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As a common pollutant in water, nitrate has nonnegligible harmful effects on human health and the ecological environment. Faced with an increasingly severe energy crisis, the development of green, clean and sustainable nitrate removal technologies to replace the conventional resource-intensive denitrification process is urgently needed. Photoelectrochemical nitrate reduction powered by sunlight has become a research hotspot at home and abroad. Based on the way photogenerated electrons being transferred from semiconductor to nitrate, this technology can be categorized into photocatalytic reduction, photoelectrocatalytic reduction, and microbial photoelectrotrophic reduction. In this review, the mechanisms of three photoelectrochemical nitrate reduction technologies were discussed. With a focus on improving system performance, the selection and design strategies of photocatalysts, photoelectrodes and microbial photosensitizers were also summarized. Moreover, the technical difficulties of photoelectrochemical nitrate reduction are clarified and the future directions of research are proposed, such as regulating the pathway of microbial absorption and utilization of photogenerated electrons through genetic engineering and other methods. The insights provided will serve as a reference for the development of new nitrate removal and reutilization technologies.

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硝酸盐作为水体中常见的污染物对人体和生态环境的危害不容忽视.在能源危机日益严峻的今天,开发绿色清洁、可持续的硝酸盐去除技术以替代资源密集型的传统反硝化技术是亟待攻克的目标.以太阳光作为动力的光电化学硝酸盐还原技术是国内外研究热点,其根据半导体光生电子传递至硝酸盐的方式可分为光催化还原、光电催化还原和微生物光电营养还原.本综述阐述了三种光电化学还原技术及其机理,并以提升系统性能为重点,归纳总结了光催化剂、光电极、微生物光敏剂遴选和设计策略,厘清了光电化学硝酸盐还原技术难点,提出了借助基因工程等手段调控微生物吸收和利用光生电子途径等未来探索方向,从而为开发硝酸盐去除和资源化新技术提供了参考.

, correspAuthors=王亚宜, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
* 责任作者,教授,
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黄天荣(2000-),男,广东云浮人,同济大学硕士研究生,主要从事废水脱氮工艺研究..

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Chemical Engineering Journal2023457:141237., articleTitle=Intracellularly-photosensitized bio-hybrid with biogenic quantum dots for enhanced wastewater denitrification, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1241408731620102482, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, awardId=52225001, language=CN, fundingSource=国家杰出青年科学基金(52225001), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1241408724103909986, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, xref=1., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1241408724108104293, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, companyId=1241408724103909986, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1241408724120687206, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, companyId=1241408724103909986, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.同济大学环境科学与工程学院,上海 200092)]), AuthorCompany(id=1241408724280070783, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, xref=2., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1241408724288459390, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, companyId=1241408724280070783, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1241408724292653696, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, companyId=1241408724280070783, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.同济大学污染控制与资源化研究国家重点实验室,上海 200092)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1241408729275486326, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, language=EN, label=Fig.1, caption=The reaction mechanism and pathway of photocatalytic nitrate reduction, figureFileSmall=Ug+2p8uE3PIktzvUSY8EEw==, figureFileBig=f38ggHW32wWKMyN3Zc5+yw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241408729413898379, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, language=CN, label=图1, caption=光催化硝酸盐还原机理及反应途径[27]

以TiO2作为光催化剂,HCOOH作为空穴清除剂;(a)光催化硝酸盐还原机理示意; (b)光催化硝酸盐还原的反应途径; CB:导带; VB:价带

, figureFileSmall=Ug+2p8uE3PIktzvUSY8EEw==, figureFileBig=f38ggHW32wWKMyN3Zc5+yw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241408729791385766, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, language=EN, label=Fig.2, caption=Charge transfer route in Z-scheme(a~c) and S-scheme(d~f) photocatalysts[37], figureFileSmall=21jCvAfUMm5gd+pa9Rgdiw==, figureFileBig=Qk1UZZzJEYDkH1DiiM0DeQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241408729959157941, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, language=CN, label=图2, caption=Z型(a~c)和S型(d~f)异质结中的电荷转移路线[37]

CB:导带; VB:价带; EF:费米能; SC:半导体

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(a)光敏电极和微生物分别位于阳极室和阴极室[23];(b)光敏剂在微生物胞外(以CdS/AnAOB系统为例)[63];(c)光敏剂在微生物胞内(以CdSexS1−x QDs/P.aeruginosa系统为例)[71]

, figureFileSmall=TzubGxoEMl3gQ0rvH9hHHw==, figureFileBig=B4V19HhmzoO26+4RIrkmOg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241408730747687170, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Typical photocatalysts and their nitrate removal performance

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
光催化剂硝酸盐初始浓度(mg N/L)反应速率[mgN/(L·h)]硝酸盐去除率(%)产物选择性(%)参考文献
N2NH3
Ag/SiO2@cTiO2452.211395.893.6[34]
Ag@SrTiO3-TiO2111197.298.8[35]
SrFexTi1−xO3/TiO21006797.6896.35[36]
Ag2O/BaTiO3@TiO28.23.610095[39]
Ag/g-C3N4103.366.992[40]
Ru/g-C3N4纳米片2.260.56592.8577.9[41]
B掺杂和N缺陷g-C3N42.81.496.9[42]
ZnSe/BiVO410012089.8491.03[43]
ZnS QDs-PANI-CS115.598.496.8[44]
Ni/HxWO3−y101098.26[25]
LiNbO311.25.698.495.3[45]
h-BN11.27.597.9497.31[46]
), ArticleFig(id=1241408730877710614, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

