属、优杆菌属、阴性杆菌属、醋酸厌氧杆菌属
门:拟杆菌门
属:拟杆菌属、栖粪杆菌属
[29]
荟萃分析包括578例糖尿病患者 门:变形菌门、放线菌门、拟杆菌门
科:棒状杆菌科、肠杆菌科、韦荣菌科
属:肠球菌属、柠檬酸杆菌属、大肠杆菌属、克雷伯菌属、阿克曼菌属、萨特菌属、不动杆菌属
种:大肠埃希菌
门:厚壁菌门
科:毛螺菌科
属:罗氏菌属、普雷沃菌属、双歧杆菌属
[30]
15例DKD患者 粪便拟杆菌、普雷沃菌属MSX73、巴恩斯菌属、Alistipes ihumii、粪便拟杆菌CAG_120、坦纳雷拉菌属CAG_51、副拟杆菌属20_3 梭状芽孢杆菌属、真杆菌属、罗斯拜瑞菌、毛螺菌属、肠杆菌属 [31]
狼疮性肾炎(LN) 荟萃分析纳入138例LN患者和
5种不同类型LN小鼠模型
门:变形菌门
属:链球菌属
种:活泼瘤胃球菌
厚壁菌门与拟杆菌门的比值 [32]
16例系统性红斑狼疮患者 活泼瘤胃球菌 / [33]
雌性系统性红斑狼疮(NZBWF1)
小鼠
门:拟杆菌门、变形菌门
科:紫单胞菌科、鞘脂杆菌科
属:副拟杆菌属、土地杆菌属、橄榄形菌属、梭状芽孢杆菌属
门:厚壁菌门 [34]
B6SKG老鼠 拟杆菌目、拟杆菌、分节丝状菌 科:双歧杆菌科、瘤胃菌科 [35]
膜性肾病 8例膜性肾病患者 门:梭杆菌门、变形菌门
属:普罗菲登斯菌属、类香味菌属、副拟杆菌属
门:厚壁菌门
属:毛螺菌属、罗氏菌属、巨单胞菌属、巨球型菌属、梭杆菌属、阿克曼菌
[36]
荟萃分析包括290名原发性膜性肾病患者 门:变形菌门
属:链球菌属、
消化链球菌科_incertae_sedis
门:厚壁菌门
属:毛螺菌属
[37]
高血压肾病 雄性自发性高血压大鼠 门:厚壁菌门
科:梭菌科
门:拟杆菌门
科:拟杆菌科、乳杆菌科、
双歧杆菌科
属:普雷沃菌属-9
[38]
高尿酸血症肾病 雄性昆明小高尿酸血症肾病模型 厚壁菌门与拟杆菌门的比值
属:葡萄球菌属
属:拟杆菌属、灰色拟普雷沃菌、Kneothrix、瘤胃球菌属、艾森伯格菌属 [39]
雄性C57BL/6j小高尿酸血症肾病模型 门:放线菌门、变形菌门、螺旋体菌门
科:毛螺菌科、红蝽菌科、理研菌科
属:脱硫弧菌属、肠杆菌属、粪杆菌属、幽门螺杆菌、乳杆菌属、副拟杆菌属
门:拟杆菌门
科:瘤胃球菌科
属:瘤胃球菌UCG 013、链球菌属
[40]
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肠道微生物组在慢性肾脏疾病中的作用和姜黄素的潜在治疗策略
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李成 1, 2, 3 , 查炜玮 4 , 沈姜雯 4 , 夏青 1 , 李婷 5 , 李林 4 , 胡振宇 4 , 蒋红利 6 , 田普训 2, 3 , 陈绪龙 7, *
中国药学杂志 | 综述 2025,60(7): 680-694
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中国药学杂志 | 综述 2025, 60(7): 680-694
肠道微生物组在慢性肾脏疾病中的作用和姜黄素的潜在治疗策略
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李成1, 2, 3, 查炜玮4, 沈姜雯4, 夏青1, 李婷5, 李林4, 胡振宇4, 蒋红利6, 田普训2, 3, 陈绪龙7, *
作者信息
  • 1 九江学院附属医院肾内科, 江西 九江 332000
  • 2 西安交通大学第一附属医院肾病医院肾移植科, 西安 710000
  • 3 西安交通大学器官移植研究所, 西安 710000
  • 4 九江学院附属医院药剂科, 江西 九江 332000
  • 5 九江学院附属医院病理科, 江西 九江 332000
  • 6 西安交通大学肾内科, 西安 710000
  • 7 九江学院临床医学院, 江西 九江 332000
  • 李成,女,博士研究生 研究方向:慢性肾脏病发病机制

通讯作者:

*陈绪龙,男,博士,副主任药师,硕士生导师 研究方向:中药制剂及其临床药理学 Tel:(0792)2180137
The Role of the Gut Microbiome in Chronic Kidney Disease and Potential Therapeutic Effects of Curcumin
Cheng LI1, 2, 3, Weiwei ZHA4, Jiangwen SHEN4, Qing XIA1, Ting LI5, Lin LI4, Zhenyu HU4, Hongli JIANG6, Puxun TIAN2, 3, Xulong CHEN7, *
Affiliations
  • 1 Department of Nephrology, Jiujiang University Affiliated Hospital, Jiujiang 332000, China
  • 2 Department of Kidney Transplantation, Nephropathy Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710000, China
  • 3 Institute of Organ Transplantation, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710000, China
  • 4 Department of Pharmacy, Jiujiang University Affiliated Hospital, Jiujiang 332000, China
  • 5 Department of Pathology, Jiujiang University Affiliated Hospital, Jiujiang 332000, China
  • 6 Department of Nephrology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710000, China
  • 7 School of Clinical Medical, Jiujiang University, Jiujiang 332000, China
出版时间: 2025-04-08 doi: 10.11669/cpj.2025.07.003
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慢性肾脏病是严重危害人类健康和生命的主要疾病,发病率高,死亡率高,寻找有效控制疾病发展的治疗手段是亟待解决的难题。大量研究显示,肠道菌群及其代谢产物与慢性肾脏病的发生发展密切相关。姜黄素(curcumin,CUR)作为一种天然的多酚类植物提取物,具有显著的抗炎、抗氧化特性,被报道应用于急性肾损伤和各种原因导致的慢性肾脏病。然而,经口服消化吸收后CUR的生物利用度极低,其药理学效应产生的物质基础和过程机制一直备受争议。近年来,CUR对肠道微生态的调节作用得到了广泛的研究,这可能与口服后胃肠道中滞留的高浓度的CUR在胃肠道中发挥直接的调节作用有关。一个新提出的理论可以解释CUR的肾脏保护作用,即CUR通过影响“肠-肾轴”间接作用于肾脏。因此,本综述将主要讨论肠道菌群及其代谢产物与慢性肾脏病的密切关联,CUR介导肠道菌群改善慢性肾脏病的治疗策略,包括调节肠道菌群组成、保护肠道黏膜屏障、调节肠道炎症信号传导、提高肠道菌群代谢产物短链脂肪酸含量及肠道菌群对CUR的生物转化,为CUR介导肠道菌群治疗慢性肾脏病的研究提供参考。

姜黄素  /  慢性肾脏疾病  /  肠道微生物群  /  代谢产物  /  治疗策略

Chronic kidney disease(CKD)is a major disease that seriously endangers human health and life, with high morbidity and mortality. It is an urgent problem to find effective treatment methods to control the development. many studies have found that intestinal flora and its metabolites are closely related to the occurrence and development of CKD. Curcumin(CUR)have been shown to be effective in acute kidney injury and CKD. However, CUR has extremely low bioavailability after oral administration and absorption, and the material basis and process mechanism of its pharmacological effects have been controversial. In recent years, the regulatory effect of CUR on intestinal microecology has been extensively studied. It has been reported that high concentrations of CUR exist in the gastrointestinal tract after oral administration, which may mainly play a direct regulatory role in the gastrointestinal tract. Furthermore, a newly proposed theory suggests that CUR may exert its renal protective effects indirectly by affecting the “gut-kidney axis”. Therefore, this review will mainly discuss the close relationship between gut microbiota and its metabolites with CKD, and the therapeutic strategies of CUR targeting gut microbiota to improve CKD, including regulating the composition of gut microbiota, protecting the intestinal mucosal barrier, regulating intestinal inflammatory signal transduction, increasing the content of short-chain fatty acids(SCFAs), and enhancing of gut microbiota-mediated biotransformation of CUR. The future prospect is assessed by us that the metabolites of CUR and microorganisms can beneficially delay the onset and progression of CKD by targeting the intestinal flora and propose the unresolved scientific issues in this area.

