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This review summarizes the synthesis and regulation mechanisms of quorum sensing (QS) systems in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, focusing on key signalling molecules including acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs), autoinducing peptides (AIPs), and autoinducer-2 (AI-2), as well as their applications in environmental remediation. The results demonstrate that QS-mediated regulation of bacterial collective behaviors primarily involves two critical processes: synthesis/release of signalling molecules and subsequent recognition-triggered behavioral responses. Notably, S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) serves as a common substrate for multiple QS signal biosynthesis pathways, potentially reflecting co-evolutionary adaptation between QS systems and bacterial coordination. Certain signalling molecules exhibit cross-kingdom functionality, not only adjusting conspecific bacterial behaviors but also mediating communication between phylogenetically unrelated bacteria and plants. Microbial communities leverage QS to synchronize population-level activities, optimize community architecture, and modulate synthesis of key degradation enzymes, thereby enhancing biofilm-mediated remediation efficiency. Finally, the development directions of QS-based microbial remediation technologies are discussed. The research results provide theoretical foundations and practical insights for studies on microbial remediation technologies.

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本文综述了革兰氏阴性和阳性细菌中群体感应(QS)系统主要的信号分子AHLs、AIPs和AI-2合成、调控群体行为的机制及其在环境修复中的应用.结果显示,QS调节细菌群体行为过程主要有信号分子合成和释放、细菌识别信号分子并作出行为应答.S-腺苷甲硫氨酸在多种信号分子合成中都可作为底物,这可能是QS系统与细菌协同进化的结果.一些信号分子不仅能调节同种属细菌的群体行为,还能介导无亲缘关系的细菌与植物的通讯过程.菌群通过QS协调群体内部的行为,改善群落结构,调控关键降解酶的合成,进而提高生物膜修复效率.最后,讨论了基于QS系统的微生物修复技术的发展方向.研究结果可为微生物修复技术研究提供理论依据和应用启示.

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* 责任作者,教授,
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王贺飞(1989-),男,河南安阳人,南京农业大学博士研究生,主要从事土壤污染风险与微生物修复技术研究.发表论文20余篇..

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王贺飞(1989-),男,河南安阳人,南京农业大学博士研究生,主要从事土壤污染风险与微生物修复技术研究.发表论文20余篇..

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王贺飞(1989-),男,河南安阳人,南京农业大学博士研究生,主要从事土壤污染风险与微生物修复技术研究.发表论文20余篇..

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production of signaling molecules, figureFileSmall=V0o+kI+vBpGG3Hi9bvKjBw==, figureFileBig=jljlrS42lZIN1cWz/ZlCeg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234106402680132068, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1234106386641113727, language=CN, label=图3, caption=活化甲基循环及信号分子的生成[21], figureFileSmall=V0o+kI+vBpGG3Hi9bvKjBw==, figureFileBig=jljlrS42lZIN1cWz/ZlCeg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234106402843709945, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1234106386641113727, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Partially known QS systems in bacteria

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
细菌类型菌种QS系统QS分子参考文献
革兰氏阴性菌费氏弧菌LuxI/R3O-C12-HSL[7]
铜绿假单胞菌LasI/R3O-C12-HSL[12]
Rh1I/RC4-HSL[12]
泰国伯克氏菌BtaI/R3OH-C8-HSL[32]
3OH-C10-HSL
紫色色杆菌CviI/RC6-HSL[33]
红色鞘氨醇单胞菌LuxI/RC4-HSL,C6-HSL,C10-HSL,C14-HSL[34]
革兰氏阳性菌斯氏泛菌EsaI/R3OH-C6-HSL[35]
金黄色葡萄球菌AgrAIP-1,AIP-2[15]
链球菌ComCSP(Competence Stimulating Peptide)[36]
肠球菌Fsr信息素肽[37]
植物乳杆菌Agr植物素[38]
革兰氏阴性菌与阳性菌之间乳酸乳球菌NisA/KNisinA[39]
哈维氏弧菌LuxS/PAI-2[22]
放线共生放线杆菌LuxS/PAI-2[40]
艰难梭菌LuxS/PAI-2[41]
), ArticleFig(id=1234106402986316297, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1234093305789726721, articleId=1234106386641113727, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