典型光催化剂及其硝酸盐去除性能

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
光催化剂硝酸盐初始浓度(mg N/L)反应速率[mgN/(L·h)]硝酸盐去除率(%)产物选择性(%)参考文献
N2NH3
Ag/SiO2@cTiO2452.211395.893.6[34]
Ag@SrTiO3-TiO2111197.298.8[35]
SrFexTi1−xO3/TiO21006797.6896.35[36]
Ag2O/BaTiO3@TiO28.23.610095[39]
Ag/g-C3N4103.366.992[40]
Ru/g-C3N4纳米片2.260.56592.8577.9[41]
B掺杂和N缺陷g-C3N42.81.496.9[42]
ZnSe/BiVO410012089.8491.03[43]
ZnS QDs-PANI-CS115.598.496.8[44]
Ni/HxWO3−y101098.26[25]
LiNbO311.25.698.495.3[45]
h-BN11.27.597.9497.31[46]
), ArticleFig(id=1241408731003539745, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Typical photoelectrodes and their nitrate reduction performance

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
光电极阴极电极电势(V)反应速率[µg/(h·cm2)]法拉第效率(%)硝酸盐去除率(%)选择性(%)参考文献
RGO/TiO2/NF阳极−1.0vs. SCE(饱和甘汞电极)71.7[22]
O_SiNW/Au阴极0.2vs. RHE(可逆氢电极)4.39(NH3)95.6(NH3)[48]
纳米多孔硅阴极90(NO2)[53]
PdCu-P4/CS阴极−1.3vs. SCE84.596.395.2(N2)[54]
CoCu/TiO2/Sb2Se3阴极−0.2vs. RHE229.33(NH3)88.01(NH3)[55]
CoFeMnO/BiVO4阴极−0.1vs. RHE17.82(NH3)32.8(NH3)
CeO2-C/p-BiVO4阴极−0.1vs. RHE21.81(NH3)32.2(NH3)[56]
ZnIn2S4/BiVO4阴极−0.1vs. RHE29.95(NH3)37.2(NH3)
Ru@TiNS/Ni/钙钛矿阴极0.0vs. CE(对电极)1744.9±20.6(NH3)99.5±0.8%[57]
), ArticleFig(id=1241408731141951788, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

典型光电极及其硝酸盐还原性能

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
光电极阴极电极电势(V)反应速率[µg/(h·cm2)]法拉第效率(%)硝酸盐去除率(%)选择性(%)参考文献
RGO/TiO2/NF阳极−1.0vs. SCE(饱和甘汞电极)71.7[22]
O_SiNW/Au阴极0.2vs. RHE(可逆氢电极)4.39(NH3)95.6(NH3)[48]
纳米多孔硅阴极90(NO2)[53]
PdCu-P4/CS阴极−1.3vs. SCE84.596.395.2(N2)[54]
CoCu/TiO2/Sb2Se3阴极−0.2vs. RHE229.33(NH3)88.01(NH3)[55]
CoFeMnO/BiVO4阴极−0.1vs. RHE17.82(NH3)32.8(NH3)
CeO2-C/p-BiVO4阴极−0.1vs. RHE21.81(NH3)32.2(NH3)[56]
ZnIn2S4/BiVO4阴极−0.1vs. RHE29.95(NH3)37.2(NH3)
Ru@TiNS/Ni/钙钛矿阴极0.0vs. CE(对电极)1744.9±20.6(NH3)99.5±0.8%[57]
), ArticleFig(id=1241408731297141048, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=

Nitrate reduction performance of typical microbial photoelectrotrophic systems

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
光敏剂微生物光敏剂位置硝酸盐初始浓度(mg N/L)反应速率[mg N/(L·h)]硝酸盐去除率(%)选择性(%)参考文献
N2ON2NH3
TiO2反硝化菌阳极室3510001000[59]
PANI/TiO2-NTs铜绿假单胞菌和其它阳极室25.01.121000973[23]
CdSexS1−x QDs铜绿假单胞菌同溶液胞内14.00.3897.124.672.1[71]
蒽醌-2-磺酸钠脱氮硫杆菌同溶液胞外7.00.810010000[69]
CdS脱氮硫杆菌同溶液胞外13.50.2110072.1±1.1[66]
CdS脱氮硫杆菌同溶液胞外11.60.2291.641.3±2.74.8±1.043.3±2.0[62]
CdS纳米颗粒厌氧氨氧化菌同溶液胞外100.738872[63]
), ArticleFig(id=1241408731469107525, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241408714033386405, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