curcumin  /  chronic kidney disease  /  gut microbiota  /  metabolic product  /  therapeutic strategy
李成, 查炜玮, 沈姜雯, 夏青, 李婷, 李林, 胡振宇, 蒋红利, 田普训, 陈绪龙. 肠道微生物组在慢性肾脏疾病中的作用和姜黄素的潜在治疗策略. 中国药学杂志, 2025 , 60 (7) : 680 -694 . DOI: 10.11669/cpj.2025.07.003
Cheng LI, Weiwei ZHA, Jiangwen SHEN, Qing XIA, Ting LI, Lin LI, Zhenyu HU, Hongli JIANG, Puxun TIAN, Xulong CHEN. The Role of the Gut Microbiome in Chronic Kidney Disease and Potential Therapeutic Effects of Curcumin[J]. Chinese Pharmaceutical Journal, 2025 , 60 (7) : 680 -694 . DOI: 10.11669/cpj.2025.07.003
近年来,由于各种原因造成的慢性肾脏疾病(chronic kidney disease,CKD)的患病率呈现不断上升趋势。2017年全球有6.975亿CKD患者,占世界人口的9.1%。这给国家、社会和家庭造成了沉重的经济负担和医疗负担,并成为全球性的重大公共健康问题[2]。在过去20多年中,随着肾素-血管紧张素-醛固酮系统(renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system,RAAS)抑制剂等现代药物的应用,CKD得到了较好的控制,但现有药物仅能延缓疾病的进展而未能降低患者进展为终末期肾病的比率[3]。随着更长时间的循证医学研究,醛固酮逃逸、高钾血症等不良反应限制了临床用药[4-5],相关药物对肾功能和肾脏纤维化改善作用不佳促使寻求新的替代疗法。
姜黄素(curcumin,CUR)是一种从姜黄根茎中分离出来的亲脂性多酚,在亚洲传统医学中已经使用了几个世纪,现在在世界范围内作为膳食香料被广泛用于食品中[6]。CUR作为姜黄发挥药理作用的主要活性成分,具有多种药理活性,是目前广受关注的热点天然产物。CUR已被证实具有抗炎[7],抗菌[8],抗纤维化[9],和免疫调节作用[10],被报道广泛应用于各种慢性疾病的治疗,如自身免疫性疾病、肿瘤、心血管和神经系统疾病等。近年来,CUR对肠道微生态的调节作用得到了广泛的研究。据报道,CUR这类多酚类物质优先在肠道分布和累积,可直接作用于肠道微生物群来发挥其广泛药理学作用[11]。目前,针对CUR在CKD中的治疗研究正在不断深入。在肾纤维化动物模型中,CUR已被证明可以调节多种促炎因子并减少炎症巨噬细胞的募集[12]。然而CUR的口服利用率低,CUR对肠道菌群的调节作用可能是其改善CKD这类炎症性疾病的潜在机制。因此,靶向肠道菌群,揭示CUR治疗CKD的作用机制,或许能研究出更加有益的CKD治疗药物。笔者对近5年来关于CKD的肠道菌群研究和CUR靶向肠道菌群治疗CKD的文献进行系统总结,并从以下3个方面进行系统性综述:①肠道菌群菌落组成与CKD的关联;②肠道菌群代谢产物与CKD的关联;③CUR靶向肠道菌群治疗CKD的策略。
CKD包括原发性肾脏疾病,继发性肾脏疾病以及遗传性肾脏疾病,是全球增长最快的死因之一,预计到2040年,CKD将成为全球第五大死因[13]。许多风险因素如高血压、血脂异常、肥胖和糖尿病可促进CKD及心血管并发症进展[14];然而,近二十年来还发现了其他新的风险因素,如慢性全身炎症和肠道微生物群已上升为促进CKD进展的关键因素。在健康个体中,微生物群落及其代谢物通过细菌-宿主和细菌-细菌的相互作用发挥多种生理功能,这些功能对于维持人体健康至关重要。研究发现肠道微生物群的功能与许多环境因素改变有关,如饮食习惯、药物和疾病状态[15]。肾脏疾病,如IgA肾病(IgA nephropathy,IgAN)、糖尿病肾病(diabetic kidney disease,DKD)和终末期肾脏病(end stage renal disease,ESRD)已被证实可破坏肠道微生物生态。“肠肾串扰”是指CKD、胃肠道环境和肠道上皮屏障通透性变化之间的关联[16]。肠道微生物群对“肠肾串扰”的影响在CKD进展中起着重要作用,其作用是相互的:一方面,肠道菌群组成的变化与CKD有关。尿毒症较大改变CKD患者190个肠道细菌操作分类单位(operational taxonomic units,OTUs)[17]。具体而言,在ESRD中观察到需氧细菌的存在,如厚壁菌门(Firmicutes)、放线菌门(Actinobacteria)和变形菌门(Proteobacteria)的数量较多,但厌氧细菌的数量较少,如梭状芽胞菌科(Sutterellaceae)、拟杆菌科(Bacteroidaceae)和乳杆菌科(Lactobacillaceae)[18]。值得注意的是,大多数研究一致报道患有CKD的动物和成年人的乳杆菌属(Lactobacillus)丰度较低,而肠杆菌科(Enterobacteriaceae)的比例则有所增加[19]。其次,CKD破坏肠上皮紧密连接蛋白来损害肠黏膜屏障,肠道通透性增加使得脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)和细菌穿过肠道屏障[20]。研究发现,肠道细菌通过激活T辅助17(Th17)/Th1 T细胞反应,增加炎性细胞因子的产生;LPS通过核因子κB(nuclear factor kappa-B,NF-κB)和toll样受体(toll-like receptors,TLRs)样受途径启动先天免疫细胞,所有这些途径都会引发炎症和免疫反应[21]。另一方面,肠道菌群产生多种代谢物,参与多种生理过程,如免疫和宿主能量代谢[24]。在成年CKD患者中,产丁酸微生物,丁酸产量随着疾病严重程度的加重而减少[22]。硫酸吲哚酚(indophenol sulfate,IS)、对甲酚硫酸盐(p-cresyl sulfate,p-CS)和三甲胺-N-氧化物(trimethylamine-N-oxide,TMAO)是众所周知的肠道微生物来源的尿毒症毒素。尿毒症毒素的超载会损伤肾小管细胞,加速肾小球硬化、肾小管间质损伤,最终导致肾功能衰竭[23]表1总结了近年来不同类型CKD患者肠道菌群组成和相对丰度变化的研究。
