Article(id=1322962941615678180, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, issueId=1322962941087195876, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11834/jig.260095, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1770739200000, receivedDateStr=2026-02-11, revisedDate=1779897600000, revisedDateStr=2026-05-28, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1793348544743, onlineDateStr=2026-10-30, pubDate=1792080000000, pubDateStr=2026-10-16, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1793348544743, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-30, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1793348544743, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1793348544743, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1322962941087195876, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, year='2026', volume='31', issue='10', pageStart='3441', pageEnd='3818', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1792080000000', pubDateStr='2026-10-16', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1793348544618, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1793348641113, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1322963345913021357, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, issueId=1322962941087195876, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1322963345913021358, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, issueId=1322962941087195876, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=3460, endPage=3481, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1322962941829587685, articleId=1322962941615678180, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, language=EN, title=Survey on memorization and forgetting mechanisms in diffusion models, columnId=1249044010699002654, journalTitle=Journal of Image and Graphics, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=
Diffusion models have rapidly become the dominant paradigm of generative visual models. However,the memorization-forgetting mechanisms inherent in these models make them unintentionally memorize sensitive information from training datasets,which further aggravates the privacy and copyright issues in the image domain. Although the memorization and forgetting mechanisms have been deeply studied in the field of language models,a systematic review on diffusion models,which are the core technology of visual generation tasks,is still lacking. Our survey aims to bridge this gap,and the existing works are reviewed from five aspects critically. First,we briefly introduce the theoretical modeling and architecture of diffusion models,including the formulations of denoising diffusion probabilistic models,score-based generative models,and flow matching,as well as the architectures of U-Net,DiT,and MMDiT. Such theoretical and architectural foundations not only support the strong generative capability of diffusion models but also provide the necessary preliminaries for understanding why and how memorization arises during the iterative denoising process. On this basis,the definitions of memorization in diffusion models are introduced from non-temporal and temporal perspectives. For non-temporal diffusion models,the memorization can be divided into global memorization and local memorization,where the former focuses on the global similarity between generated and training images,and the latter is concerned with the partial replication of sensitive components such as faces,signatures,and watermarks. For temporal diffusion models,the memorization can be further decomposed into content memorization and motion memorization,given that the leakage in video diffusion models is reflected not only in the static appearance of objects but also in the dynamic motion patterns across frames. Once the manifestations of memorization are formally defined,a natural follow-up question is what factors cause such memorization behaviors and how they can be theoretically interpreted. Accordingly,the understanding of memorization in diffusion models is then discussed from the perspectives of model factor,data factor,and theoretical view. The model factor is focused on the influence of over-parameterization and architectural components such as the cross-attention modules,while the data factor reveals that the long-tailed distribution and duplicated samples can significantly increase the memorization risk. The theoretical view is supported by the manifold memorization hypothesis and the geometry-adaptive harmonic representation,which explain why diffusion models tend to memorize specific samples from a geometric standpoint. Building upon these qualitative understandings,more quantitative tools are required for the practical assessment of memorization risks. To this end,the quantification methods of memorization are introduced from the perspectives of a model auditor and a malicious attacker. The auditor-based methods can be divided into proxy- and replication-based methods. The proxy-based methods are designed to approximate the memorization score by influence functions,gradient variance,and geometric proxies such as the Hessian curvature. The replication-based methods utilize pixel-,perceptual-,and semantic-level similarity metrics,such as structural similarity index measure(SSIM),learned perceptual image patch similarity(LPIPS),self-supervised copy detection (SSCD),and contrastive language-image pretraining(CLIP),to detect the duplication between generated images and training images. The attacker-based methods can be divided into membership inference and extraction attacks,which are designed to determine whether a sample is in the training dataset or to recover the original training samples directly. The threat models can be further categorized into white-,gray-,and black-box settings according to the attacker’s knowledge of the target model. Given that these quantification methods have empirically verified the severity of memorization-induced privacy leakage,how to effectively mitigate such risks becomes the next critical concern. Therefore,the memorization mitigation methods under a unified framework of machine unlearning are introduced,including 1) differential privacy,2) prompt optimization,and 3) machine unlearning. The differential privacy-based methods are typically applied in the pre-training stage and can provide formal privacy guarantees through input perturbation,output perturbation,or gradient perturbation such as DP-SGD,but at the cost of generative utility. The prompt optimization-based methods intervene at the inference stage by perturbing the text embedding or attention scores to prevent the model from generating memorized content,which is lightweight but less rigorous. The machine unlearning-based methods can be focused on fine-tuning the model parameters to redirect the memorized concepts to null concepts,locating and editing the memorization-related neurons,or applying closed-form parameter editing to remove the influence of specific samples or concepts in a post-hoc manner. The three families of methods are complementary to one another in terms of intervention stage,computational overhead,and privacy guarantee,and their integration provides a more comprehensive perspective on memorization mitigation in diffusion models. In summary,although considerable progress has been made along the abovementioned five aspects,several critical challenges still remain to be addressed in future research. 1) The privacy data processing pipeline and benchmarks of diffusion models are required to be standardized further,given that the absence of unified datasets and evaluation protocols hampers fair comparison and reproducibility. 2) The memorization definitions and machine unlearning algorithms that are more compatible with the characteristics of diffusion models are required to be developed,considering that the existing methods are mostly inherited from classifiers or language models and cannot fully exploit the iterative and cross-modal nature of diffusion processes. 3) The memorization-forgetting mechanisms in novel learning scenarios such as test-time training,federated learning,and continual learning are required to be explored,and the deployment in vertical domains such as medical imaging and financial generation is required to be accelerated for the cooperation of academia and industry. Furthermore,the data privacy policy-relevant ethical issues need to be considered for the responsible deployment of diffusion models in the future.
