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Based on the high-density observation network of low-cost CO2 analyzers deployed in Hangzhou, an analysis of CO2 concentration spanning a complete one-year from April 2023 to March 2024 was conducted. The results showed that:(1)Under field observation conditions, low-cost instruments experience data gaps, with annual data collection rates at various stations ranging from 38.58% to 99.39%. The Mean Bias Error(MBE)for the two non-dispersive infrared(NDIR)instruments is(3.2±1.4)µmol/mol. Therefore, it is essential to enhance the data collection rate at stations when deploying high-density network.(2)Observation from NDIR-based low-cost instruments were highly sensitive to environmental variations, but could be effectively corrected by machine learning-based calibration schemes. After correction, the correlation coefficient R2 between the network data and high-precision observation improved from 0.33 to 0.77, with the MBE of 1.2µmol/mol.(3)The high-density network of low-cost CO2 analyzers was can effectively capture the spatio-temporal variability of CO2 concentration. Diurnal variations and spatial distributions across stations reflected seasonal variations characteristics of urban CO2 sources and sinks. The deployment of this network has demonstrated the feasibility of operating a low-cost, high-density monitoring system in cities with complex underlying surfaces, such as those in China. This approach provided a basis for estimating urban carbon emissions and evaluating the effectiveness of emission reduction measures.

, correspAuthors=Wei XIAO, Liang CHEN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Jin-hui WU, Wei XIAO, Liang CHEN, Ning HU, Jun WANG, Yuan-ze LIU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1241057216321606024, articleId=1241057214014738669, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, language=CN, title=低成本高密度监测网在城市CO2浓度监测中的可行性——以杭州为例, columnId=1234106388364981004, journalTitle=中国环境科学, columnName=大气污染与控制, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

基于杭州搭建的低成本CO2分析仪高密度观测网络,对2023年4月至2024年3月完整一年的浓度数据进行分析.结果表明:(1)在野外观测条件下低成本仪器存在数据缺测,各站点一年数据收集量在38.58%~99.39%,两款非色散红外(NDIR)仪器MBE为(3.2±1.4)µmol/mol,进行高密度组网时要提高站点的数据收集率.(2)基于NDIR的低成本仪器观测结果对环境变化较为敏感,机器学习的校正方案可有效校正,组网数据校正后与高精度观测相关性R2由0.33提升至0.77,MBE为1.2µmol/mol.(3)低成本的高密度组网可以观测到城市内部CO2浓度的时空变异性,站点的日变化及空间浓度分布均反映出城市CO2源汇的季节变化特征.通过搭建的组网验证了低成本高密度网络在中国这种下垫面复杂的城市运行的可行性,为估算城市排放量和评估减排措施效果提供依据.

, correspAuthors=肖薇, 陈亮, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
* 责任作者,教授,
** 高级工程师,
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吴晋辉(2000-),男,山西运城人,南京信息工程大学硕士研究生,主要从事城市温室气体监测与反演研究..

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吴晋辉(2000-),男,山西运城人,南京信息工程大学硕士研究生,主要从事城市温室气体监测与反演研究..

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吴晋辉(2000-),男,山西运城人,南京信息工程大学硕士研究生,主要从事城市温室气体监测与反演研究..

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Advances in medium-precision carbon monitoring technologies [R]. BeiJing: Institute of Atmospheric Physics,Chinese Academy of Sciences,2023., articleTitle=Advances in medium-precision carbon monitoring technologies, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1241057223632277546, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, awardId=2020YFA0607501, language=CN, fundingSource=国家重点研发计划项目(2020YFA0607501), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1241057223728746548, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, awardId=BK20220055, language=CN, fundingSource=江苏省杰出青年基金项目(BK20220055), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1241057223925878852, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, awardId=BRA2022023, language=CN, fundingSource=江苏省“333人才”领军型人才团队(BRA2022023), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1241057216682316194, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, xref=1., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1241057216694899107, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, companyId=1241057216682316194, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.Yale-NUIST Center on Atmospheric Environment, Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Carbon Source and Sink-China Meteorological Administration, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1241057216703287716, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, companyId=1241057216682316194, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.南京信息工程大学,中国气象局生态系统碳源汇重点开放实验室大气环境中心,江苏 南京 210044)]), AuthorCompany(id=1241057216795562415, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, xref=2., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1241057216808145329, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, companyId=1241057216795562415, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1241057216816533939, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, companyId=1241057216795562415, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.南京信息工程大学,气象灾害预报预警与评估省部共建协同创新中心,江苏 南京 210044)]), AuthorCompany(id=1241057216917197242, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, xref=3., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1241057216929780156, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, companyId=1241057216917197242, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=3.Zhejiang Atmospheric Observation Technology Support Center, Hangzhou 310018, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1241057216946557373, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, companyId=1241057216917197242, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=3.浙江省大气探测技术保障中心,浙江 杭州 310018)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1241057220478161673, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=EN, label=Fig.1, caption=Schematic map of high-density atmospheric CO2 monitoring network in central Hangzhou, figureFileSmall=MGvmW4KcrgEbFo8oKVmsGQ==, figureFileBig=2j3ARRt3kYBTbfve+SUFGA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057220574630673, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=CN, label=图1, caption=杭州主城区大气CO2高密度监测网示意, figureFileSmall=MGvmW4KcrgEbFo8oKVmsGQ==, figureFileBig=2j3ARRt3kYBTbfve+SUFGA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057220897592109, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=EN, label=Fig.2, caption=Comparison of data from two medium-precision CO2 sensors at the Cuiyuan, Kaixuan, Nanxingqiao and Qingbo monitoring sites after calibration, figureFileSmall=9NaxSlHwLSH6fsVDAslN5g==, figureFileBig=Z1Ap42VpopJAmsPNqe2ELA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057221073752886, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=CN, label=图2, caption=翠苑、凯旋、南星桥和清波4个站点两款中精度CO2传感器校正后数据比对