IgAN是世界上最常见的原发性肾小球疾病,是ESRD的主要原因[41]。有报道认为,IgAN的发病机制可能是由肠道感染引发的,肠道感染激活了肠黏膜免疫系统[42]。肠黏膜免疫细胞过度产生异常糖基化的IgA抗体,导致随后的多重免疫攻击级联[43]。研究证实肠道微生物群和代谢产物在诱导IgAN黏膜免疫中起着至关重要的作用[44]。Wang等[24]的研究发现,放线菌纲(Actinobacteria)、丹毒科(Erysipelotrichaceae)、丁酸弧菌属(Butyrivibrio)、考拉杆菌属(Phascolarctobacterium)、毛螺菌属(Lachnospira)和丹毒目(Erysipelotrichales) 与更高的IgAN风险相关。相反,副拟杆菌属(Parabacteroides)和瘤胃球菌属(Ruminococcus)与IgAN的低风险相关。其中,放线菌门在区分IgAN与其他肾小球疾病方面表现出良好的性能,并且该菌的丰度可能与IgAN患者更严重的肾损伤呈正相关。同样,Zhao等[25]的临床研究发现,lgAN肠道菌群特征是大肠埃氏菌属-志贺氏菌属(Escherichia-Shigella,ES)显著富集,有望作为IgAN的生物标志物和治疗靶点。Ren等[26]进行的一项双向孟德尔随机化研究,以探讨肠道菌群和IgAN之间的因果关系。该研究发现肠杆菌属(Enterorhabdus)和普氏菌科(Prevotellaceae)是IgAN的保护因子,推测这些细菌类群对抗IgAN的机制涉及基因-微生物群相互作用和丁酸盐的产生。双歧杆菌属(Bifidobacterium spp.)是人体中最重要的益生菌,在预防病原体入侵、维持黏膜稳态、增强肠道完整性和调节宿主免疫方面发挥着至关重要的作用 [27]。在lgAN患者和小鼠IgAN模型中均表现出肠道微生物群失调,双歧杆菌属水平均明显下降,而且双歧杆菌属比例与蛋白尿和血尿水平呈负相关。在IgAN小鼠中补充含有双歧杆菌属的益生菌治疗可以显著缓解肠道生态失调,益生菌及其短链脂肪酸(short chain fatty acids,SCFAs)代谢产物可能通过抑制NLRP3/ASC/Caspase 1信号通路来减轻IgAN的病理及临床表现 [27]
DKD是糖尿病(diabetes mellitus)的主要微血管并发症,也已成为ESRD的最主要病因[45]。尽管DKD的发病机制更为复杂,但最近的研究表明,肠道微生物群参与了DKD的进展。Ruuskanen等[28]的一项前瞻性队列研究结果发现,4个菌种[Clostridium citroniae、鲍氏梭菌(Clostridium bolteae)、活泼瘤胃球菌(Ruminococcus gnavus)、Tyzzerella nexilis]和两个集群(cluster 1和5)始终与2型糖尿病(type 2 diabetes mellitus,T2DM)风险呈显著正相关。DKD患者在疾病早期就存在肠道菌群的微生态失调,随着病程进展,出现了有害代谢产物的积累、肠道屏障功能的破坏和慢性炎症[31]。研究表明大部分DKD患者的菌群丰富度明显低于非DKD[29-30]。在属水平上,条件致病菌ES在DKD中显著富集,有益菌如产SCFAs的普雷沃菌(Prevotella)、布劳特菌(Blautia)丰度则下降[30]。同时,DKD不同阶段有不同肠道菌群特征。Zhao等[29]的研究将180名DKD患者根据临床分期分为4组,观察到4组之间肠道微生物群存在显著差异。随着DKD恶化,患者肠道微生物群多样性显著增加,真杆菌属[Eubacterium]_siraeum_groupRuminococcaceae_incertae_sedis以及Acetanaerobacterium是DKD5期中富集最显著的3个属。研究表明LPS水平升高可能有助于DKD的进展。在DKD晚期革兰阴性菌疣微菌门(Verrucomicrobia)和梭杆菌门(Fusobacteria)增殖伴随LPS水平升高,加速巨噬细胞/单核细胞和中性粒细胞激活来诱导炎症。该研究还发现Agathobacter菌在区分DKD与DM、早期DKD与DM,甚至晚期DKD与早期DKD的药时曲线下面积(AUC)及接收者操作特征曲线(ROC)值最高,有可能成为DKD最有前景的微生物生物标志物[46]
系统性红斑狼疮(systemic lupus erythematosus,SLE)是一种众所周知的系统性自身免疫性疾病,其特征是产生致病性自身抗体和免疫复合物,导致各种器官和组织的损伤[47]。LN是SLE发病率和死亡率的一个主要因素。目前为止,SLE和LN的病因尚不完全清楚,考虑与遗传和环境因素有关[48]。近年来,人们试图探究肠道微生物特征及其在LN发病机制中的作用。肠道微生物群紊乱和肠黏膜屏障破坏导致肠道微生物产生致肾损伤的毒素[49],以及异常免疫细胞激活、抗体过度产生、免疫复合物、炎症因子和炎症细胞浸润,所有这些都会直接或间接损害肾实质[50]。临床研究发现LN患者肠道菌群的α多样性显著降低,表现为某几种细菌类型(如Blautia,Odoribacter)以及以革兰阴性菌为代表的菌株的扩张[51]。此外,活泼瘤胃球菌(Ruminococcus gnavus)作为人类肠道菌群的一种常见菌株,在炎症性肠病和神经系统疾病中过度表达[32]。Azzouz等[33]的研究发现LN患者的活泼瘤胃球菌丰度增加,这与LN和整体LN活性成正比。Huang等[34]评估粪菌移植法治疗活动性SLE的安全性及有效性,证实粪菌移植干预后患者的肠道菌群的α多样性增加,Eubacterium hallii groupDoreaMarvinbryantiaPapillibacter这些产生SCFA相关菌属显著富集,而普雷沃菌、韦荣球菌属(Veillonella)以及伯克菌目(Burkholderiales)这些与炎症相关细菌分类群减少,表明粪便移植可以成为该类疾病治疗的新方法。Song等[35]的临床研究发现女性SLE患者α和β多样性明显不同于正常人群,使用弹性网络和布尔塔算法在SLE患者中发现了16个显著失调的微生物类群。进一步利用极端梯度提升(extreme gradient boosting)学习机器模型揭示弗格森埃希菌(Escherichia fergusonii)相对丰度与SLE风险之间呈正相关性,而Roseburia intestilis和普氏栖粪杆菌(Faecalibacterium_prausnitzii)的相对表达量越高,发生SLE的风险就越低,提示肠道菌群可作为SLE识别高危人群的动态检测指标。