典型微生物光电营养系统的硝酸盐还原性能

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
光敏剂微生物光敏剂位置硝酸盐初始浓度(mg N/L)反应速率[mg N/(L·h)]硝酸盐去除率(%)选择性(%)参考文献
N2ON2NH3
TiO2反硝化菌阳极室3510001000[59]
PANI/TiO2-NTs铜绿假单胞菌和其它阳极室25.01.121000973[23]
CdSexS1−x QDs铜绿假单胞菌同溶液胞内14.00.3897.124.672.1[71]
蒽醌-2-磺酸钠脱氮硫杆菌同溶液胞外7.00.810010000[69]
CdS脱氮硫杆菌同溶液胞外13.50.2110072.1±1.1[66]
CdS脱氮硫杆菌同溶液胞外11.60.2291.641.3±2.74.8±1.043.3±2.0[62]
CdS纳米颗粒厌氧氨氧化菌同溶液胞外100.738872[63]
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基于光电化学还原的硝酸盐去除技术研究进展
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黄天荣 1 , 王凯冲 1 , 李子滨 1 , 李丹萍 1 , 汪涵 1 , 王亚宜 1, 2, *
中国环境科学 | 水污染与控制 2025,45(4): 1878-1888
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中国环境科学 | 水污染与控制 2025, 45(4): 1878-1888
基于光电化学还原的硝酸盐去除技术研究进展
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黄天荣1 , 王凯冲1, 李子滨1, 李丹萍1, 汪涵1, 王亚宜1, 2, *
作者信息
  • 1.同济大学环境科学与工程学院,上海 200092
  • 2.同济大学污染控制与资源化研究国家重点实验室,上海 200092
  • 黄天荣(2000-),男,广东云浮人,同济大学硕士研究生,主要从事废水脱氮工艺研究..

通讯作者:

* 责任作者,教授,
Research progress of nitrate removal technologies based on photoelectrochemical reduction
Tian-rong HUANG1 , Kai-chong WANG1, Zi-bin LI1, Dan-ping LI1, Han WANG1, Ya-yi WANG1, 2, *
Affiliations
  • 1.School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
  • 2.State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
出版时间: 2025-04-20
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硝酸盐作为水体中常见的污染物对人体和生态环境的危害不容忽视.在能源危机日益严峻的今天,开发绿色清洁、可持续的硝酸盐去除技术以替代资源密集型的传统反硝化技术是亟待攻克的目标.以太阳光作为动力的光电化学硝酸盐还原技术是国内外研究热点,其根据半导体光生电子传递至硝酸盐的方式可分为光催化还原、光电催化还原和微生物光电营养还原.本综述阐述了三种光电化学还原技术及其机理,并以提升系统性能为重点,归纳总结了光催化剂、光电极、微生物光敏剂遴选和设计策略,厘清了光电化学硝酸盐还原技术难点,提出了借助基因工程等手段调控微生物吸收和利用光生电子途径等未来探索方向,从而为开发硝酸盐去除和资源化新技术提供了参考.

光电化学  /  硝酸盐去除  /  光催化剂  /  光电极  /  光敏剂

As a common pollutant in water, nitrate has nonnegligible harmful effects on human health and the ecological environment. Faced with an increasingly severe energy crisis, the development of green, clean and sustainable nitrate removal technologies to replace the conventional resource-intensive denitrification process is urgently needed. Photoelectrochemical nitrate reduction powered by sunlight has become a research hotspot at home and abroad. Based on the way photogenerated electrons being transferred from semiconductor to nitrate, this technology can be categorized into photocatalytic reduction, photoelectrocatalytic reduction, and microbial photoelectrotrophic reduction. In this review, the mechanisms of three photoelectrochemical nitrate reduction technologies were discussed. With a focus on improving system performance, the selection and design strategies of photocatalysts, photoelectrodes and microbial photosensitizers were also summarized. Moreover, the technical difficulties of photoelectrochemical nitrate reduction are clarified and the future directions of research are proposed, such as regulating the pathway of microbial absorption and utilization of photogenerated electrons through genetic engineering and other methods. The insights provided will serve as a reference for the development of new nitrate removal and reutilization technologies.