左侧:时间序列;右侧:1:1图

, figureFileSmall=9NaxSlHwLSH6fsVDAslN5g==, figureFileBig=Z1Ap42VpopJAmsPNqe2ELA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057221237330755, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=EN, label=Fig.3, caption=Time series of the daily mean CO2 concentrations observed by the medium-precision network, and by the high-precision site from April 2023 to January 2024, figureFileSmall=OTedrznUA2AmEbJPsiKdEg==, figureFileBig=YGEBo36heHR4tEkSuV1aAg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057221438657364, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=CN, label=图3, caption=2023年4月1日至2024年1月31日中精度网络与高精度站CO2浓度日均值的时间序列, figureFileSmall=OTedrznUA2AmEbJPsiKdEg==, figureFileBig=YGEBo36heHR4tEkSuV1aAg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057221581263716, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=EN, label=Fig.4, caption=Comparison of mean(a and b)and median(c and d)value of multi-site observation of the medium-precision network for hourly atmospheric CO2 concentration before(a, c)and after(b, d)calibration versus the observation of high-precision site, figureFileSmall=zvluQT3DWxzUvLRMywhLlg==, figureFileBig=T2p4egbkyIZedMsQgnwGVQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057221744841583, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=CN, label=图4, caption=中精度网络逐时CO2浓度校准前(a, c)和校准后(b, d)的平均值(a和b)、中位数(c和d)与高精度站对比, figureFileSmall=zvluQT3DWxzUvLRMywhLlg==, figureFileBig=T2p4egbkyIZedMsQgnwGVQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057221862282109, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=EN, label=Fig.5, caption=Diurnal compositions of the atmospheric CO2 concentration in each season observed by the medium-precision network and high-precision analyzer in central Hangzhou, figureFileSmall=Qxy6OPIEzxkkpOfFKX5UlQ==, figureFileBig=zsrJPrq2QGbrkyVfBEexYw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057221962945419, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=CN, label=图5, caption=中精度网络和高精度仪器观测的杭州主城区大气CO2浓度各季节日组分, figureFileSmall=Qxy6OPIEzxkkpOfFKX5UlQ==, figureFileBig=zsrJPrq2QGbrkyVfBEexYw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057222101357464, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=EN, label=Fig.6, caption=Daily variation characteristics of each site in the medium-precision network, figureFileSmall=qBTBs2PxlnuOsFXplVv6vw==, figureFileBig=rIFGe4YNXqmvv31ph1Xx5w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057222407541675, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=CN, label=图6, caption=中精度网络各站点日变化特征, figureFileSmall=qBTBs2PxlnuOsFXplVv6vw==, figureFileBig=rIFGe4YNXqmvv31ph1Xx5w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057222558536631, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=EN, label=Fig.7, caption=Spatial pattern of CO2 concentration in central Hangzhou in different season, figureFileSmall=mWhg7g/ZZLSagaCf7xK9gw==, figureFileBig=ZleUizmESYu172VW8d+tuA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057222713725899, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=CN, label=图7, caption=杭州主城区CO2浓度各季节空间分布特征, figureFileSmall=mWhg7g/ZZLSagaCf7xK9gw==, figureFileBig=ZleUizmESYu172VW8d+tuA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241057222868915164, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Medium precision site location and surrounding information

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
站点名称位置周边情况
馒头山气象观测场位于凤凰山顶,四面环山,视野开阔
清波10楼楼顶下垫面以建筑物为主,南边有山脉
采荷5楼平台周边均为居民楼
卧龙桥3楼楼顶位于景区内部,下垫面以树木为主,东边为西湖
太子湾景区内位于树木冠层以下,四周被高大林木包围
南星桥7楼楼顶四周为建筑物,视野开阔,南边沿江,北边为山脉
紫阳5楼楼顶南边毗邻交通干道,北边以居民楼为主
三堡船闸堤坝三面环水,周边有农田
天水7楼楼顶四周以居民楼为主
武林5楼平台毗邻繁华主干道,四周为商业建筑
翠苑6楼楼顶四周以居民楼为主
潮鸣6楼楼顶四周以居民楼为主,东西北三个方向有河流
黄龙7层楼顶西边毗邻主干道,北边有高架,四周为商业楼
健风13楼楼顶四周开阔,西边有高架
凯旋6楼楼顶四周均为居民楼
长风2楼楼顶四周为小区建筑包围,北边和西边有高架
四季青4楼楼顶四周围商铺,南边毗邻交通干道,东边沿江
), ArticleFig(id=1241057222986355692, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