研究发现,与CKD和健康人群相比,原发性膜性肾病(idiopathic membranous nephropathy,IMN)患者的α和β多样性有显著差异。在门水平上,IMN患者的Fusobacteria和变形菌门(Proteobacteria)增加,但Firmicutes减少。在属水平上,健康人群的巨单胞菌(Megamonas)、阿克曼菌(Akkermansia)以及产生SCFAs的罗氏菌属(Roseburia)、梭杆菌属(Fusobacterium)和Lachnospira水平高于CKD和IMN患者,而类副杆菌(Parabacteroides)在CKD和IMN患者中明显增加,ProvidenciaMyroides则在IMN患者更为普遍[36]。Zhang等[37]的Meta分析结果表明Proteobacteria的富集和Lachnospira的耗竭可能是IMN患者肠道微生物群改变的关键特征,可能在IMN的发病机制中发挥重要作用,有望为IMN诊断和治疗提供细菌靶点。Guan等[38]通过建立自发性高血压(spontaneous hypertension,SHR)小鼠模型发现梭菌目(Clostridiales)的相对丰度增加,梭菌科(Clostridiaceae)是一种吲哚阳性细菌,与吲哚呈正相关,吲哚对肾脏有负面影响。在属水平上,普雷沃菌属-9(Prevotella-9)、双歧杆菌科(Bifidobacteriaceae)和Akkermansia等有益菌丰度降低。高尿酸血症性肾病(hyperuricemic nephropathy,HN)是高尿酸血症(hyperuricemia,HUA)常见的临床并发症,HUA患者菌群丰富度和多样性降低,微生物群组成改变,粪球菌属的相对丰度较低[52]。在HN小鼠模型中发现相对丰度富集的葡萄球菌属(Staphylococcus)与HN纤维化生物标志物(TGF-β,Fibronectin,Collagen I)呈正相关[39]。在另一项研究中,肠杆菌(Enterobacter)、螺杆菌(Helicobacter)和脱硫弧菌(Desulfovibrio)在HN小鼠肠道中富集。Enterobacter富含尿素酶,可水解尿素生成氨和氢氧化铵,诱导肠道炎症和屏障损伤。螺杆菌和脱硫弧菌属介导色氨酸代谢并催化尿毒症毒素吲哚硫酸前体吲哚的产生[40]
肠道菌群介导的代谢产物与CKD密切相关,影响着CKD的进展和预后。肠道炎症和上皮屏障破坏导致肠道菌群失调产生过量的尿毒素,包括TMAO,色氨酸代谢物吲哚和吲哚-3-乙酸(indole-3-acetic acid,IAA)等[53]。这些毒素的产生在结肠的远端,在游离形式下与血清蛋白进行可逆性结合,游离和结合状态之间保持平衡循环,其水平升高提示肾功能受损[54]。肠道中的有益菌会产生一些有利于肾脏健康的代谢产物,主要分为支链氨基酸(branched chain amino acid,BCAA)、SCFAs和胆汁酸(bile acids,BAs)3大类,这些代谢产物具有促进蛋白质合成、减少炎症和氧化应激、改善肾纤维化等药理活性。不同类型的肠道菌群代谢产物对肾脏的影响机制见图1
TMAO主要来源于富含胆碱、磷脂酰胆碱和左旋肉碱的膳食,这些物质首先被结肠中的肠道菌群代谢为三甲胺(methylamine,TMA),然后在肝脏中通过含黄素单氧化酶3(flavin-containing monooxygenase 3,FMO3)氧化产生[55]。负责TMA产生的基因簇常见于结肠中Firmicutes下的专性厌氧梭状芽孢杆菌(Clostridia)和Proteobacteria下的兼性厌氧肠杆菌科(Enterobacteriaceae)[56]。近年来的研究发现TMAO与CKD之间存在联系,TMAO加速了年龄相关性的肾功能下降速度,并引发肾纤维细胞转化为肌成纤维细胞,促进肾纤维化的发生[57]。代谢组学研究也证实TMAO是CKD的一种潜在的生物标志物[58]
研究发现肠道微生物群介导的TMAO形成在CKD发生和进展中存在临床相关性和因果关系。一项纳入521例CKD患者的单中心前瞻性队列研究发现CKD患者的TMAO升高预示着生存率较低;随后,该研究的动物实验显示饮食补充胆碱和TMAO与肾小管间质纤维化和肾功能损害之间存在连续的剂量依赖性关系,并与SMAD3的磷酸化增加有关[59]。在腺嘌呤诱导的CKD模型中,TMAO促进CKD的机制可能与激活NF-κB信号通路,增加肾小管上皮细胞(tubular epithelial cell,TEC)中炎症基因的表达有关[60]。另一项研究表明TMAO通过激活DKD大鼠肾脏NOD样受体热蛋白结构域相关蛋白3(NOD-Like receptor protein,NLRP3),进而促进下游白细胞介素1β(interleukin-1β,IL-1β)和白介素-18(interleukin-18,IL-18)的表达,从而加重肾脏炎症和纤维化[61]。自噬似乎也参与了TMAO对肾脏损伤机制,在细胞实验中TMAO激活HK-2细胞内蛋白激酶R样内质网激酶(protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase,PERK/ROS)通路,增强肾结石主要成分草酸钙的形成,通过诱导自噬、细胞凋亡和炎症反应加重高草酸尿症所致肾损伤[62]。同时有文献报道PERK/Akt/mTOR通路、NLRP3和天冬氨酸特异性半胱氨酸蛋白水解酶-1(cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase,caspase-1)均介导TMAO对人肾成纤维细胞纤维化作用。PERK是对抗TMAO的潜在的靶点,PERK沉默减少TMAO介导的胶原蛋白的产生和肾成纤维细胞的增殖[63],并降低肝细胞中NLRP3的蛋白表达[64]
色氨酸是人体必需的芳香族氨基酸,同时是肠道微生物群与宿主之间串扰的多种代谢物的重要组成成分[65]。肠道微生物经色氨酸代谢途径产生犬尿氨酸(kynurenine,KYN)、IAA和IS等多种代谢物,这些代谢物在CKD中水平增加,可作为疾病早期识别的潜在生物标志物[66]。一项队列研究表明KYN与色氨酸比值(KTR)与ESRD风险呈正相关,色氨酸-KYN代谢途径的失调可能与DM患者进行性肾功能丧失有关,并且该研究者提出一个新观点:将KYN通路分流到犬尿烯酸分支可能会减缓DKD[67]。IS产生肾毒性的机制是通过激活NF-κB、p53和纤溶酶原激活剂抑制剂1型(plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1,PAI-1)诱导炎症[68],增加肾内细胞间黏附分子1(intercell adhesion molecule 1,ICAM-1)的表达,从而促进肾小管间质损伤[69]。最近的研究发现跨膜和免疫球蛋白结构域1(ransmembrane and immunoglobulin domain-containing 1,TMIGD1)在不同的CKD模型中保护肾小管细胞免受损伤,相反,IS和KYN抑制CCAAT增强子结合蛋白β(CCAAT enhancer-binding protein β,C/EBP β)-TMIGD1轴,损害肾小管细胞存活并加速肾功能下降[70]