部分已知的细菌QS系统

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
细菌类型菌种QS系统QS分子参考文献
革兰氏阴性菌费氏弧菌LuxI/R3O-C12-HSL[7]
铜绿假单胞菌LasI/R3O-C12-HSL[12]
Rh1I/RC4-HSL[12]
泰国伯克氏菌BtaI/R3OH-C8-HSL[32]
3OH-C10-HSL
紫色色杆菌CviI/RC6-HSL[33]
红色鞘氨醇单胞菌LuxI/RC4-HSL,C6-HSL,C10-HSL,C14-HSL[34]
革兰氏阳性菌斯氏泛菌EsaI/R3OH-C6-HSL[35]
金黄色葡萄球菌AgrAIP-1,AIP-2[15]
链球菌ComCSP(Competence Stimulating Peptide)[36]
肠球菌Fsr信息素肽[37]
植物乳杆菌Agr植物素[38]
革兰氏阴性菌与阳性菌之间乳酸乳球菌NisA/KNisinA[39]
哈维氏弧菌LuxS/PAI-2[22]
放线共生放线杆菌LuxS/PAI-2[40]
艰难梭菌LuxS/PAI-2[41]
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群体感应对生物膜修复中群体行为的调控机制
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王贺飞 1 , 刘佳 2 , 王俊跃 1 , 林芳婧 3 , 常可一 2 , 丁恒 1 , 王建 1 , 高彦征 1, *
中国环境科学 | 农业与农村新污染物 2025,45(6): 3381-3393
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中国环境科学 | 农业与农村新污染物 2025, 45(6): 3381-3393
群体感应对生物膜修复中群体行为的调控机制
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王贺飞1 , 刘佳2, 王俊跃1, 林芳婧3, 常可一2, 丁恒1, 王建1, 高彦征1, *
作者信息
  • 1.南京农业大学资源与环境科学学院,江苏 南京 210095
  • 2.南京农业大学生命科学学院,江苏 南京 210095
  • 3.生态环境部南京环境科学研究所,江苏 南京 210042
  • 王贺飞(1989-),男,河南安阳人,南京农业大学博士研究生,主要从事土壤污染风险与微生物修复技术研究.发表论文20余篇..

通讯作者:

* 责任作者,教授,
The regulatory mechanisms of quorum sensing in controlling community behavior in biofilm remediation
He-fei WANG1 , Jia LIU2, Jun-yue WANG1, Fang-jing LIN3, Ke-yi CHANG2, Heng DING1, Jian WANG1, Yan-zheng GAO1, *
Affiliations
  • 1.College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
  • 2.College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
  • 3.State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Soil Environmental Management and Pollution Control, Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China, Nanjing 210042, China
出版时间: 2025-06-20
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本文综述了革兰氏阴性和阳性细菌中群体感应(QS)系统主要的信号分子AHLs、AIPs和AI-2合成、调控群体行为的机制及其在环境修复中的应用.结果显示,QS调节细菌群体行为过程主要有信号分子合成和释放、细菌识别信号分子并作出行为应答.S-腺苷甲硫氨酸在多种信号分子合成中都可作为底物,这可能是QS系统与细菌协同进化的结果.一些信号分子不仅能调节同种属细菌的群体行为,还能介导无亲缘关系的细菌与植物的通讯过程.菌群通过QS协调群体内部的行为,改善群落结构,调控关键降解酶的合成,进而提高生物膜修复效率.最后,讨论了基于QS系统的微生物修复技术的发展方向.研究结果可为微生物修复技术研究提供理论依据和应用启示.