中精度站点位置及周边情况

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
站点名称位置周边情况
馒头山气象观测场位于凤凰山顶,四面环山,视野开阔
清波10楼楼顶下垫面以建筑物为主,南边有山脉
采荷5楼平台周边均为居民楼
卧龙桥3楼楼顶位于景区内部,下垫面以树木为主,东边为西湖
太子湾景区内位于树木冠层以下,四周被高大林木包围
南星桥7楼楼顶四周为建筑物,视野开阔,南边沿江,北边为山脉
紫阳5楼楼顶南边毗邻交通干道,北边以居民楼为主
三堡船闸堤坝三面环水,周边有农田
天水7楼楼顶四周以居民楼为主
武林5楼平台毗邻繁华主干道,四周为商业建筑
翠苑6楼楼顶四周以居民楼为主
潮鸣6楼楼顶四周以居民楼为主,东西北三个方向有河流
黄龙7层楼顶西边毗邻主干道,北边有高架,四周为商业楼
健风13楼楼顶四周开阔,西边有高架
凯旋6楼楼顶四周均为居民楼
长风2楼楼顶四周为小区建筑包围,北边和西边有高架
四季青4楼楼顶四周围商铺,南边毗邻交通干道,东边沿江
), ArticleFig(id=1241057223187682301, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Data statistics for each monitoring site from April 1,2023 to March 31, 2024

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
站点数据量(%)平均值(µmol/mol)标准差(µmol/mol)最大值(µmol/mol)最小值(µmol/mol)
馒头山59.06449.021.0553.7402.1
清波59.80450.122.3583.3403.7
采荷67.58457.423.9653.8410.4
卧龙桥54.16456.628.3577.0408.6
太子湾70.66458.422.8590.1396.1
南星桥71.90455.518.7543.7412.0
紫阳80.25459.529.0639.0400.6
三堡63.91452.428.7654.9403.7
天水65.88460.822.8577.6413.2
武林42.52455.322.6581.9411.0
翠苑95.64453.523.7591.1406.6
潮鸣70.74455.424.6628.5402.5
黄龙78.72456.529.2613.0400.7
健风79.77454.723.0596.9404.5
凯旋99.39459.923.4638.9417.9
长风38.58474.842.5696.1413.5
四季青75.02459.228.9679.9407.6
), ArticleFig(id=1241057223363842063, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1241057214014738669, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

2023年4月至2024年3月各站点数据统计

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
站点数据量(%)平均值(µmol/mol)标准差(µmol/mol)最大值(µmol/mol)最小值(µmol/mol)
馒头山59.06449.021.0553.7402.1
清波59.80450.122.3583.3403.7
采荷67.58457.423.9653.8410.4
卧龙桥54.16456.628.3577.0408.6
太子湾70.66458.422.8590.1396.1
南星桥71.90455.518.7543.7412.0
紫阳80.25459.529.0639.0400.6
三堡63.91452.428.7654.9403.7
天水65.88460.822.8577.6413.2
武林42.52455.322.6581.9411.0
翠苑95.64453.523.7591.1406.6
潮鸣70.74455.424.6628.5402.5
黄龙78.72456.529.2613.0400.7
健风79.77454.723.0596.9404.5
凯旋99.39459.923.4638.9417.9
长风38.58474.842.5696.1413.5
四季青75.02459.228.9679.9407.6
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低成本高密度监测网在城市CO2浓度监测中的可行性——以杭州为例
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吴晋辉 1, 2 , 肖薇 1, * , 陈亮 3, ** , 胡凝 1 , 王君 1 , 刘远泽 1
中国环境科学 | 大气污染与控制 2025,45(5): 2377-2389
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中国环境科学 | 大气污染与控制 2025, 45(5): 2377-2389
低成本高密度监测网在城市CO2浓度监测中的可行性——以杭州为例
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吴晋辉1, 2 , 肖薇1, * , 陈亮3, ** , 胡凝1, 王君1, 刘远泽1
作者信息
  • 1.南京信息工程大学,中国气象局生态系统碳源汇重点开放实验室大气环境中心,江苏 南京 210044
  • 2.南京信息工程大学,气象灾害预报预警与评估省部共建协同创新中心,江苏 南京 210044
  • 3.浙江省大气探测技术保障中心,浙江 杭州 310018
  • 吴晋辉(2000-),男,山西运城人,南京信息工程大学硕士研究生,主要从事城市温室气体监测与反演研究..

通讯作者:

* 责任作者,教授,
** 高级工程师,
The feasibility of low-cost high-density monitoring networks for urban CO2 concentration monitoringA case study of Hangzhou.
Jin-hui WU1, 2 , Wei XIAO1, * , Liang CHEN3, ** , Ning HU1, Jun WANG1, Yuan-ze LIU1
Affiliations
  • 1.Yale-NUIST Center on Atmospheric Environment, Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Carbon Source and Sink-China Meteorological Administration, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
  • 2.Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
  • 3.Zhejiang Atmospheric Observation Technology Support Center, Hangzhou 310018, China
出版时间: 2025-05-20
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基于杭州搭建的低成本CO2分析仪高密度观测网络,对2023年4月至2024年3月完整一年的浓度数据进行分析.结果表明:(1)在野外观测条件下低成本仪器存在数据缺测,各站点一年数据收集量在38.58%~99.39%,两款非色散红外(NDIR)仪器MBE为(3.2±1.4)µmol/mol,进行高密度组网时要提高站点的数据收集率.(2)基于NDIR的低成本仪器观测结果对环境变化较为敏感,机器学习的校正方案可有效校正,组网数据校正后与高精度观测相关性R2由0.33提升至0.77,MBE为1.2µmol/mol.(3)低成本的高密度组网可以观测到城市内部CO2浓度的时空变异性,站点的日变化及空间浓度分布均反映出城市CO2源汇的季节变化特征.通过搭建的组网验证了低成本高密度网络在中国这种下垫面复杂的城市运行的可行性,为估算城市排放量和评估减排措施效果提供依据.