另一方面,色氨酸代谢物在体内作为配体与芳烃受体(aryl hydrocarbon receptor,AhR)和孕烷X受体(pregnane X receptor,PXR)相互作用[71]。AHR是一种可结合体内多种配体的螺旋-环-螺旋转录因子,是色氨酸代谢物诱发肾损伤的主要受体之一。IS和KYN通过激活AHR信号传导引发和加剧肾脏损伤[69]。然而,AHR受体激活后的对CKD的作用似乎是多样性的。色苷酸代谢产物2-(1H-吲哚-3-基羰基)-4-噻唑羧酸甲酯[methyl 2-(1H-indole-3-carbonyl)-1,3-thiazole-4-carboxylate,ITE]和6甲酰基吲哚并[3,2-b]咔唑(6-formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole,FICZ)作为AHR的配体能抑制TGF-β1诱导的Collagen I产生,从而延缓纤维化[72]。与之相悖的是,AHR信号通路的激活被发现促进心脏纤维化的发展[73]。AHR可能是CKD的潜在治疗靶点,但前提明确AHR在CKD中的作用机制,使有益的色氨酸代谢产物作为AHR配体来调节CKD状态下的肠道菌群紊乱,最终改善肾脏功能。PXR作为内源性物质代谢和稳态中起重要作用的一种转录因子[74]。吲哚、吲哚丙烯酸(indolacrylic acid,IA)、吲哚3-丙酸(indole 3-propionic acid,IPA)是PXR的主要配体,它们激活PXR以增强肠黏膜完整性并诱导抗炎反应[75]。研究报道PXR可以预防小鼠AKI,其中的机制涉及到PXR激活PI3K/AKT通路抑制近端TECs凋亡和靶向Aldo-keto还原酶家族1成员B7(Aldo-keto reductase family 1 member B7,AKR1B7)改善线粒体功能[76-77]。最新的证据表明,PXR缓解肾纤维化通过与TECs核内的p53相互作用,从而抑制Wnt7a/β-连环蛋白信号通路[78]
亮氨酸、异亮氨酸、缬氨酸构成的BCAA是人体必需氨基酸,通常从饮食中获取或由肠道微生物群落代谢产生[79]。BCAAs参与许多肠道微生物的代谢/合成途径,其中对大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli)和谷氨酸梭菌(Corynebacterium glutamicum)的研究最为广泛[80]。BCAA作为柠檬酸循环中间体的信号分子和直接燃料,对体内健康至关重要。此外,BCAA分解代谢是氨基酸合成氮的重要来源,其基础是通过支链氨基酸转移酶(branched-chain amino acid transaminase,BCAT)转氨化重新合成谷氨酸、天冬氨酸等多种氨基酸,促进蛋白质的合成[81]。然而,过量的BCAA通过促进肾小球系膜细胞增殖,而增生的系膜细胞分泌的细胞外基质(extra cellular matrix,ECM)沉积参与肾纤维化机制[82]。研究报道DKD患者的粪便代谢物种中BCAA(包括缬氨酸和异亮氨酸)的水平和体内生物代谢的基因水平显著升高。这可能与BCAA促进胰岛素抵抗,进而导致DKD的发展相关[83]。胰岛素抵抗患者体内BCAAs的产生主要由普雷沃氏菌(Prevotella copri)和普通拟杆菌(B.vulgatus)代谢合成[84]。因此,BCAA的积累可能对肾脏具有毒性作用。研究发现刺激BCAA分解代谢可以减弱顺铂诱导AKI,并与抑制肾脏中的铁依赖性脂质过氧化介导的细胞死亡有关[85]。BCAA代谢失调促进肾损伤的另一种机制为BCAA基因的表达缺失导致线粒体呼吸和ATP产生减少,从而减少细胞能量来源并加剧TECs的去分化和凋亡[86]。然而在慢性肾衰竭期,血浆BCAA和肌肉中的缬氨酸含量明显下降[87]。补充BCAA和其他氨基酸可使肾衰竭时期的血浆支链氨基酸正常化,以维持蛋白质平衡并尽量减少尿毒症毒素,延缓CKD的进展[88]。因此,BCAA在体内的摄入和代谢之间必须保持平衡,其代谢失衡对于CKD是潜在的危险因素。
SCFAs是指少于6个碳原子的直链饱和脂肪酸,主要包括乙酸盐、丙酸盐和丁酸盐。非淀粉多糖、低聚糖和抗性淀粉等膳食纤维难以消化,在结肠中被微生物发酵产生SCFAs[89]。参与SCFAs产生的细菌种类主要有Roseburia spp、丁酸球菌(Butyricicoccus spp)、普拉梭菌(Faecalibacterium prausnitzii)、拟杆菌属(Bacterioides spp)和双歧杆菌属[90]。SCFAs具有改善代谢功能,抑制胰岛素抵抗和调节免疫炎症反应等多种有益作用[91]。高纤维饮食和补充SCFAs可以改善多种急慢性肾脏疾病,包括CKD(DKD,ESRD)和各种原因诱导的AKI,如缺血再灌注损伤,造影剂和庆大霉素诱导的肾毒性损伤,输尿管炎和肾积水诱导的肾后性损伤[92]
SCFAs充当信号分子与G蛋白偶联受体41(G-protein coupled receptor41,GPR41)、G蛋白偶联受体43(G-protein coupled receptor43,GPR43)、G蛋白偶联受体109A(G-protein coupled receptor109A,GPR109A)或抑制组蛋白去乙酰化酶(histone deacetylase,HDACs)结合[93]。肠道内富集的细菌普氏粪杆菌(Faecalibacterium prausnitzii,F.prausnitzii)是丁酸盐主要生产者[94]F.prausnitzii通过调节丁酸盐-GPR43信号传导重塑肠稳态协同发挥肾脏保护作用,延缓CKD的进展[95]。丙盐酸可通过GPR41和GPR43减轻腺嘌呤诱导的肾功能衰竭[96]。SCFAs改善肾脏炎症的损伤的另一种机制是通过减少肾脏内巨噬细胞的积累,调节炎性介质的产生,减少先天免疫受体Toll样受体(TLR2)和TLR4的表达,该过程独立于GPR受体对巨噬细胞调节[97]。同时,SCFAs具有抗肾纤维化作用,延缓DKD向ESRD发展,其机制涉及抑制TGF-β通路激活,HDAC活性和减少细胞外调节蛋白激酶(extracellular regulated protein kinases,ERK)的磷酸化[98]
HDACs家族多个成员(HDAC9、HDAC3、HDAC6和HDAC8)与肾脏疾病之间有密切联系,并在纤维化肾脏中显著上调。HDACs促进TECs纤维化的机制与G2/M期细胞周期停滞、抗纤维化蛋白Klotho、诱导α-微管蛋白的去乙酰化、调节表观遗传组蛋白修饰和Smad3依赖性纤维化基因相关[99-101]。研究发现高纤维喂养条件下,肾脏中HDACs活性地受到抑制[102]。SCFAs通过钠通道偶联转运蛋白SLC5A8介导的扩散和/或运输途径进入细胞内,并通过抑制HDAC作用于表观遗传调节[96]。丙戊酸(valproic acid,VPA)通过介导HDAC活性调节细胞分化及凋亡,是一种具有代表性的HDAC抑制剂[103]。研究报道VPA抑制促纤维化和促炎基因的显著上调、胶原蛋白的沉积以及肾脏中的巨噬细胞浸润,减轻蛋白尿和肾损伤[104-105]。推测VPA的抗纤维化作用与乙酰化组蛋白H3位点ECM蛋白启动子的富集有关,通过重塑染色质和调节ECM蛋白启动子转录来改善肾小管间质纤维化[106]。此外,炎症和氧化应激也是SCFAs改善肾脏疾病的重要因素。SCFAs通过抑制HDAC影响核因子NF-κB以及其下游促炎细胞因子的相关基因的转录[90]。然而,过量的SCFAs会诱发体内的炎症反应,引发肾积水和肾损伤[93]。如何调控肠道微生物菌群产生合适量或人工配置适宜药理学浓度的SCFAs,是未来治疗肾脏疾病需要聚焦的问题与方向。