群体感应  /  信号分子  /  生物膜  /  群体行为  /  微生物修复

This review summarizes the synthesis and regulation mechanisms of quorum sensing (QS) systems in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, focusing on key signalling molecules including acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs), autoinducing peptides (AIPs), and autoinducer-2 (AI-2), as well as their applications in environmental remediation. The results demonstrate that QS-mediated regulation of bacterial collective behaviors primarily involves two critical processes: synthesis/release of signalling molecules and subsequent recognition-triggered behavioral responses. Notably, S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) serves as a common substrate for multiple QS signal biosynthesis pathways, potentially reflecting co-evolutionary adaptation between QS systems and bacterial coordination. Certain signalling molecules exhibit cross-kingdom functionality, not only adjusting conspecific bacterial behaviors but also mediating communication between phylogenetically unrelated bacteria and plants. Microbial communities leverage QS to synchronize population-level activities, optimize community architecture, and modulate synthesis of key degradation enzymes, thereby enhancing biofilm-mediated remediation efficiency. Finally, the development directions of QS-based microbial remediation technologies are discussed. The research results provide theoretical foundations and practical insights for studies on microbial remediation technologies.

quorum sensing  /  signalling molecules  /  biofilm  /  community behavior  /  microbial remediation
王贺飞, 刘佳, 王俊跃, 林芳婧, 常可一, 丁恒, 王建, 高彦征. 群体感应对生物膜修复中群体行为的调控机制. 中国环境科学, 2025 , 45 (6) : 3381 -3393 .
He-fei WANG, Jia LIU, Jun-yue WANG, Fang-jing LIN, Ke-yi CHANG, Heng DING, Jian WANG, Yan-zheng GAO. The regulatory mechanisms of quorum sensing in controlling community behavior in biofilm remediation[J]. China Environmental Science, 2025 , 45 (6) : 3381 -3393 .