高密度组网  /  低成本仪器  /  杭州  /  CO2浓度

Based on the high-density observation network of low-cost CO2 analyzers deployed in Hangzhou, an analysis of CO2 concentration spanning a complete one-year from April 2023 to March 2024 was conducted. The results showed that:(1)Under field observation conditions, low-cost instruments experience data gaps, with annual data collection rates at various stations ranging from 38.58% to 99.39%. The Mean Bias Error(MBE)for the two non-dispersive infrared(NDIR)instruments is(3.2±1.4)µmol/mol. Therefore, it is essential to enhance the data collection rate at stations when deploying high-density network.(2)Observation from NDIR-based low-cost instruments were highly sensitive to environmental variations, but could be effectively corrected by machine learning-based calibration schemes. After correction, the correlation coefficient R2 between the network data and high-precision observation improved from 0.33 to 0.77, with the MBE of 1.2µmol/mol.(3)The high-density network of low-cost CO2 analyzers was can effectively capture the spatio-temporal variability of CO2 concentration. Diurnal variations and spatial distributions across stations reflected seasonal variations characteristics of urban CO2 sources and sinks. The deployment of this network has demonstrated the feasibility of operating a low-cost, high-density monitoring system in cities with complex underlying surfaces, such as those in China. This approach provided a basis for estimating urban carbon emissions and evaluating the effectiveness of emission reduction measures.