, authors=Zihui Weng1
, 2, Quan Zhang3, Xiaohua Xie1
, 2, Jianhuang Lai1
, 2
, *, authorsList=Zihui Weng, Quan Zhang, Xiaohua Xie, Jianhuang Lai, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Jianhuang Lai, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1322962946548179696, articleId=1322962941615678180, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, language=CN, title=扩散模型中的记忆遗忘机制综述, columnId=1249044010992603937, journalTitle=中国图象图形学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=
扩散模型已迅速发展成为生成式视觉模型的主要范式。然而,模型所固有的记忆遗忘机制使得模型不自觉地记忆训练数据集中的敏感信息,进而加剧了图像领域的隐私安全和版权问题。尽管记忆与遗忘机制在语言模型领域已有深入研究,但在扩散模型这一视觉生成任务的核心技术中,仍缺乏系统性的综述。本综述旨在填补这一空白,具体从扩散模型的理论建模和模型架构的介绍,到模型记忆在非时序和时序扩散模型上的定义,对于模型记忆在扩散模型上的理解和对模型记忆在模型审计方和恶意攻击方两方面的量化方法,再到模型遗忘统一框架下差分隐私、提示词优化、模型遗忘的模型记忆缓解方法5个方面进行探讨,最后,本文展望了扩散模型中记忆—遗忘机制的未来发展方向,并重点指出了当前面临的关键挑战,包括隐私数据处理流水线和基准测试亟待规范,更符合扩散模型特性的模型记忆定义和模型遗忘算法,新学习场景的模型记忆—遗忘机制和垂直领域落地。
, authors=翁子辉1
, 2, 张权3, 谢晓华1
, 2, 赖剑煌1
, 2
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1 School of Computer Science and Engineering,Sun Yat-sen University,Guangzhou 510006,China
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1 中山大学计算机学院,广州 510006
2 广东省信息安全技术重点实验室(中山大学),广州 510006, bio={"content":"
翁子辉,男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为计算机视觉。E-mail:wengzh7@mail2.sysu.edu.cn
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翁子辉,男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为计算机视觉。E-mail:wengzh7@mail2.sysu.edu.cn
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2 广东省信息安全技术重点实验室(中山大学),广州 510006)])]), Author(id=1322962949136065282, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, orderNo=1, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, nameCn=null, orcid=null, stid=null, country=null, authorPic=null, dead=0, email=zhangq689@mail.sysu.edu.cn, emailSecond=null, emailThird=null, correspondingAuthor=0, authorType=1, ext={EN=AuthorExt(id=1322962949203174148, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, authorId=1322962949136065282, language=EN, stringName=Quan Zhang, firstName=Quan, middleName=null, lastName=Zhang, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=3, address=
3 School of Systems Science and Engineering,Sun Yat-sen University ,Guangzhou 510275,China, bio=null, bioImg=null, bioContent=null, aboutCorrespAuthor=null), CN=AuthorExt(id=1322962949299643141, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, authorId=1322962949136065282, language=CN, stringName=张权, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=3, address=
3 中山大学系统科学与工程学院,广州 510275, bio={"content":"
张权,男,博士后,主要研究方向为计算机视觉与模式识别。E-mail:zhangq689@mail.sysu.edu.cn
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张权,男,博士后,主要研究方向为计算机视觉与模式识别。E-mail:zhangq689@mail.sysu.edu.cn
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3 中山大学系统科学与工程学院,广州 510275)])]), Author(id=1322962949479998215, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, orderNo=2, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, nameCn=null, orcid=null, stid=null, country=null, authorPic=null, dead=0, email=xiexiaoh6@mail.sysu.edu.cn, emailSecond=null, emailThird=null, correspondingAuthor=0, authorType=1, ext={EN=AuthorExt(id=1322962949563884298, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, authorId=1322962949479998215, language=EN, stringName=Xiaohua Xie, firstName=Xiaohua, middleName=null, lastName=Xie, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=1