近年来,生物膜降解技术快速发展,在污染水体和土壤治理方面发挥了巨大作用.然而现有生物膜降解技术对废水、污染土壤治理易受环境影响而中断,效果不佳的问题凸现,其原因在于污染环境中的生物膜较难形成和维系.协调生物膜系统中菌群行为一致性、调控生物膜活性是突破这些问题的关键.生物膜的产生和扩散受到群体感应(QS)的调控,QS是一种广泛存在于细菌中的信息交流方式,即细菌群体内通过产生各种自诱导物(AI),调节细菌生命过程中某些相关基因的表达,从而达到调控菌群密度,完成物质资源分配等目的.QS使细菌能够以种群密度依赖的方式协调它们的行为,这个过程包括信号分子的产生及其在细菌周围的细胞外空间的积累.当局部浓度达到群体特异性阈值时,这些信号被细菌感知并触发基因表达调控网络的动态重构,引起表型适应性调整.因此,QS允许细菌在整个种群范围内同步它们的行为,使它们能够像多细胞生物一样行动[1].可见,研究QS对于实现微生物精准修复污染环境具有极其重要的意义.
研究已证实,外源添加QS信号分子可促进废水处理中生物膜形成,调节群落结构,提高修复效率;通过外源添加群体感应抑制剂和群体淬灭(QQ)菌可抑制生物膜的过度形成,保证生物膜反应器(MBR)处在一个最佳的性能.然而,相比废水生物处理等相对稳定的工况与环境条件,在环境修复中生物膜或外源的QS/QQ分子容易受到修复体系中营养状况、理化因素(温度、O2、pH值等)等因素的影响,使QS/QQ的效果降低[2].这主要是因为大多研究停留在使用QS调控污染物消减效果层面,且局限于单一细菌种群,对QS调控机制关注不足.另一方面,QS系统调控微生物群体行为的原理和研究进展尚未得到系统总结,调控原理不清,进展不明,导致现有QS调控环境生物膜修复研究工作中常出现与理论相悖的结论,不利于研究工作的开展.系统总结细菌QS系统原理及调控机制有望破解这些难题.
不同类群细菌的QS系统类型通常有很大差异,一般包括以下4部分,信号分子合成系统、信号分子、特异性受体和下游调控系统.按照交流范围和调节微生物类型的不同,信号分子主要分为以下3种:①存在于大多数革兰氏阴性菌种内的由N-酰基高丝氨酸内酯类(AHL)分子及其衍生物分子介导的QS系统;②存在于大多数革兰氏阳性菌种内的由自诱导肽类信号分子(AIP)介导的QS系统;③同时在革兰氏阴性菌和革兰氏阳性菌中存在的由自诱导物-2(AI-2)分子介导的QS系统.此外,还有一些存在于少数菌种内或最新发现的信号分子和QS系统,例如存在于大肠杆菌属、沙门氏菌属和克雷伯菌属中由自诱导物-3(AI-3)信号分子介导的AI-3/肾上腺素/去甲肾上腺素QS系统[3].本文将介绍主要3种QS系统的信号分子和调控方式.
革兰氏阴性菌用来感知细胞密度的主要信号是AHLs分子,它最初发现于革兰氏阴性的海洋细菌费氏弧菌(Vibrio fischeri)的生物发光现象研究中,主要由LuxI/LuxR双组分系统调控,这也是研究最为深入的双组分调控系统.AHL由一个高丝氨酸内酯环(HSL)和一个酰基链组成.酰基链长度通常从4个碳到18个碳不等,其中3号碳上在一定条件下可以发生氧取代和羟基取代,3号碳后的脂肪链有时会出现不同程度的不饱和修饰(图1(a)).侧链短、分子质量小的AHLs能以自由扩散方式进出细胞膜,然而当侧链基团超过8个碳时需要借助载体蛋白转运至胞外[4].研究已证实,在铜绿假单胞菌中,C4-HSL通过自由扩散离开细胞,3-O-C12-HSL则需借助MexAB- OprM泵才能被排出细胞[5].
目前已知有3种不同类型的酶催化合成AHLs.这些酶分布在LuxI、LuxM和HdtS家族.LuxI型酶是迄今认识最为深入和广泛的AHLs合成酶.大多数情况下,LuxI型酶从S-腺苷甲硫氨酸(SAM)中提取内酯片段,利用脂肪酸代谢的中间产物酰基-载体蛋白(acyl-ACP)合成酰基链,并进一步催化合成AHL.但也有例外,研究发现植物共生的光合细菌红假单胞菌(Rhodopseudomonas palustris)的LuxI型酶是对羟基-香豆酰-高丝氨酸内酯合成酶(RpaI),它能合成对香豆素酰基-HSL(图1(a)),其酰基来源于植物宿主代谢物对香豆酸酯[6].该发现极大地拓展了潜在的AHLs范围,打破了以往认为只有细菌自身代谢池中的直链脂肪酸才能作为AHL合成底物的认识.LuxI型AHLs合酶最保守的部分是N端区,其在催化和结合共同底物SAM中起重要作用;相反,C端区域总体上保守性较低,原因是该区域参与识别脂酰ACP中最易变的部分,即酰基链.