high-density network  /  low-cost instrument  /  Hangzhou  /  CO2 concentration
吴晋辉, 肖薇, 陈亮, 胡凝, 王君, 刘远泽. 低成本高密度监测网在城市CO2浓度监测中的可行性——以杭州为例. 中国环境科学, 2025 , 45 (5) : 2377 -2389 .
Jin-hui WU, Wei XIAO, Liang CHEN, Ning HU, Jun WANG, Yuan-ze LIU. The feasibility of low-cost high-density monitoring networks for urban CO2 concentration monitoringA case study of Hangzhou.[J]. China Environmental Science, 2025 , 45 (5) : 2377 -2389 .
准确量化城市CO2排放是检验全球变暖应对措施有效性的前提基础,城市内部高时空分辨率的CO2浓度数据至关重要[1-3].工业革命以来,全球急剧升温,CO2作为除水汽以外的第一大温室气体,约70%来自工业化进程推动下的城市人为排放[4].针对城市温室气体排放的估算方法目前主要有两种[5],一种是排放清单算法(即“自下而上”法),该方法需要统计不同排放源的信息及其排放因子,估算城市不同区域的排放量[6-11].2019年IPCC国家清单指南明确增加了采用大气浓度反演(即“自上而下”法)检验和校正传统排放清单方案[12].该方法是利用大气传输模型结合先验排放清单生成模拟城市内部温室气体排放,多用于全球和区域尺度的反演,在城市尺度上的应用相对较少[13-16].由于缺少社会经济信息和不准确的排放转换因子,清单统计方法具有不确定性,在城市尺度可达50%~250%[17],针对2015年中国城市温室气体排放清单的分析指出我国城市尺度上清单估算的不确定性达40%[13],而美国城市温室气体排放量平均被低估18.3%(范围:−145.5%~63.5%)[18],城市尺度上的大气反演需要城市内部高空间分辨率的温室气体浓度观测数据来率定模型,因此需要开展城市内部高空间分辨率的温室气体浓度观测.
城市内部CO2源汇交错分布,需要开展高空间分辨率的连续观测才能捕捉其时空变化[11,19-22].大气CO2浓度的观测方法有很多种,传统的卫星观测可在空间上做到全球范围,随着科技发展空间分辨率不断提高,对城市内部CO2浓度进行监测,但卫星观测易受云层的影响,而且观测结果为柱浓度,无法直接获得城市近地面的浓度[23-28].无人机载和机载观测可以得到城市一定范围内的CO2浓度空间分布,然而受空域和成本所限,很难开展高频次的观测[29-33].随着便携式观测仪器的发展,车载移动观测被用来观测城市温室气体的空间格局,通过安装在交通工具(如自行车、汽车甚至轻轨)上来对城市CO2浓度进行观测,但是车载走航观测的空间覆盖度和时间连续性有限[34-39].针对城市温室气体较高的空间异质性和时间变异性,最理想的观测方式依然是高密度的定点连续观测.以往定点观测主要目标是捕捉大气本底浓度的变化或城市背景浓度的变化,为了远离人为活动的直接影响,通常设置在人烟稀少的偏远地区,或者在城市高塔开展观测,因而对城市信号的敏感性降低,难以观测到城市内部CO2浓度[40-42].基于激光光谱技术的温室气体分析仪的发展大大增加了城市地区长期监测的可能性,全球多个国家展开了城市温室气体组网观测:美国波士顿(2个站点)[43],荷兰鹿特丹(2个)[44],南非开普敦(2个)[45],蒙特利尔(3个)[46],英国伦敦(4个)[47],中国西安(4个)[48],中国南京(7个)[49],加拿大多伦多(4个)[50],盐湖城(7个)[51],法国巴黎(7个)[52],印第安纳波利斯(12个)[53],这些高精度仪器网络在城市内搭建,常见的应用是将其测量值作为反演分析中的观测约束得到城市的后验排放估计,降低排放清单的不确定性.
人们普遍认为高密度网络站点越多误差越小,但城市地区高密度的监测却受到仪器成本的制约.基于激光光谱技术的高精度观测仪器成本高昂,很难多点布设,基于非色散红外技术(NDIR)的传感器成本低廉,被用于研发低成本中等精度的观测仪器,以此实现高密度网络的搭建.巴黎高密度CO2观测网模拟实验的研究结果表明,在精度控制稳定的情况下,增加站点可以有效降低CO2排放估算的不确定性[2];韩国首尔利用低成本搭建的5个站点网络表明低成本仪器与高精度仪器观测到的城市内CO2变异性几乎相同[54];而洛杉矶高密度组网研究则发现地面监测网络至少要8个站同步运行8周才能准确估算城市的CO2排放量[55].但是站点并不是越多越好,瑞士搭建的300个低成本网络研究表明低成本仪器也可以捕捉到特定的CO2信号,但数量的增多导致维护成本的增加,仪器精度和数量的权衡始终是低成本仪器高密度组网的问题[56].美国加州搭建的伯克利大气观测网络利用Vaisala GMP343传感器[57],成功捕获小时、天、到季节尺度的城市CO2信号,反演的结果表明在站点数量密集的情况下,反演的不确定性降低主要受仪器精度的影响,在1 μmol/mol的仪器精度下可以以小于5%的误差来估计城市地区的CO2排放[58],同时为了解决传感器受环境影响,在对仪器进行校正研究中发现在没有高成本的高精度仪器做参考的情况下,至少稳定且正常运行的12个站点的中位数可作为网络的参考[59-62].基于NDIR传感器的应用表现出该类传感器易受到环境的影响,且会随着时间发生漂移,因此,定期的实验室校准是必不可少的[63-64].为响应国家的“双碳”政策,中科院大气物理研究所在京津冀地区利用低成本中精度仪器建立了120多个站点,对该地区进行碳源汇的估算,旨在生成基于观测的高分辨率排放清单[65].低成本高密度组网中,仪器本身精度的提升至关重要,同时数据质量控制、传输以及运行的稳定性也是必不可少的指标,面对复杂外场条件,交叉的源汇信息,组网长期运行性能,城市内CO2浓度时空变化,这些都是低成本高密度网络需要解决以及揭示的问题.