photoelectrochemistry  /  nitrate removal  /  photocatalyst  /  photoelectrode  /  photosensitizer
黄天荣, 王凯冲, 李子滨, 李丹萍, 汪涵, 王亚宜. 基于光电化学还原的硝酸盐去除技术研究进展. 中国环境科学, 2025 , 45 (4) : 1878 -1888 .
Tian-rong HUANG, Kai-chong WANG, Zi-bin LI, Dan-ping LI, Han WANG, Ya-yi WANG. Research progress of nitrate removal technologies based on photoelectrochemical reduction[J]. China Environmental Science, 2025 , 45 (4) : 1878 -1888 .
硝酸盐(NO3-)是一种常见的水体污染物,其主要来源包括化肥、散排及点源污水和牲畜粪便等[1].饮用水中硝酸盐超标可引发高铁血红蛋白症、高血压和心脏系统疾病等,严重危害人体健康.硝酸盐还会导致水生态系统富营养化,损害水生动物生存[2].随着工业和农业的迅速发展,硝酸盐污染已成为生态环境和人类健康面临的严峻挑战之一[2-3].世界卫生组织和美国环保署规定饮用水中硝酸盐氮(NO3--N)的最大浓度不得超过10mg/L[4-5],我国地表水环境质量标准(GB 3838-2002)规定集中式生活饮用水地表水源地NO3--N限值为10mg/L[6],地下水质量标准(GB/T 14848-2017)中规定适用于集中式生活饮用水水源和工农业用水的Ⅲ类地下水中NO3--N含量不得超过20mg/L[7].
为满足水质要求,一系列硝酸盐去除技术已被开发,可分为物理化学法、生物法和化学还原法.物理化学法是通过物理化学作用将硝酸盐从原水转移到其他介质(浓缩液或再生液)中,包括吸附法[8]、离子交换法[9]、反渗透法[10]和电渗析法[11]等.物理化学法工艺成熟、投资和运行费用相对较低,但无法彻底去除硝酸盐,并易造成二次污染.化学还原法通过添加还原剂(如铁纳米颗粒[12]、H2[13]或外加电压提供的电子将硝酸盐还原为氮气(N2)和氨(NH3)等低价产物[14-15].化学还原法可实现较高的硝酸盐去除效率和产物选择性,但使用活泼金属等还原剂在实际应用中受水质因素的影响较大,工艺条件复杂,而电化学还原法使用的金属电极可能存在氧化溶解、浸出、表面中毒等问题[16].生物法是利用微生物的反硝化作用[17]或植物的吸收作用[18]去除水中的硝酸盐,具有环保、低成本的优势,但其处理效率易受到C/N比[19]、温度、pH值[20]等因素影响.在倡导绿色低碳发展的今天,基于光电化学还原的硝酸盐去除技术作为一种太阳能驱动的硝酸盐去除方法应运而生[21-23].
光电化学(PEC)是利用光敏材料在光照下发生电荷分离和转移,产生光-电化学相互作用,从而实现光-电转化.通常将半导体用作光敏材料,在光照下于界面处形成电子-空穴对,从而引起分子基态或激发态的氧化还原反应[24].本综述根据光生电子传递到硝酸盐的不同方式,将基于光电化学还原的硝酸盐去除技术分为光催化硝酸盐还原[21]、光电催化硝酸盐还原[22]和微生物光电营养硝酸盐还原[23]三种.该技术还可实现水体中硝酸盐的资源化(如转化为氨[25]),从而实现氮素资源的循环利用,有望为治理硝酸盐污染带来绿色、高效的全新技术手段.
本文旨在总结和评述当前光电化学还原技术在硝酸盐去除领域的应用及研究进展,期望通过总结光电化学硝酸盐还原的技术原理,全面分析和比较光电化学硝酸盐还原系统的各种构建策略,为利用光电化学还原技术解决水体硝酸盐污染问题提供科学依据,聚焦相关技术难点并展望未来发展方向.
光催化硝酸盐还原技术是利用半导体光催化剂(如TiO2、g-C3N4)受特定波长的光激发后产生光生载流子(电子e和空穴h+),保持分离的电子迁移到催化剂表面以驱动硝酸盐还原[26]图1a).由于光催化硝酸盐还原技术效率高、能耗低、对环境友好,该技术被认为是硝酸盐去除和资源化极具前景的技术之一[27].
光催化硝酸盐还原反应途径涉及多个中间体和最终产物(图1b),其中N2和NH3由于其热力学稳定性成为该反应的主要产物.该反应可分为两个阶段:(1)硝酸盐还原为亚硝酸盐(NO2);(2)亚硝酸盐还原为硝酰基(HNO),然后进一步还原为N2或NH3.
Varapragasam等[21]认为硝酸盐还原为第一个稳定中间产物(亚硝酸盐)必须经过二价阴离子自由基NO3•2−.跨越NO3还原为NO3•2−的反应能垒(E0(NO3/NO3•2−)= −0.89V vs. SHE(标准氢电极))的途径有三种,分别为基于光生空穴、基于光生电子和基于吸附氢原子(*H)的途径.基于光生空穴的途径最常用,即在反应体系中添加空穴清除剂,使其被光生空穴氧化,产生强还原性(氧化还原电位比E0(NO3/ NO3•2−)= −0.89V更负)的自由基来进行第一步的还原反应.例如,添加HCOOH作为TiO2(价带为2.86V vs. SHE[28])的空穴清除剂可生成二氧化碳自由基阴离子(CO2•−)(E0(CO2/CO2•−)=−1.81V vs. SHE)(反应1),随后CO2•−将NO3还原为NO3•2−(反应2)[29].基于光生电子的途径是选用导带还原电位比E0(NO3/NO3•2−)= −0.89V更负的光催化剂(如g-C3N4的导带为−1.3V vs. SHE),使其产生的光生电子能够直接将NO3还原为NO3•2−(反应3).基于吸附氢原子的途径是在光催化剂上引入贵金属(如Ag、Pt),通过贵金属-光催化剂杂化体系介导的光催化还原水产生的*H将NO3还原为NO3•2−(反应4)[21].下一步,短寿命(≈20 μs)的NO3•2−水解产生二氧化氮自由基(NO2)(反应5),随后NO2被光生电子或CO2•−还原成NO2(反应6).