整个LuxI型AHLs合酶家族大同小异,区别就在于他们识别不同底物脂酰ACP方式的差异.斯氏泛菌(Pantoea stewartia)中由esaI基因控制的AHLs合成酶倾向于结合3号位氧取代的acyl-ACP[4].LuxM家族的酶只在少数γ变形菌种中发现.其中,luxM是哈维氏弧菌(Vibrio harveyi)中产生特异性AHLs所必需的基因,在费氏弧菌和其他相关弧菌中也发现了LuxM酶同源物AinS和VanM参与合成AHLs[7].Hdts型合成酶最初在荧光假单胞菌(Pseudomonas fluorescens)F113中被鉴定出来,参与N-(3-OH-7-顺式十四烯基)-HSL以及C6-HSL和C10-HSL的合成.此外,HdtS同源物也被认为在欧洲亚硝化单胞菌(Nitrosomonas europaea)中负责C6-HSL,C8-HSL和C10-HSL的合成[8],但Hdts催化AHLs合成的酶促机制尚不清楚.
近年来,由几种革兰氏阴性菌产生的哌嗪二酮类化合物(DKPs),即环二肽,也被证明具有信号传递能力,它们构成了细胞间信号转导化合物中最重要的信号分子.由两个氨基酸脱水缩合而成的稳定六元环构成DKPs的基本结构(图1(b)),是激活或拮抗细菌中LuxR介导的QS系统的主要活性中心.但环二肽似乎并不直接作用于LuxR,不会与AHL竞争LuxR,具体调节QS系统的机制尚不清楚[9].此外,在茄科雷尔氏菌(Ralstonia solanacearum)中检测到的3-羟基棕榈酸甲酯(3-OH-PAME)和(R)-3-羟基肉豆蔻酸甲酯((R)-3-OH-MAME)、在野油菜黄单胞菌(Xanthomonas campestris)中检测出的扩散信号因子(DSF)、在哈维氏弧菌中检测出的霍乱弧菌(Vibrio cholerae)自诱导剂(CAI-1) (图1(c))、在铜绿假单胞菌(P. aeruginosa)中检测出的整合群体感应信号分子(IQS)和假单胞菌喹诺酮信号分子(PQS),分别作为信号分子调控种内的微生物群体行为.
革兰氏阴性菌中最典型的QS系统是由AHL介导的LuxI/R系统[10].在其他革兰氏阴性菌中鉴定出的LuxI/R同源物如铜绿假单胞菌中的LasI/R系统和RhlI/R系统,它们的调节机制与LuxI/R相似[11].AHL分子的受体有两类:一类是位于细胞质内的LuxR型受体(表1).LuxR蛋白是一类细胞质转录因子,可以检测伴生的LuxI型合酶产生的AHLs.其具有两个功能域:N端的信号分子结合域和C端的DNA结合域.细胞质内没有与信号分子结合的LuxR,会因为错误折叠被降解;而与信号分子结合后形成的复合物很稳定,能与靶基因上游的一段较短的lux-boxes序列结合,调控转录.但是,斯氏泛菌(Pantoea stewartia)的一种LuxR型蛋白EsaR却作为一种转录抑制因子与DNA结合,在与受体结合后才释放DNA,激活转录.在已知的LuxR型蛋白中约有76%属于LuxR-Solo类转录因子,这类蛋白没有与之伴生的LuxI合酶,具有较弱的配体结合特异性,可能是同属细菌或革兰氏阴性菌内部交流所需要的受体.
第二类是双组分跨膜组氨酸激酶作为信号分子受体.以哈维氏弧菌的QS为例(图2(a)),在细菌种群密度较低时,由于缺乏信号分子,位于哈维氏弧菌细胞膜上的3种受体LuxN,CqsS和LuxPQ表现磷酸激酶的活性,将磷酸基团转移给LuxU,LuxU再将磷酸基团转移给转录调控因子LuxO,LuxO与σ54一起激活Qrr sRNAs的转录,Qrr sRNAs在Hfq蛋白的帮助下,与靶mRNA碱基配对,激活编码转录因子AphA的mRNA的翻译,抑制编码LuxR的mRNA的翻译,AphA能激活形成毒力和生物膜所需的基因.在种群密度较高时,信号分子与膜上的受体结合,信号分子-受体复合物表现为磷酸酶,LuxU和LuxO依次去磷酸化,去磷酸化的LuxO无活性,qrr基因的表达被终止,不产生AphA,而产生LuxR,LuxR能激活控制生物发光的基因[12-13].