长三角在我国三大城市群中CO2排放量最高,其复杂的下垫面特征使得城市内人为源与自然源交错分布,杭州作为长三角典型城市,功能区复杂,主城区范围小.本研究以杭州已搭建运行的CO2高密度观测网络为研究对象,通过对比网络内三种精度以及成本仪器的数据,明确校正方案对低成本仪器精度的影响,探究组网长期运行下的精度以及性能,揭示复杂下垫面城市在高密度网络监测下CO2浓度的时空变异性.
本研究组建了杭州大气CO2高密度监测网(图1).杭州是浙江省的省会,位于长江三角洲腹地,中国最繁荣的城市之一,面积16850km2,人口1252.2万,2024年新一线城市排名中,杭州位居第二.监测网集中在下垫面复杂的杭州市主城区,该监测网包含1个高精度基准站、17个中精度自研仪器站点.高精度站点位于杭州市区南部(海拔43.2m),站址西面毗邻西湖风景区,其余三面为杭州主城区,站点的西南至东北向紧邻钱塘江.中精度站点相对集中,布设在以商住混合区为主的主城区(表1).翠苑、凯旋、清波和南星桥4个站点搭建了两款中精度传感器做同步观测.
高精度观测站点采用基于光腔衰荡激光光谱技术(CRDS)的CO2/CH4/H2O分析仪(型号G2301,Picarro,USA)根据世界气象组织/全球大气观测计划(WMO/GAW)标准观测大气CO2和CH4浓度.该仪器5min的CO2测量精度约为0.05μmol/mol(1倍标准差).仪器的进气口安装在15m高塔顶端,高塔平台距离地面约10m.进气口高度明显高于周边建筑物,能代表城市混合均匀的信号.
中精度站点使用自研的基于非色散红外(NDIR)CO2传感器(型号K30,SenseAir Inc.,瑞典)的仪器(型号4Y-3000,南京信息工程大学与鱼跃于渊环境科技公司联合研发,南京)[66].站点安装平台离地面平均高度在20m左右,仪器距平台高度1.5m.
为了对比检验NDIR传感器的外场工作性能,在翠苑、凯旋、清波和南星桥4个站点同步使用基于NDIR的CO2传感器(型号GMP343,Vaisala Inc,芬兰)开展观测.该传感器370μmol/mol下运行6h稳定性为±1μmol/mol.
基于NDIR技术的传感器在运行过程中其观测基线会随着运行时间发生漂移影响观测结果,同时为验证自研仪器的准确性,在南京信息工程大学气象楼实验室搭建参考仪器平台对仪器进行校标,分为实验室校标和室外校标.
实验室校标系统由常压气密箱、参考仪器、高浓度气体组成,参考仪器均使用可溯源至WMO的国家一级标气定期标定.通过特氟龙管将参考仪器的进气口、出气口与密闭箱连接形成气体闭路循环,通过高浓度气体控制密闭箱内的气体浓度,使用研发的软件程序对中精度仪器进行校标[66].参考仪器为基于光腔衰荡激光光谱技术(CRDS)的CO2/CH4/N2O/NH3/H2O分析仪(型号G2508,Picarro,USA),观测频率1Hz,1min和5min的精度为0.3μmol/mol和0.2μmol/mol.后期使用基于离轴积分腔输出激光光谱技术(OA-ICOS)的便携式CO2/CH4/H2O分析仪(型号915-0011,Los Gatos Research,Mountain View,CA,USA)对仪器进行实验室校标,采样频率1Hz,CO2测量精度为0.1μmol/mol.2023年6月份之前使用CRDS分析仪作为校标仪器,更新升级密闭箱之后使用OA-ICOS分析仪进行校标.
仪器在野外观测受环境等多方面因素影响,需要辅助室外同步观测对仪器校标.整个实验平台位于13层楼顶(离地40m),周围无高层建筑,视野开阔,空气混合均匀,人为活动少,CRDS分析仪进气口位于实验室上方,离地约2m,室内校标完成的仪器安装在进气口下方0.5m高度的栏杆上,两者之间观测为同一气团,在仪器安装在杭州站点前后各同步观测一周比对.
仪器设计具有良好的野外观测性能,但在外场站点观测没有实验室观测的除水装置条件,因此仪器的测量结果为CO2湿浓度Cw,需进行水汽校正得到干浓度Cd
式中:e为实际水汽压(kPa),由温湿传感器观测输出,P为气压(kPa),由两个气压传感器观测得到,经过公式换算后即可得到CO2干浓度.
经过预处理剔除开机1h之内的数据(仪器预热)、人为干扰时段数据和数据野点(前后15min均值,3倍标准差)后,将得到的每分钟干浓度数据处理成每小时数据,每小时少于50个有效值记为空缺值.
中精度站点数据使用机器学习算法进行校正,为避免仪器在运行过程中发生漂移,经过实验,确定两个月进行一次维护[67],将运行前后室外校标的温度、压力(使用出气口压力)、湿度、干浓度作为训练集,使用MATLAB中的高斯过程回归模型进行运行两个月期间的数据校正.
本研究使用数据时段为2023年4月~2024年3月,将所有观测所用到的数据统一为1h分辨率,将每日不少于18h的数据取算术平均值作为有效日均值,将每月有效日均值平均得到浓度月均值,每月有效日数大于21d,将同时工作不少于12个站点的有效时段作为中精度站点数据.
2023年4月至2024年3月由中精度仪器组成的网络各站点的数据情况如表2所示.经过质量控制和数据校正后,各站点一年的有效数据量从长风站的38.58%到凯旋站的99.39%不等,中精度网络整体可用数据量为62.85%.数据缺测多由于断电、仪器故障、数据传输问题以及仪器维护周期延长造成,这也说明了在低成本组网运行中,检测数据丢失,及时查明原因并提高维护效率的重要性.站点的浓度均值大多都在450.0μmol/mol左右,最高的为长风站474.8μmol/mol,该站点的最高值和标准差也是各站点中最大的,分别为696.1和42.5μmol/mol,最高值出现在2023年12月15日的00:00时.除去长风站后,单站峰值的最大值为四季青站,浓度679.9μmol/mol,出现时间为2024年1月13日00:00时,最高值出现在冬季夜间.浓度谷值的最小值出现在太子湾站,为396.1μmol/mol,出现在2023年6月23日15:00时,为夏季下午.
为了对比中精度传感器在外场观测的数据连续性,4个同步搭建了两款NDIR传感器(自研4Y-3000和Vaisala公司的GMP343)站点的观测数据如图2所示.其中,12月9日到1月6日(DOY343~371)这25d GMP343仪器在实验室校准未被安装.整体来看,各站两款仪器均会出现供电不足、数据传输不通畅、人为干扰等引起的数据空缺,其中翠苑站和凯旋站两款仪器观测的时间序列较为完整,1:1图结果也表明两款仪器有着较好的相关性(R2=0.86),线性回归斜率均小于1.两款仪器传感器外均有一层过滤膜,空气通过自由扩散透过过滤膜,由传感器测量并输出浓度值,自研仪器设计时加入了气泵模块,使得空气快速流通在过滤膜上方进行扩散交换,其对浓度测量的响应时间由原始的38~54s提升到14~28s,因此在浓度高于500μmol/mol时,4Y-3000的观测结果整体高于GMP343.从两款仪器的运行状况可见,基于低成本仪器组网,需要进行数据完整性的检测以及高效维护.