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1 School of Computer Science and Engineering,Sun Yat-sen University,Guangzhou 510006,China
2 Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Information Security Technology(Sun Yat-sen University),Guangzhou 510006,China, bio=null, bioImg=null, bioContent=null, aboutCorrespAuthor=null), CN=AuthorExt(id=1322962949618410251, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, authorId=1322962949479998215, language=CN, stringName=谢晓华, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=1
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1 中山大学计算机学院,广州 510006
2 广东省信息安全技术重点实验室(中山大学),广州 510006, bio={"content":"
谢晓华,男,教授,博士生导师,主要研究方向为计算机视觉与模式识别。E-mail:xiexiaoh6@mail.sysu.edu.cn
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谢晓华,男,教授,博士生导师,主要研究方向为计算机视觉与模式识别。E-mail:xiexiaoh6@mail.sysu.edu.cn
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1 School of Computer Science and Engineering,Sun Yat-sen University,Guangzhou 510006,China
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1 中山大学计算机学院,广州 510006
2 广东省信息安全技术重点实验室(中山大学),广州 510006, bio={"content":"
赖剑煌,通信作者,男,教授,博士生导师,主要研究方向为计算机视觉与模式识别。E-mail:stsljh@mail.sysu.edu.cn
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赖剑煌,通信作者,男,教授,博士生导师,主要研究方向为计算机视觉与模式识别。E-mail:stsljh@mail.sysu.edu.cn
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Three modeling methods of diffusion models, figureFileSmall=0VXOi/J5M3YWXS1QLziwjQ==, figureFileBig=pCFHcK1d5HvWa70SPlb88Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322962950985753375, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, language=CN, label=图2, caption=
扩散模型3种建模方法, figureFileSmall=0VXOi/J5M3YWXS1QLziwjQ==, figureFileBig=pCFHcK1d5HvWa70SPlb88Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322962951057056544, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, language=EN, label=Fig.3, caption=
Two backbones of diffusion models((a)U-Net backbone based on CNN;(b)based on Transformer backbone), figureFileSmall=O/7l8ddwXVuo+qJxpby4DQ==, figureFileBig=Ceol5ncZVs2mLdYUTrnRNA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322962951132554017, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, language=CN, label=图3, caption=
扩散模型两种主干网络, figureFileSmall=O/7l8ddwXVuo+qJxpby4DQ==, figureFileBig=Ceol5ncZVs2mLdYUTrnRNA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322962951208051490, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, language=EN, label=Fig.4, caption=
Factors and theoretical understanding of memorization, figureFileSmall=CxshWNdiC/LZxwpAhVGEDg==, figureFileBig=PeD4IKADLQHOg+XrBm7FYA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322962951270966051, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, language=CN, label=图4, caption=
模型记忆现象的因素和理论理解, figureFileSmall=CxshWNdiC/LZxwpAhVGEDg==, figureFileBig=PeD4IKADLQHOg+XrBm7FYA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322962951346463524, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, language=EN, label=Fig.5, caption=
Categories of memorization mitigation, figureFileSmall=MjDFJQ23je74PY+KmmpoWg==, figureFileBig=85OWkBP9lk5O8PkGYozAIg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322962952994824997, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, language=CN, label=图5, caption=