Tugaoen等[30]提出特定波长(Varghese等[31]认为是305nm)的光能够导致NO3直接光解形成二氧化氮自由基(NO2)(反应7),不必经过NO3•2−的生成.
NO2还原为HNO的过程需经过NO自由基中间体,NO形成有三种途径.第一种途径是NO2或HNO2被光生电子或CO2•−等自由基直接还原为NO(E0(HNO2/NO)=−0.875 V)(反应8和9).第二种途径是亚硝酸在光照下发生歧化反应,生成NO和NO2(反应10).第三种途径需先经过NO2还原为NO2•2−(反应11).若TiO2作为光催化剂,该途径由CO2•−介导,因为NO2还原为NO2•2−需要−0.47V vs. SHE的还原电位,而TiO2上的光生导带电子还原电位仅为−0.14 ~ −0.01V[31].下一步,NO2•2−水解生成NO(反应12).NO可进一步还原为NO(反应13).溶液中的NO可以快速质子化形成HNO(反应14)[30].
如果光催化剂表面的活性氮物种较多,则反应体系中主要发生氮物种的相互作用,优先生成N2.具体为HNO发生二聚化反应生成N2O(反应15),或者HNO和NO反应产生N2O(反应16),随后N2O被CO2•−进一步还原为最终产物N2(反应17).此外,N2的生成还存在一个可以忽略的次要途径,即光生电子可直接还原HNO并产生氨基氧自由基(NH2O)(反应18),随后NH2O二聚化生成N2(反应19).
NH3的形成与NH2O的进一步还原有关,光生电子和CO2•−可将NH2O还原为中间体羟胺(NH2OH)(反应20和21).NH2OH与NH3OH+具有动态平衡(反应22),被光生电子还原为另一种最终产物NH3(反应23和24).
光催化剂的遴选和设计主要围绕硝酸盐还原速率、硝酸盐去除率和产物选择性等指标.拓宽半导体光催化剂的光谱响应范围和提高光生载流子利用效率是提高光催化剂活性的主要策略[32].表1总结了一些典型光催化剂的硝酸盐去除性能.
TiO2因其合适的能带位置、出色的化学性质、无毒、低成本等特点被广泛应用于光催化硝酸盐还原.然而未改性TiO2的硝酸盐去除效率可以忽略不计,而且难以控制产物分布,可能在反应过程中释放出污染物(如NO[33]).研究人员采用了掺杂金属、构建异质结和缺陷工程等手段对TiO2改性以提高其硝酸盐去除效率和选择性[27].
掺杂金属通过在半导体导带和价带间引入掺杂能级,使导带电子易被杂质能级捕获,从而降低电子-空穴的复合几率,延长载流子寿命[32].Hou等[34]和Zhang等[35]通过掺杂Ag设计了Ag/SiO2@cTiO2和Ag@SrTiO3-TiO2光催化剂,利用Ag作为电子汇促进光生电子从半导体转移到硝酸盐,并利用银纳米颗粒(Ag NPs)的表面等离子体共振效应(SPR)提高了光催化剂表面的电子密度,分别实现了95.8%和97.2%的硝酸盐去除率.
Ag@SrTiO3-TiO2[35]和SrFexTi1−xO3/TiO2[36]的设计中分别构建了Z型异质结和S型异质结,使光生电子在导带更负的SrTiO3和SrFexTi1−xO3中积累,空穴在价带更正的TiO2中积累,增强了电荷分离和氧化还原能力,从而实现了优异的硝酸盐去除率.如图2所示,两种异质结的电荷转移路线基本一致,区别在于Z型异质结的两个半导体的费米能将随着电荷转移变为同一能级,而S型异质结的两个半导体始终存在费米能级差,从而建立连续稳定的内建电场[37].
由于产物的选择性与中间体的吸附和反应有关,光催化剂的表面缺陷和路易斯酸位点对最终产物的选择性起重要作用[27].当硝酸盐还原发生在路易斯酸位点时,产生的亚硝酸盐被相对松散吸附,容易解吸用于下一步反应,促进N2产生.与路易斯酸位点相反,亚硝酸盐在表面缺陷上被强吸附,从而抑制了氮氧化物到N2的反应,促使亚硝酸盐以高选择性还原为氨[38].Chen等[36]通过用Fe3+原位取代SrTiO3中的Ti4+实现了路易斯酸位点的引入,所构建的SrFexTi1−xO3/TiO2相较于SrTiO3/TiO2提高了N2选择性.
新兴的压电光催化技术最近已被应用于硝酸盐去除.Luo等[39]引入典型压电材料BaTiO3,设计了Ag2O/BaTiO3@TiO2光催化剂,利用压电效应诱导内建电场,抑制载流子复合的同时导致能带倾斜,产生具有更强还原性的电子,从而提高光催化性能,在没有空穴清除剂的情况下硝酸盐去除率达到100%,N2选择性达到95%.