BAs是一种两亲性胆固醇代谢物。以Bacterioides spp、Firmicutes和放线菌门(Actinobacteria)为代表的肠道菌群通过各种修饰和胆汁盐水解酶(bile salt hydrolases,BSHs)水解,分泌到十二指肠的BAs代谢成次级BAs [107]。该代谢过程分为4种不同的方式:氨基酸甘氨酸或牛磺酸的去偶联,以及胆固醇核心的脱羟基化、脱氢和差向异构化。例如:初级胆汁酸胆酸(cholic acid,CA)和甜去氧胆酸(chenodeoxycholic acid,CDCA)在肠道菌群中经7α-脱羟基化,生成人体中含量最丰富的次生胆汁酸脱氧胆酸(deoxycholic acid,DCA)和石胆酸(lithocholic acid,LCA)[108]
BAs代谢可以改善肾脏中的糖脂代谢平衡,研究表明DKD患者维持2.8 mmol·L-1以上的血清BAs水平有利于改善肾脏预后,延缓ESRD的发展[109]。BAs作为配体激活核激素受体-法尼醇X受体(farnesoid X receptor,FXR)和G蛋白胆汁酸偶联受体5(takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5,TGR5),在肾脏生理和疾病中发挥重要的保护作用[110]。BAs及其类似物激活FXR和TGR改善蛋白尿并预防足细胞损伤、系膜扩张和肾小管间质纤维化,预防和治疗DKD和肥胖相关性肾病的发生。FXR和TGR作用于CKD的机制涉及多条途径包括激活AMPK-SIRT1-PGC-1α-SIRT3-ERR-α信号级联调节线粒体功能障碍;抑制肾脏NF-κB和促炎细胞因子的表达,并增强M2巨噬细胞的表达;降低真核翻译起始因子2α激酶(eukaryotic initiation factor-2α,EIF-2α)的磷酸化,抑制肾脏内质网应激;逆转肾脂肪酸和胆固醇代谢的增强[111]。然而,BAs浓度过载对肾脏并不是一个好的事件。当BAs淤积伴随着全身BAs循环浓度增加,近端TECs通过顶端钠依赖性胆汁酸转运蛋白(apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter,ASBT)重吸收并富集BAs,导致TECs的氧化应激、细胞死亡和肾小球囊肿,形成胆汁酸肾病(cholemic nephropathy,CN)[112]。除ASBT外,干扰素调节因子3(interferon regulatory factor 3,IPF3)磷酸化似乎是治疗CN的一个潜在靶点,IRF3敲除后小鼠的肝肾损伤和纤维化显著减轻[113]
蛋白质尿毒症毒素(pCS)、对甲酚葡糖醛酸(p-cresol glucuronid,pCG)和硫酸苯酯(phenyl sulfate,PS)是由肠道微生物代谢酪氨酸产生的,参与的菌群主要包含Clostridiaceae、肠球菌科(Enterococcaceae)、Bacteroidaceae、Bifidobacteriaceae和葡萄球菌科(Staphylococcaceae)等[114]。据报道,个体血浆中pCS和pCG水平随着CKD的进展阶段而增加,这源自于肾小球滤过率下降导致的这类蛋白质尿毒症毒素在血液中蓄积[115]。与此同时,pCS和pCG阻碍肾外排转运蛋白(multidrug resistance protein 4,MRP4)和乳腺癌耐药蛋白(breast cancer resistance protein,BCRP)的功能,进一步加重体内尿毒素的蓄积。与pCG相比,pCS在肾脏疾病中的损害作用似乎占主导。pCS对TECs具有促凋亡和促炎作用[116]。CKD患者体内中pCS的总水平和游离血清水平明显高于pCG[117]。腺嘌呤诱导和粪菌移植ESRD肠道微生物均诱导血中pCS水平增加,加重肾纤维化和氧化应激[118-119]。PS似乎与DKD有紧密的联系。PS水平随着DM的进展而增加,诱导足细胞损伤和白蛋白尿,可作为DKD早期诊断的标志物和进展风险的预测因子,以及作为减少白蛋白尿的治疗靶点[120]。马尿酸(hippuric acid,HA)是肠道来源的另一种蛋白结合尿毒症毒素。饮食摄取的表儿茶素和绿原酸被肠道微生物组代谢合成为苯甲酸与甘氨酸,两者结合形成HA[121]。HA的另一种产生途径为肠道菌生孢梭菌代谢苯丙氨酸所产生[122]。HA的积累与CKD患者的疾病密切相关,特别是在多囊肾病中表现出较高水平。研究发现HA可能通过激活活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)介导的TGF-β/SMAD信号和破坏NRF2驱动的抗氧化能力,促进氧化还原失衡和CKD肾纤维化[123]
CUR是一种天然多酚化合物,具有多种药理活性和肾纤维化的治疗潜力。虽然CUR的全身生物利用度较差,但口服后会以高浓度存在于胃肠道中。这种积累表明CUR对肠道菌群有潜在的调控影响,包括微生物的丰度、多样性、组成及代谢物。值得注意的是,CUR与肠道菌群的关系是相互的,肠道菌群通常被认为在决定CUR药理活性方面至关重要,受CUR影响的肠道微生物对CUR进行生物转化,产生脱甲基姜黄素、二甲基姜黄素等,这些活性代谢产物通常比天然酚类化合物更活跃。肠道菌群作为CUR和微生物治疗CKD的替代靶点的策略见图2
CKD的进展往往伴随着肠道微生物群的失衡,CUR可以通过促进有益菌的富集和减少有害菌群数量来调节肠道健康[124]FirmicutesBacteroidetes 2种优势菌门占肠道菌群总数的90%以上,是具有代表性的优势肠道微生物群,两者的比例变化是反映肠道微生态的一个重要指标[125]。四氢姜黄素(tetrahydrocurcumin,THC)是CUR的主要代谢产物,在DM模型中证实THC降低丰度比值(厚壁菌/拟杆菌)(F/B)的比例,并且THC可能对肠道菌群有直接调控作用,通过调节胰腺中胰高糖素样肽-1(glucagon-like peptide-1,GLP-1)的表达而间接降低血清葡萄糖水平[126]。同样地,在代谢性疾病模型中发现CUR降低F/B的比例和产生内毒素的Desulfovibrio的相对丰度,该研究认为CUR改善胰岛素抵抗可能与调节肠道微生物群组成有关[127]