中精度网络多站与高精度站观测的CO2浓度日均值和小时均值对比如图3图4所示.校准后中精度网络(≥12个站点)观测数据的离散程度比校准前明显降低.校正前,中精度网络观测数据的1倍标准差变化范围为8.3~33.4μmol/mol,而校正后观测数据的标准差范围缩小为4.6~26.5μmol/mol.校准后中精度网络观测数据的时间变化趋势与高精度站点观测结果更为一致.
校准后的中精度网络观测数据超高精度站点观测数据一致性变好.图4显示,若以中精度网络观测数据的中位数与高精度站点作比较,未校准前,二者一致性较差(R2=0.33),中精度网络观测数据偏低,MBE为2.9μmol/mol;校准后,R2提高为0.77,MBE降低为1.2μmol/mol,而中精度网络均值与高精度站点的MBE为4.2μmol/mol.由此可见,若无高精度站作为参考浓度时,用中精度网络观测结果的中位数,更能代表局地均匀混合状态的浓度值.
中精度网络校准前后差异最为明显的时段是2023年6月28日至8月18日(日序179~230),未经校准的中精度网络观测数据明显偏高,最大差值在53.2μmol/mol,校正后的最大差值在25.4μmol/mol,说明夏季环境变化对仪器原始观测数据的干扰较强,而校正方案有效地减轻了环境对观测结果的影响,使得各站点之间的差异缩小,与高精度站点的观测结果更为一致.
杭州中精度网络和高精度站观测的大气CO2浓度日均值的时间序列如图3b所示.中精度网络观测到的杭州一年CO2浓度变化范围为422.0~544.9μmol/mol,年均值为(456.6±19.7)μmol/mol,高精度站点Picarro观测的变化范围422.9~536.3μmol/mol,年均值(452.4±16.1)μmol/mol,两者的观测范围较为接近,但是中精度网络观测的变化幅度、年均值和标准差都要大于高精度站的观测结果.中精度网络四季的均值分别为:448.3,445.8,461.6和488.1μmol/mol,夏季最低,冬季最高,并且夏季的浓度波动最小,标准差为9.2μmol/mol,冬季最大,21.8μmol/mol,从2023年12月23日开始浓度持续且快速升高,到了30日达到最高的544.9μmol/mol.月尺度显示,7月份的浓度444.9μmol/mol,是一年中的最低值,同时该月的标准差也是最小的7.4μmol/mol,7月到2024年1月浓度值一直在上升.
杭州中精度网和高精度站观测的各季节大气CO2浓度日组分如图5所示.中精度网和高精度站的观测的CO2浓度日变化在四季趋势基本一致.春、夏、秋季呈“单峰”型,浓度高值出现在凌晨05:00~07:00,低值出现在午后15:00.冬季日变化模式与其他季节显著不同,呈现“双峰”特征:中精度网的最大峰值出现在夜间22:00至23:00,反映出晚高峰交通排放(18:00~20:00)、供暖需求增加和大气边界层变化导致的城区局域浓度积累;随后浓度小幅下降至凌晨06:00,并在早高峰时段(09:00前后)形成次高峰,反映人为和自然因素对局地浓度波动的显著影响.
春季中精度网观测的CO2浓度总体上低于高精度站,夏季和秋季高精度站CO2浓度则较低,这反映了多样的下垫面特征(表1)、不均匀的排放源分布[68]和方向多变的水平输送等因素的综合复杂影响.中精度网络日变化范围春季434.4~455.9μmol/mol,夏季436.5~459.5μmol/mol,秋季441.8~465.2μmol/mol,冬季463.3~485.5μmol/mol,四季的日变化范围接近,约22.0μmol/mol,而高精度观测到的夏季日变化幅度最大为27.4μmol/mol,冬季最小13.9μmol/mol,但冬季中精度网和高精度站的日均浓度为475.0和463.4μmol/mol,明显高于其他季节.
中精度网络各站点不同季节的大气CO2浓度日变化特征如图6所示.整体上看,中精度网络各站点之间的日变化趋势一致,但是不同季节各站的CO2浓度大小和变化范围均有所区别.单个站点在不同的季节在站点上下排名中浓度高低不是固定不变的,冬季各站点日变化的曲线的离散程度明显大于其他季节,说明冬季城区不同地点浓度存在较大的空间差异,冬季CO2浓度的标准差最大,为13.1μmol/mol.值得关注的是,位于西湖景区的卧龙桥和太子湾两个站点具有与其他站点明显不同的季节特征,这两个站点在春、夏、秋三个季节CO2浓度均高出其他站点.
中精度网络观测得到的空间浓度特征如图7所示.城区CO2浓度存在着明显的季节特征,冬季城区整体浓度值高于其他三个季节.浓度的空间变化程度也大于其他季节,变化范围为64.1μmol/mol,其他三个季节分别为20.5,16.7,23.4μmol/mol.值得注意的是,太子湾站在冬季是各站点中浓度最低为459.0μmol/mol,而在夏季和秋季为最高,浓度值分别为455.3μmol/mol和465.6μmol/mol,春季的最高浓度为凯旋站459.1μmol/mol,太子湾浓度值为452.5μmol/mol,为城区第三高浓度值点.西湖景区在冬季为城区的浓度低值区,而其他季节为高值区.春、夏季城区临江地带为低浓度,中西部为高浓度,秋、冬季分布则不均匀.
低成本传感器网络在城市CO2监测中的应用展现了显著的技术经济优势,但在确保足够的精度和数据完整性方面也面临着一系列挑战[54,56-57,63,69].低成本传感器(本研究传感器单价<500美元,站点布设成本1万元人民币)的研发使用显著降低了高密度组网的部署成本,然而其观测精度和运行稳定性仍需进一步提升.本研究通过校正方案将单点精度控制在1.6~3.0μmol/mol(分辨率:1min),在对数据质控时确定了双月校正周期的合理性,甚至70d的使用周期也能得到很好的校正[66-67],相较于BEACO2N网络使用的Vaisala传感器(几百到几千美元,站点布设成本8到10万元人民币)[57]和瑞士Carbosense网络[56](300+站点),在确保城市区域覆盖的同时避免了站点过密导致的数据冗余问题,监测数据与高精度仪器具有一致性(R2=0.77).在仪器精度与站点密度的协同优化方面,研究发现中精度(1~15μmol/mol)[70]在反演模型中呈现非线性补偿效应[58]:当仪器精度提升至10μmol/mol时,25站组网可达到与1μmol/mol精度5站相当的反演误差水平;然而,当精度劣化至20μmol/mol时,站点增量无法补偿精度损失.因此,通过优化校正方案将单点精度控制在3μmol/mol内,可在降低站点数量(较传统网络减少40%~60%)的同时维持数据质量.