除最普遍的TiO2基催化剂外,g-C3N4[40-42]、BiVO4[43]、硫化物[44]、WO3[25]、氮化硼[46]等也被用于光催化硝酸盐还原,常用的改性策略有掺杂[40-42]、构建异质结[43-44]、缺陷工程[25,42]等.刘志华等[40]和Hao等[41]采用掺杂金属的策略分别制备了Ag/g-C3N4和Ru/g-C3N4纳米片.Ag的电子汇效应和SPR效应使Ag/g-C3N4实现了66.9%的硝酸盐去除率和92%的N2选择性;Ru的引入导致了可见光范围内的广泛吸收,电导率和光生电子-空穴对的分离效率也得到提高,Ru/g-C3N4实现了92.85%的硝酸盐去除率和77.9%的NH3选择性. Hong等[42]采用了掺杂非金属和缺陷工程的策略,在g-C3N4掺杂B并引入N空位,调制了催化剂的能带结构,减小的带隙拓宽了光吸收范围,产生的中间能隙态积累光电子,抑制载流子复合,引导更多电子参与硝酸盐还原.同时B原子和N空位对NO3有强吸附作用,促进了硝酸盐到氨的选择性转化.Wang等[25]则通过掺杂金属和缺陷工程将丰富的氧空位和Ni单原子引入WO3,制备的Ni/HxWO3−y杂化物实现了10.5mmol/(gcat·h)的NH3,产率和98.26 %的NH3选择性.
除上述几种常见策略外,量子点[44]、非线性光学材料[45]和表面功能化[46]在硝酸盐光催化还原的应用也有报道.Wang等[44]将PANI(聚苯胺)与具有优良光吸收和催化性能的ZnS QDs(硫化锌量子点)构建II型异质结,ZnS QDs引入了丰富的路易斯酸位点以提高N2选择性.另一方面,CS(玉米秸秆)有效阻止PANI的团聚,提高ZnS QDs分散性的同时其表面丰富的碳酸氢盐可作为甲酸的来源,无需添加空穴清除剂即可产生二氧化碳自由基.非线性光学材料具有独特的自发极化特性,内部偶极场产生带电表面,进而引起光生载流子向相反方向移动,可缓解电子-空穴对复合,与传统半导体相比提高了光催化活性和稳定性[47].Liu等[45]首次使用一种非线性光学材料LiNbO3光催化还原硝酸盐,LiNbO3(导带为−3.5 ~−2.5V)的光生电子可直接还原硝酸盐,其独特的二次谐波产生(SHG)效应使它们能够产生更多的电子并最大限度地减少电子-空穴复合,实现了98.4%硝酸盐去除率和95.8% N2选择性.Jiang等[46]成功构建了表面用−OH和−NH2基团改性的h-BN催化剂(导带为−2.12V νs. NHE(一般氢电极)),−NH2基团和OH(−NH2质子化的伴生产物)分别作为空穴稳定剂和空穴清除剂,改善了电子-空穴对的分离,无需添加空穴清除剂即可完成由光生电子介导的硝酸盐还原.此外,−OH和−NH3+基团为NO3和NO2提供了丰富的活性位点,而−OH基团是选择性产生N2的主要活性位点.
光电催化硝酸盐还原技术是一种利用半导体构建光电极(光电阳极或光电阴极),结合了光催化和电化学以还原硝酸盐的新兴技术,已被应用于硝酸盐的深度去除和资源化[48].光电催化与光催化都基于半导体受光照射后产生光生载流子,区别在于光电催化集成了光催化和电催化系统,同时充分利用了外加偏压和太阳能.光电极上的光生电子和空穴在外加偏压的驱动下实现定向迁移并抑制电荷复合,使光电催化系统更有效地利用太阳能进行硝酸盐还原[49].
在光电催化硝酸盐还原系统中,半导体被用作光电极,以吸收具有适当能量的入射光子,其中电子从价带激发到导带,空穴驻留在价带中.对于光电阳极,产生的光生电子在外加偏压的作用下转移到阴极以还原NO3产生N2或NH3.对于光电阴极,可将产生的光生电子直接传递给吸附在电极表面的NO3.根据光电极的配置方式可将PEC电池分为两类:(1)由光电阴极、对电极和外加偏压组成的光电阴极驱动电池(图3a);(2)由光电阳极、对电极和外加偏压组成的光电阳极驱动电池(图3b).
目前,研究人员已经开发了各种基于p型半导体(包括氧化物、硫化物、硒化物和硅基材料)的光电阴极以实现高效稳定的光电催化硝酸盐还原.然而光电阴极存在光吸收不足、高激子复合和耐久性差等问题,限制了其在硝酸盐污染治理和资源化的进一步应用[50].光电阳极通常是n型半导体,与光电阴极相比,由n型半导体制成的光电阳极低毒或无毒性,在水相中具有高度稳定性[51].
适用于光电极的理想半导体应满足以下条件:(1)半导体的导带应当比E0(NO3/NO3•2−)= −0.89V(νs. SHE)更负;(2)半导体应具有较小带隙,使之能够充分利用大部分太阳光谱;(3)光电子运输和转移过程应快速有效,尽量减少光生电子-空穴对的复合;(4)半导体应具有硝酸盐还原产物的高选择性;(5)半导体应在恶劣条件下保持稳定,如酸/碱溶液、强氧化性/还原性环境和强烈的阳光[52].
为获得理想的半导体,提高光电催化硝酸盐还原系统的性能,研究人员采用了形貌调控[22,48,53]、掺杂金属元素[48,54]、构建异质结[55-56]等策略设计了多种光电极(表2).
形貌调控通常增加光催化剂与光的接触面积,优化传质,以提高光电催化硝酸盐还原的反应活性.李丽萍[22]制备的还原氧化石墨烯/二氧化钛/泡沫镍(RGO/TiO2/NF)复合光电阳极中,NF的三维多孔结构增加其表面的光催化剂与光的接触面积,并有利于阳极表面产生的气体析出,加快溶液中的传质速率,实现了71.7%的硝酸盐去除率.Kan等[53]制备的纳米多孔硅光电极同样有利于光与光电极的接触和产生的气体析出,实现了90%的法拉第效率.Kim等[48]构建六边形图案、高度有序的Si纳米线(O_SiNW)阵列以改变Si的光学和电化学性质,相比平面或随机生长的硅电极表现出更有利的传质、更少的电荷复合和更大的光电流,从而更有效地促进硝酸盐还原.