BifidobacteriumLactobacillus是公认的有益菌,具有抗炎、增强免疫及抗氧化活性[128]。研究发现CUR通过增加BifidobacteriumLactobacillus的数量以及减少CoriobacteralesPrevotellaceae、肠球菌Enterococci和肠杆菌Enterobacteria的细菌载量,显著改变了有益和致病性肠道菌群的比例[11]。富含CUR的营养补充剂为BifidobacteriumLactobacillus这类有益微生物的生长提供了有利的环境,益生菌通过抑制ROS和炎性细胞因子,以及增加SCFAs的产生发挥健康保护作用,有助于改善肌肉健康,这对于改善CKD患者的肌肉含量减少非常有帮助[129]。另一项关于CUR的临床试验结果显示:在门水平上,与未经治疗的CKD患者相比,补充 CUR 3个月后Firmicutes的丰度有所降低,Bacteroidetes的相对丰度显著增加,而且补充CUR6个月后,CKD患者肠道菌群的α多样性显示出与健康人群相似的显著趋势。在门水平上,有害菌ES丰度显著降低,随着CUR治疗时间的延长,有益菌Lactobacillaceae spp.量显著增加[130]。Zeng等[131]研究显示负载CUR的大豆蛋白基纳米颗粒对肠道菌群也有调控作用,表现为给药后降低F/B的比例,同时促进健康菌Bifidobacterium丰度增加。Xu等[132]观察HN大鼠的肠道菌群组成的变化,结果发现治疗组在CUR干预后,Firmicutes占比显著增加,而ProteobacteriaESBacterioides spp.占比明显下降,同时也增加了产生SCFAs菌LactobacillusRuminococcaceae的相对丰度。尽管动物模型及临床实验研究CUR调控CKD肠道菌群的报道较少,但相关领域的证据已表明CUR通过调节肠道菌群平衡预防/治疗多种慢性系统性疾病,揭示该药在延缓CKD进展中具有巨大作用潜力和研究价值。
肠黏膜屏障(intestinal mucosal barrier,IMB)由单层柱状上皮和上皮间紧密连接组成,是抵御恶劣环境的第一道防线,具有选择性吸收营养、抵抗病原体、毒素和炎症因子入侵的功能[133]。Song报道CUR保护IMB的机制是通过增强蛋白激酶磷酸酶-1(mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1,MKP-1)磷酸化和抑制NF-κB活化来阻断p38 MAPK介导的相关通路[134]。“肠漏”假说认为,由于肠壁水肿和CKD期间IBM功能受损导致肠道通透性增加,使细菌内毒素易位,引发代谢性内毒素血症和慢性全身炎症,加剧CKD的进展[135]
ZO-1、occludin和claudin-1是重要的紧密连接蛋白,它们的主要功能是维持肠上皮细胞的极性,调节肠道屏障的通透性,减少肠道大分子和微生物通过肠壁进入内部环境,这些蛋白的表达水平降低可能导致肠黏膜屏障通透性增加[132]。研究发现肠受损小鼠模型的肠透射电镜图显示肠道微绒毛稀疏,肠细胞边界不明确,上皮细胞之间的紧密连接被中断,而CUR处理后可改善肠道完整性,其中涉及的机制是通过提高ZO-1和occludin的相对表达水平来改善其肠道完整性和紧密连接性[136]。Xu等[137]研究发现CUR保护空肠黏膜表面和绒毛结构的完整性。同时,CUR呈剂量依赖性增加空肠组织中occludin、claudin、ZO-1和E-钙黏蛋白的阳性表达,下调空肠组织中IL-6、p-STAT3、波形蛋白和N-钙黏蛋白的表达。Tian等[138]报道CUR预处理对肠道缺血再灌注损伤和肠黏膜屏障的影响,证实CUR通过恢复肠上皮结构、促进肠道通透性的恢复以及增强ZO-1蛋白表达来保护肠道免受缺血再灌注损伤,这种效果可能部分归因于抑制了肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)相关途径。肠道碱性磷酸酶(intestinal alkaline phosphatase,IAP)由肠上皮细胞分泌到肠腔,是一种能中和细菌内毒素LPS的肠道保护蛋白。研究表明,口服CUR可增加IAP和紧密连接蛋白的表达,降低循环LPS水平,从而直接证明CUR对肠道屏障的调节作用[139]。综合上述文献,CUR在保护肠道屏障功能方面的作用值得关注。
肠道菌群失调可促进肠道炎症,进而参与CKD免疫炎症调节,炎症反应贯穿CKD发生发展的全过程。Zhan等[136]利用孟德尔随机化分析肠道菌群与CKD因果关系,发现NegativicutesEisenbergiellaSelenomonadales在CKD人群中富集,且与CRP呈正相关。这类促炎症微生物可产生病原体相关分子模式,其主要成分LPS可增强肠道通透性以促进炎症[140]。在单侧导尿管结扎梗阻(UUO)小鼠模型中,抗生素杀灭肠道微生物后结肠组织分泌的炎性因子IL-1β、IL-6、粒细胞巨噬细胞刺激因子(GM-CSF)、巨噬细胞炎蛋白(MIP-1β)、TNF-α明显减少,其原因是抗生素抑制肠上皮细胞MyD88信号通路[141]。另外一项研究发现IS诱导肠道炎症,并增加肠组织中COX-2、硝基酪氨酸和Bax的表达,体外研究也证实IS增加了腹腔巨噬细胞的促氧化、促炎和促凋亡参数表达[142]
CUR作为一种多酚类化合物,具有减轻肠道炎症的作用。研究发现口服CUR可以缓解肠道炎症宏观病理表现,例如结肠长度与组织学变化,机制方面与CUR抑制caspase-3和MAPK/NF-κB/STAT3途径减轻肠道细胞凋亡及肠道炎症相关[143]。Gan等[144]的研究表明CUR通过下调肠内TLR4的表达水平,抑制IL-1β、TNF-α的释放以及增加免疫球蛋白的分泌来减轻肠道炎症,增强肠道免疫功能。同样地,D'antongiovanni等[145]的研究证实含有CUR的天然混合物下调高脂喂养小鼠的结肠髓过氧化物酶(MPO)和IL-1β水平,以及TLR4、MyD88和NF-κB表达,减轻肠道炎症和氧化应激,改善结肠收缩功能障碍。体外研究发现CUR联合胡椒碱抑制LPS介导的THP-1巨噬细胞的炎症反应,并通过抑制M1和M2极化的信号通路抑制巨噬细胞活化[146]。此外,在顺铂诱导的肾损伤模型中证实CUR联合二十二碳六烯酸显著抑制炎症、细胞凋亡和氧化应激,其机制是LPS和TMAO介导的PI3K/Akt/NF-κB信号通路受到抑制[147]。因此,CUR抑制肠道炎症反应,有助于减轻CKD的全身慢性炎症。
SCFAs在减缓CKD进展中的生理作用正在逐步阐明,包括抑制炎症反应、抑制氧化应激、调节自噬、改善能量代谢和免疫途径[93]。研究表明,在CKD人群中,随着肾功能的下降,患者肠道中产生SCFAs菌群丰度的下降进一步加剧,菌群丰度下降的程度与疾病的进展呈正相关[148]。在动物实验中发现CKD小鼠产SCFAs的Lactobacillus、颤螺菌属(Oscillospira)水平也降低,而TuricibacterAllobaculum的水平增加,导致炎症和肾衰竭[149]。同样地,在链脲佐菌素(STZ)诱导的DM小鼠中肠道微生物群组成的改变引致SCFAs浓度下降,导致酪酪肽和GLP-1分泌下降,从而加速DKD的发展[150]