模型记忆缓解方法分类, figureFileSmall=MjDFJQ23je74PY+KmmpoWg==, figureFileBig=85OWkBP9lk5O8PkGYozAIg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322962953078711078, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=
Comparison of different memorization quantification methods, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 量化方法 | 核心思路 | 评估视角与 方法类别 | 适用阶段 | 计算消耗 |
|---|
| 影响函数法(Feldman,2020;Feldman和Zhang,2020) | 利用独立训练的影子模型的聚合估计量作为影响得分 | 审计方、黑盒 | 预训练 | 大 |
| 梯度方差(Agarwal等,2022) | 跟踪梯度方差以捕捉训练期间的记忆行为 | 审计方、白盒 | 预训练 | 中等 |
| 几何代理变量(Ravikumar等,2024) | 利用模型记忆和训练中的一些变量的几何特征相联系 | 审计方、白盒 | 预训练/后训练 | 中等 |
| 图像复制指标(Zhang等,2018) | 像素层面/结构层面/语义层面相似性捕获 | 审计方、黑/白盒 | 推理阶段 | 中等 |
| 隐私攻击法(Hu等,2022) | 利用隐私攻击诱使模型输出隐私数据 | 攻击方、黑/白盒 | 推理阶段 | 大 |
), ArticleFig(id=1322962953162597159, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, language=CN, label=表1, caption=
模型记忆各类量化方法
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 量化方法 | 核心思路 | 评估视角与 方法类别 | 适用阶段 | 计算消耗 |
|---|
| 影响函数法(Feldman,2020;Feldman和Zhang,2020) | 利用独立训练的影子模型的聚合估计量作为影响得分 | 审计方、黑盒 | 预训练 | 大 |
| 梯度方差(Agarwal等,2022) | 跟踪梯度方差以捕捉训练期间的记忆行为 | 审计方、白盒 | 预训练 | 中等 |
| 几何代理变量(Ravikumar等,2024) | 利用模型记忆和训练中的一些变量的几何特征相联系 | 审计方、白盒 | 预训练/后训练 | 中等 |
| 图像复制指标(Zhang等,2018) | 像素层面/结构层面/语义层面相似性捕获 | 审计方、黑/白盒 | 推理阶段 | 中等 |
| 隐私攻击法(Hu等,2022) | 利用隐私攻击诱使模型输出隐私数据 | 攻击方、黑/白盒 | 推理阶段 | 大 |
), ArticleFig(id=1322962953238094632, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=
Comparison of memorization mitigation approaches by defense stage, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 阶段 | 方法 | 数据集 | 模型 | FID | SSCD | CLIP |
|---|
| 预训练 | DP-LDM (ϵ = 1)(Lyu等,2024) | CelebA | SD v1.4 | 21.1±0.2 | - | - |
| DP-LDM (ϵ = 10)(Lyu等,2024) | CelebA | SD v1.4 | 14.3±0.1 | - | - |
| 推理 | 提示词优化(Somepalli等,2023a,b) | LAION | SD v1.4/2.0 | - | 0.3±0.1 | 0.28±0.03 |
| 注意力缩放(Ren等,2024) | LAION | SD v1.4/2.0 | 15.0±0.2 | 0.30 | 0.22 |
| Token 扰动(Wen等,2024) | LAION | SD v2.1 | 18.0±1.0 | 0.5±0.1 | - |
| 微调/后训练 | 神经元检测(Hintersdorf等,2024) | LAION | SD v1.4 | 16.5±0.5 | 0.1±0.07 | 0.31±0.02 |
| ESD(Gandikota等,2023) | LAION | SD v1.4 | 13.68 | - | - |
| 概念消除(Kumari等,2023) | - | SD v1.4 | 16.99±0.2 | 0.30 | 0.60 ± 0.02 |
| SalUn(Fan等,2024) | Imagenette | SD v1.4 | 1.22 | - | - |
| SISS(Alberti等,2025) | CelebA-HQ | SD v1.4 | 20.1 | 0.32 | - |
), ArticleFig(id=1322962953301009193, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024232475115590, articleId=1322962941615678180, language=CN, label=表2, caption=
各类模型记忆缓解方法量化结果对比
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| 阶段 | 方法 | 数据集 | 模型 | FID | SSCD | CLIP |
|---|
| 预训练 | DP-LDM (ϵ = 1)(Lyu等,2024) | CelebA | SD v1.4 | 21.1±0.2 | - | - |
| DP-LDM (ϵ = 10)(Lyu等,2024) | CelebA | SD v1.4 | 14.3±0.1 | - | - |
| 推理 | 提示词优化(Somepalli等,2023a,b) | LAION | SD v1.4/2.0 | - | 0.3±0.1 | 0.28±0.03 |
| 注意力缩放(Ren等,2024) | LAION | SD v1.4/2.0 | 15.0±0.2 | 0.30 | 0.22 |
| Token 扰动(Wen等,2024) | LAION | SD v2.1 | 18.0±1.0 | 0.5±0.1 | - |
| 微调/后训练 | 神经元检测(Hintersdorf等,2024) | LAION | SD v1.4 | 16.5±0.5 | 0.1±0.07 | 0.31±0.02 |
| ESD(Gandikota等,2023) | LAION | SD v1.4 | 13.68 | - | - |
| 概念消除(Kumari等,2023) | - | SD v1.4 | 16.99±0.2 | 0.30 | 0.60 ± 0.02 |
| SalUn(Fan等,2024) | Imagenette | SD v1.4 | 1.22 | - | - |
| SISS(Alberti等,2025) | CelebA-HQ | SD v1.4 | 20.1 | 0.32 | - |
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