金属掺杂可在基体材料中形成杂原子活性位点,有效提高电极材料的催化活性和利用效率.O_SiNW中掺杂的Au NPs(金纳米颗粒)[48]和TiO2/Sb2Se3中掺杂的CuCo[55]作为助催化剂均促进了NO3到NO2这一硝酸盐还原的速率决定步骤.在另一项掺杂金属的工作中,Sun等[54]首次以二维磷烯为巨磷配体,约束高密度PdCu双原子形成独特的PdCu-P4配位结构,促进反应物的吸附、N−O键的断裂、中间体的转移和N≡N键的形成.
构建异质结可增强可见光区域的光吸收能力和提高载流子分离效率,并通过内建电场延长光生电子-空穴的寿命[56].李丽萍[22]在RGO/TiO2/NF的设计中构建了RGO和TiO2的异质结,Sun等[54]在PdCu-P4/CS(硫化镉纳米线)的设计中构建了磷烯和硫化镉纳米线的异质结,分别实现了71.7%和96.3%的硝酸盐去除率.Ren等[55]在CoCu/TiO2/Sb2Se3光电阴极的设计中构建了TiO2和Sb2Se3异质结,NH3产率和法拉第效率达到了13.49μmol/(h·cm)和88.01%.CeO2-C/p-BiVO4和ZnIn2S4/BiVO4光电阴极的设计在构建异质结的同时分别由氧空位和锌空位诱导FLPs(受阻Lewis对)的形成,FLPs可显著促进NO3吸附和活化能力,两种阴极的NH3产率达到21.81μg/(h·cm2)和29.95μg/(h·cm2[56].
Tayyebi等[57]制备了三阳离子卤化铅(Cs0.05(FA0.83MA0.17) Pb0.95(Br0.17I0.833)(FA为甲脒,MA为甲基胺)钙钛矿光电阴极,将Ru和Pt负载到高电导率、高稳定性、大表面积的钛酸酯纳米片(TiNS)载体上作为电催化剂,并在阳极室用所需电压更低的甘油氧化反应(0.09 ~0.4V)代替水氧化反应(1.23V)得到增值产品甘油酸,同时在阴极实现了无外加偏压下迄今为止报道的最高NH3产率((1744.9±20.6)μg/(h·cm2)).
目前,异养反硝化是生物脱氮的主流工艺,但在水中有机碳源不足的情况下需要投加乙酸等有机碳源,以获得足够的电子供体,增加了运行成本和碳排放量[58].因此,国内外学者正在寻求绿色清洁的电子供体以替代有机碳源,实现可持续的硝酸盐去除.2017年,Cheng等[59]受电营养反硝化启发,利用TiO2光电极为微生物提供反硝化所需的电子,并将其定义为微生物光电营养反硝化.此后,能产生光生电子的光敏剂成为了微生物硝酸盐还原的新型电子供体,已采用的光敏剂包括TiO2[23,59-60]、CdS[61-66]、g-C3N4[67-68]和蒽醌-2-磺酸钠(AQS)[69-70]等.本综述将这类利用光敏剂为微生物提供电子以进行硝酸盐还原反应的系统统称为微生物光电营养硝酸盐还原.
由光敏剂和具有硝酸盐还原能力的非光养微生物组成的微生物光电营养系统的工作原理为,光敏剂吸收光进入激发态,通过胞外电子受体将电子转移到微生物中,微生物利用电子将硝酸盐还原,光敏剂回到基态.该系统与常规生物反硝化工艺的共同点在于均以硝酸盐作为微生物异化代谢的电子受体;不同点是该系统的电子供体是光敏剂,而生物反硝化的电子供体是有机碳源物质.以AQS/T.denitrificans的微生物光电反硝化体系为例,在光照条件下,基态AQS受光激发生成单重态AQS(1AQS*),1AQS*通过系间跃迁迅速变为三重态(3AQS*),3AQS*与乳酸钠反应形成AQS自由基阴离子(AQS•−).随后AQS•−通过胞外电子受体将电子转移到微生物中,或通过质子转移过程形成氢醌(H-AQS),储存未使用的光生电子.随后氢醌释放电子至微生物,并回到基态AQS[70].
目前微生物光电营养硝酸盐还原的限速步骤是生物材料界面上的光电子传递,归因于光敏剂中光生电荷的快速重组(例如TiO2为107~108s−1)和微生物对胞外电子的缓慢摄取(例如细胞色素c介导的过程为10–4~10s–1),导致量子产率不理想.最近,Chen等[69]引入蒽醌(AQ)这种赝电容材料,使AQ起到微生物光敏剂和电容器的双重作用,为协调光电子产生和吸收速度的巨大差异提供了新思路.AQ受到光照后既能形成AQ阴离子自由基(AQ•−)通过胞外电子受体将电子传递给微生物,也能通过质子转移过程转化为还原态(H-AQ)作为存储光激发电子的电容器,同时H-AQ也是电活性细菌的可利用的电子供体.
表3对典型微生物光电营养系统按照光敏剂和微生物复合的方式以及微生物种类进行了划分,并展示了各系统的硝酸盐还原性能.
光敏剂与微生物的复合方式可分为光敏电极和微生物分别位于阳极室和阴极室、光敏剂在微生物胞外、光敏剂在微生物胞内三种类型.如图4(a)所示,光照激发阳极的半导体材料产生电子,这些电子经外部电路传递到阴极,再由阴极室内的微生物摄取进行硝酸盐还原.这种方法实现了光生电子产生模块与微生物催化单元的分离,避免了光照对微生物细胞的损害,但涉及“光生电子→电极→微生物”的多级电子传输流程[23].如图4(b)所示,另一种复合的方式是将光敏剂直接投加在含有微生物的溶液中.光敏剂产生的光生电子能够穿越细胞膜,进入细胞内,从而驱动或增强微生物硝酸盐还原过程[63].然而,电子跨膜转移需克服细胞膜屏障,其传输动力学相对缓慢,在一定程度上限制了光电营养硝酸盐还原的效率.为克服这一限制,图4(c)展示了一种创新的杂化体系设计.该体系通过在微生物胞内合成极小尺寸的量子点,光生电子可以直接在细胞内产生,不仅显著缩短了电子到胞内代谢反应位点的距离,还避免了电子跨膜传输的障碍,从而提高了光电营养硝酸盐还原的效率[58].