Cai等[151]的研究表明CUR能恢复总SCFAs、乙酸、丙酸和丁酸含量,该研究认为CUR通过改变关键的SCFAs相关酶而不是特定微生物群来改善疾病症。将CUR制备成靶向纳米制剂可以改善氧化应激和肠道炎症,促进SCFAs的产生,维持肠道微生物组的稳态[152]。同样地,Sun等[153]发现CUR显著增加了电鳐型乙酰胆碱受体诱导的肠道微生态失调小鼠的粪便丁酸盐水平,丁酸水平随着产丁酸菌属(OscillospiraAkkermansiaAllobaculum)数量的增加而增加。用富含姜黄的中药合剂治疗结肠肿瘤的研究发现治疗组SCFAs含量增加,SCFAs进一步介导肠道SDF-1/CXCR4信号通路,修复肠道屏障的完整性[154]。除以上各种疾病模型,有研究表明在尿酸性肾病中,CUR可防止模型小鼠肠道机会性病原体ES和Bacterioides spp的过度生长,并增加了产生SCFAs的细菌LactobacillusRuminococcaceae的相对丰度[132]。然而,到目前为止,对于CUR提高CKD状态下SCFAs的水平只有有限的动物研究,尽管迄今为止CUR在动物研究中描述了所有的有益作用,这些结果必须得到更大规模的人体临床试验的一致支持。
已有研究关注到CUR与肠道微生物群之间的相互作用是双向的[11]。CUR的代谢转化不仅发生在肠上皮细胞和肝细胞中,还可被肠道微生物产生的酶代谢为许多高活性代谢物(四氢姜黄素、二羟阿魏酸、去甲氧基姜黄素等),正是这些具有生物活性代谢物发挥着CUR的特定生物学特性[155],见图3。此外,CUR潜在的有益作用不仅取决于CUR的摄入量,还取决于个体的代谢能力,即最终取决于每个人肠道微生物群的组成。人肠道微生物群可以通过各种代谢途径转化CUR,包括产生能够发挥局部和系统作用的活性代谢物,也可以通过修饰CUR结构发挥药理学作用[156]。大肠杆菌中的一种还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸(NADPH)依赖的姜黄素/二氢姜黄素还原酶将CUR转化为二氢姜黄素,然后得到最终产物四氢姜黄素[157]。相反,以长双歧杆菌(Bifidobacteria longum)、假双歧杆菌(Bifidobacteria pseudocatenulatum)、粪肠球菌(Enterococcus faecalis)、嗜酸乳杆菌(Lactobacillus acidophilus)和干酪乳杆菌(Lactobacillus casei)为代表的重要菌株能将CUR的母体化合物降低50%以上,从而可以代谢CUR [158]。Sun等[159]利用体外模型研究3种不同类型的姜黄素通过人粪便微生物群的生物转化,在发酵24 h后检测到四氢姜黄素、二氢阿魏酸和1-(4-羟基-3-甲氧基苯基)-2-丙醇等3种主要代谢物。在以阿尔茨海默病为代表的疾病模型中,研究了肠道微生物群诱导CUR的生物转化。遗憾的是在肾脏疾病领域,目前尚没有CUR与肠道菌群双向关系的研究,因此,需要进一步开展特定动物模型和相关的人体志愿者的研究,为CUR靶向肠道微生物治疗CKD提供基础。
肠道菌群与CKD之间存在着紧密而复杂的关联,可以影响甚至决定CKD的发生和进展。了解肠道菌群及其代谢产物对肾脏的作用至关重要的,不同类型的肾脏疾病之间均伴随着肠道菌群丰度和相关代谢产物富集的改变,相关机制涉及到炎症、氧化应激、凋亡和自噬的发生。肠道微生物群为CKD的发生发展提供了一个新的视角,并拓展了该疾病的研究方向和治疗策略。然而大部分的肠道菌群代谢产物与CKD病理生理之间的直接联系还在探索阶段,未来的研究急需阐明这些复杂关联背后的机制,以确定其中的因果关系。
既往研究已证实CUR通过抑制炎症反应、抗氧化应激和抑制肾小管上皮细胞-间充质转变(epithelial-mesenchymal transition,EMT)等分子机制发挥治疗CKD作用[160]。本综述总结近年来关于CKD、肠道菌群和CUR的文献,结果表明CUR具有重塑CKD肠道菌群的组成和结构,提高有利于肾脏健康的菌群代谢产物SCFAs的生成,增强肠黏膜屏障等多种药理作用。笔者探讨CUR治疗CKD的作用机制,除了直接作用于肾脏之外,CUR还能通过调节肠道菌群及其代谢产物间接影响全身炎症状态和CKD的进展,为未来研究开发以肠道微生物为基础的CUR预防/治疗CKD提供理论基础。笔者强烈鼓励更多的临床研究来探索该策略的有效性,特别是考虑到CUR良好的临床安全性。
再次,基于CUR与肠道菌群之间的双向调节,个体肠道菌群组成的差异可能会对CUR的代谢和药理活性产生影响,同时,CUR对肠道菌群的影响可能也是通过这些活性代谢物发挥作用,例如四氢姜黄素可以增加Bacteroidetes数量,同时减少ProteobacteriaActinobacteria的丰度[161]。然而,CUR不同活性代谢物与肠道微生物群的关系和具体的调控机制尚未明晰,开展高质量的临床随机对照研究是有必要的。在蛋白质组学、转录组学、宏基因组学和代谢组学等尖端多组学研究工具的帮助下,对于参与CUR生物转化过程的关键功能菌的研究将会越来越多。随着先进的生物信息学的算法、技术和数据库的快速发展,鉴定新的功能代谢产物以进行安全治疗变得更加容易。最终,利用肠道微生物群等现代指标探讨CUR及其可能有效的代谢物的分子机制。
  • 江西省自然科学基金面上项目资助(20242BAB25578)
  • 江西省中医药管理局科技计划项目资助(2022A137)
  • 江西省中医药管理局科技计划项目资助(2023B1287)
  • 江西省教育厅科学技术研究项目资助(190936)
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2025年第60卷第7期
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doi: 10.11669/cpj.2025.07.003
  • 接收时间:2024-10-08
  • 首发时间:2025-11-11
  • 出版时间:2025-04-08
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  • 收稿日期:2024-10-08
基金
江西省自然科学基金面上项目资助(20242BAB25578)
江西省中医药管理局科技计划项目资助(2022A137)
江西省中医药管理局科技计划项目资助(2023B1287)
江西省教育厅科学技术研究项目资助(190936)
作者信息
    1 九江学院附属医院肾内科, 江西 九江 332000
    2 西安交通大学第一附属医院肾病医院肾移植科, 西安 710000
    3 西安交通大学器官移植研究所, 西安 710000
    4 九江学院附属医院药剂科, 江西 九江 332000
    5 九江学院附属医院病理科, 江西 九江 332000
    6 西安交通大学肾内科, 西安 710000
    7 九江学院临床医学院, 江西 九江 332000

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*陈绪龙,男,博士,副主任药师,硕士生导师 研究方向:中药制剂及其临床药理学 Tel:(0792)2180137
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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