在数据完整性保障方面,缺测问题主要源于供电和通信故障,导致75%站点数据完整率介于50%~83%,与BEACO2N(55%~95%)[57]和巴黎网络(52%~83%)[68]具有可比性,长期运维下增设太阳能板、增大蓄电池容量可有效解决供电问题,200M的月流量足以实现数据的通信传输.为应对运维中存在的额外工作这一挑战,本研究采用便携化设计提升设备可维护性,并建立12站同步运行阈值机制,发现中位数法(MBE=1.23μmol/mol)较均值法(MBE=4.20μmol/mol)更适合作为参考.此外,借鉴伯克利温度校正方案,利用网络内中位数基准替代实验室参考,可在12站组网条件下使精度误差稳定在1.3%[61].通过构建“精度优化-密度适配-数据补偿”三位一体技术体系,本研究为城市级碳监测网络提供了经济高效的解决方案,未来需重点突破传感器稳定性提升、智能运维系统开发等关键技术瓶颈.
在城市高密度CO2监测网络建设中,站点选址与组网布局需综合科学性与实践可行性.站点选址需满足多重技术要求[54,57,69]:(1)建筑高度需高于15m以确保空气混合均匀,本研究站点平均高度达20m;(2)需规避建筑自身高排放源及人类活动干扰,并具备持续供电与维护条件,但太阳能供电易受阴雨天气影响,需配套快速维护机制;(3)尤为关键的是站点授权安装的可持续性,本研究依托城市行政机构所属建筑布点,虽保障了初期部署效率,但仍面临城区规划调整导致的站点拆除风险.组网布局直接影响监测效能,研究表明均匀网格布点(如伯克利网络2km间距)对降低排放误差的效果优于随机或环形布点[58,61].东北走廊12个塔式高精度的WRF-STILT模拟实验进一步揭示,随机布点的碳足迹覆盖区域存在显著空间重合,效果不如人为选定[15].巴黎模拟实验显示均匀网格布点对排放不确定性的削减幅度达14.4%,显著高于其他方式[2].瑞士300余站点的过密网络因空间重叠导致数据冗余[56],而移动观测结合模型模拟可有效识别热点区域[39],建议采用“移动监测初筛+模型优化”的复合布点策略,在均匀布局基础上向高排放区域适度倾斜,杭州案例证实半径2km差异化布点具备合理性.
网络观测精度与站点数量存在动态平衡,在运行中对站点布局的动态优化能提高组网数据质量,而通过实验室校准和环境要素补偿方案提升单点精度,可减少必要站点数量.如NDIR传感器经系统校正后能有效抑制时间漂移[61,63];同时维持足够运行站点数量对降低反演误差至关重要,当缺乏高精度基准站时,采用网络中位数参考(MBE=1.23μmol/mol)比均值更为可靠.由此可见,高密度组网需统筹仪器性能优化、空间布局算法和运维保障体系,通过动态校准机制与智能布点模型的深度融合,方能实现监测精度与成本效益的协同提升.
4.1 低成本高密度组网站点受野外供电和数据传输异常的影响,难免存在数据缺失,尤其是秋冬季节,但通过动态维护机制和站点优化筛选,仍能保障整个观测网络持续运行并确保足够的组网数据收集率.
4.2 非色散红外传感器在长期运行中易受环境影响而发生漂移,以两个月为周期校准,结合机器学习环境补偿算法,网络中位数数据与高精度基准站的偏差能控制在1.2μmol/mol以内,显著提升了组网数据可靠性.
4.3 网络站点数据从日变化到季节变化都能呈现与高精度单站监测一致的整体趋势(R2>0.75),同时又能解析城市内部空间异质性引起的CO2浓度的空间变化,并成功捕捉识别到城市不同时期的CO2热点信号.
  • 国家重点研发计划项目(2020YFA0607501)
  • 江苏省杰出青年基金项目(BK20220055)
  • 江苏省“333人才”领军型人才团队(BRA2022023)
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2025年第45卷第5期
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  • 接收时间:2024-10-31
  • 首发时间:2026-03-18
  • 出版时间:2025-05-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-10-31
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国家重点研发计划项目(2020YFA0607501)
江苏省杰出青年基金项目(BK20220055)
江苏省“333人才”领军型人才团队(BRA2022023)
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    1.南京信息工程大学,中国气象局生态系统碳源汇重点开放实验室大气环境中心,江苏 南京 210044
    2.南京信息工程大学,气象灾害预报预警与评估省部共建协同创新中心,江苏 南京 210044
    3.浙江省大气探测技术保障中心,浙江 杭州 310018

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
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genus
种数
Number of
species
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Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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