目前为还原硝酸盐构建的微生物光电营养系统中,涉及的微生物种类有铜绿假单胞菌(Pseudomonas aeruginosa[23,71]、脱氮硫杆菌(Thiobacillus denitrificans[62,65-66]和厌氧氨氧化菌(AnAOB)[63]等.
铜绿假单胞菌是一种异养菌,具有“硝酸盐→亚硝酸盐→一氧化氮→氧化亚氮→氮气”的完整氮素还原途径,能够利用光生电子进行硝酸盐还原.Cui等[71]阐述了生物量子点与P.aeruginosa的电子传递途径.由于生物量子点的导带位置约为−0.626V νs. NHE,比NAD+/NADH的标准氧化还原电位(−0.32V νs. NHE)更负,光电子从生物量子点直接转移到NAD+在热力学上有利,由此进入电子传递链(从NADH到细胞膜上的醌/醌醇(Q/QH2)池和细胞色素c).此外,分布在细胞周质中的生物量子点可直接将光电子传递到电子转移链.最后,从生物量子点和碳代谢得到的电子通过电子传递链分散到反硝化酶中,驱动硝酸盐催化还原(图4c).
脱氮硫杆菌是一种化能自养菌,同样具有完整氮素还原途径.Zhou等[62]说明了CdS的光生电子转移到T. denitrificans的反硝化酶系统上将NO3还原为N2的电子传递机制.Cyt c4和醌池接受光电子在热力学上可行,因为CdS导带底的电位为−0.99V,Cyt c4的电位为0.1 ~ 0.3V,泛醌(UQ)的电位为0.113V.从Cyt c4或UQ到反硝化酶的电子流同样在热力学上可行,因为NO3/NO2(0.45V)、NO2/NO(0.36V)、NO/N2O(1.18V)和N2O/N2(1.36V)的氧化还原电位均高于Cyt c4和UQ.虽然实验中监测到NH4+-N的产生,但T. denitrificans-CdS的光电子驱动异化硝酸盐还原为铵(DNRA)过程的机理尚不明晰.
厌氧氨氧化菌属于化能自养菌,能够进行DNRA,但该途径的激活通常受到电子供体短缺的限制.Guo等[63]构建了一种将厌氧氨氧化菌与CdS纳米颗粒相结合的光敏杂化体系,并提出了该体系中光驱动NO3去除的机制(图4b).在光照下,CdS纳米颗粒的光激发电子通过细胞膜中的细胞色素c转移到内膜中,然后流入醌池并驱动NAD+和Fd(铁氧还蛋白)还原.Fd将电子运输到厌氧氨氧化体附近,随后电子在厌氧氨氧化体膜上从Fd通过rnf转移到醌池和细胞色素bc,为DNRA代谢相关酶提供电子,将NO3还原为NH4+.同时,NO2被还原为NO,随后NO和NH4+被催化生成联氨,最后联氨转化为N2.然而,厌氧氨氧化菌尚未能纯培养,其利用光生电子的具体机制仍有待验证.
光电化学还原技术由于系统构造简单,占地小,可利用太阳光这种清洁能源,无二次污染,已成为最具前景的硝酸盐去除和资源化技术之一.然而该技术仍停留在实验室阶段,进一步推广应用需要技术瓶颈的突破.
对于光催化系统,技术瓶颈在于光生电荷的快速重组和空穴清除剂的消耗.目前针对金属氧化物、硫化物、碳基材料等光催化剂有形貌调控、掺杂、构建异质结和表面功能化等众多改性策略,以改善电荷分离效率和表面反应动力学.后续对材料的结构-性质相关性和硝酸盐还原反应机理的深入解析将有助于选择更合适的催化剂改性策略.
对于光电催化系统,后续的研究应致力于实现较低甚至零外加电压下的硝酸盐还原以减少能耗.同时,PEC制氨的电流密度应达到实际PEC制氢的10mA/cm2,产率达到1000μg/(cm2·h),加以氨分离技术的升级,使系统满足商业化生产的要求.
对于微生物光电营养系统,技术瓶颈在于光敏剂中光生电荷的快速重组和微生物对胞外电子的缓慢摄取.后续研究可以深入解析不同微生物对光生电子的吸收和利用途径,调控该途径的关键运输蛋白或介质,寻找更优的电子传递路径,还可借助基因工程等手段调控微生物代谢过程,促进光生电子的吸收与利用,实现高效硝酸盐还原.
  • 国家杰出青年科学基金(52225001)
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2025年第45卷第4期
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  • 接收时间:2024-09-04
  • 首发时间:2026-03-19
  • 出版时间:2025-04-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-09-04
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国家杰出青年科学基金(52225001)
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    1.同济大学环境科学与工程学院,上海 200092
    2.同济大学污染控制与资源化研究国家重点实验室,上海 200092

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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