大多数革兰氏阳性菌主要依赖以跨膜组氨酸激酶为应答核心的QS系统调节群体行为,其调节流程大致如下:核糖体合成前体肽,经修饰为AIP,构成了革兰氏阳性菌QS的主要信号分子.它是由5~26个氨基酸残基排列成的直线状或环状结构.AIP被同源的双组分传感器激酶识别并结合后,与应答蛋白相互作用,诱导QS调节的靶基因的转录.葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus spp.)的QS系统是研究最为深入的Agr系统,下面以此为例介绍Agr的调控机制(表1).根据葡萄球菌对异源AIP分子的感应情况,葡萄球菌中的Agr系统分为四型,由agr基因簇编码,并由两个方向相反的启动子P2和P3操纵表达,其中P2转录覆盖一个包含agrBDCA的4基因操纵子.AgrB和D负责合成并修饰AIP分子,而AgrA和C构成一个经典的双组分信号传导模块(TCS).AIP信号肽与AgrC结合并激活它,进而激活AgrA,激活的AgrA上调自身启动子(P2)的表达.AgrA除了激活自身启动子P2表达外,还上调相邻的调节RNA启动子P3,其转录物RNAIII调节毒力基因及其他行为蛋白基因的表达[14].在葡萄球菌中,RNAIII是Agr应答的实际效应器.实际上,agr是一个极其复杂的调控网络,包括若干直接或间接上调或下调agr表达的调控基因(图2)[15].
AIP分子已在葡萄球菌、李斯特菌(Listeria app.)等40多种细菌中发现,然而其在有些细菌中的功能还未得到证实.在已测序的120余株菌中,除中间葡萄球菌(S. intermedius)外,AIP信号分子主要检测出4种结构(图1(d)),它们都是含7~9个氨基酸残基的多肽,其中保守的中央半胱氨酸侧链与肽的C端羧基脱水缩合形成5个氨基酸的硫内酯环,这一环状结构是激活或抑制Agr系统所必须的(图1).中间葡萄球菌在进化的过程中,AIP分子中的半胱氨酸转变为丝氨酸,因此该分子内含有一个环内酯而不是硫内酯,但也具有自动诱导和交叉抑制活性[16].在环状结构后还有一个尾部区域,可能与胞内受体的识别有关.此外,从植物乳杆菌(Lactobacillus plantarum)还分离出一个无尾的五元环,而粪肠球菌(Enterococcus faecalis)是一个带有3个残基尾巴的八元内酯环[17].
在葡萄球菌中,agrD编码的AgrD是包含46个残基的AIP的前体.AgrD由3个离散片段组成,包括一个N端“前导”序列、一个包含保守半胱氨酸残基的短序列(将成为成熟的AIP)和一个C端特异性“识别”序列(图2).AgrD通过N端的两亲性螺旋序列锚定在细胞膜,C端与AgrB特异性结合并催化C端结构域切割,切割位点形成的羧基末端与半胱氨酸的巯基相连形成硫代内酯环,生成AgrD硫内酯中间体.然而具体的裂解机制仍不清楚[18].完成裂解后的成熟AIP释放至环境中参与群体行为调控过程.AgrB结构非常独特,至今仍未得到完全解析,它与任何其他已知的细菌蛋白没有强烈的同源性.通过酶晶体的体外实验表明,由C84和H77残基形成的二元催化单元对AgrB活性至关重要[18].AgrB对其同源AIP前体的选择性不强.
AgrC是组氨酸激酶(HPK)家族的成员,与AIP配体结合后发生去磷酸化,将磷酸基团转移(传递信号)至AgrA.AgrC由锚定在膜上的传感器域、细胞质组氨酸激酶(HK)模块以及连接这两个部分的螺旋(S-helix)连接区域组成.AgrC的N端传感器域是细胞外AIP结合的位点,编码基因片段位于agr超可变区域内,与agrDagrB相邻.螺旋连接区在AIP- AgrC结合与HK模块的跨域磷酸化起着关键的介导作用.目前仍缺乏AgrC传感器域的结构信息,AgrC如何与AIP结合尚不清楚[19].
作为AgrC的应答调节蛋白,AgrA高度保守,是一个典型的细胞质转录因子.在金黄色葡萄球菌(S. aureus)中,AgrA由N端磷酸受体域和C端DNA结合域组成[20].AgrA的N端域中一个保守的天冬氨酸接受AgrC传递来的磷酸基团发生磷酸化,促进了AgrA的寡聚化和DNA亲和力变化.当未磷酸化时,全长AgrA主要以单体形式存在,并伴有少量二聚体;而在磷酸化后,AgrA二聚体成为主要形式.这种磷酸化和二聚化随后增加了AgrA中DNA结合域对启动子P1、P2、P3的亲和力,进而调控RNAIII的表达.RNAIII主要通过直接与目标基因mRNA转录本相互作用来抑制或促进核糖体的可及性,或通过招募RNaseIII影响其稳定性,调节目标基因mRNA的翻译过程,控制蛋白的合成.
除了上述特异性调节革兰氏阴性或阳性菌群体行为的QS信号分子外,许多细菌还能产生和感知高活性、不稳定的化学物质(S)-4,5-二羟基-2,3-戊二酮(DPD),并最终形成自诱导物AI-2(图1).DPD非常不稳定,在溶液中会自发环化成不同的异构体.AI-2在革兰氏阴性和阳性细菌中都有发现,基于KEGG数据库中基因组数据,目前已经测序的1402种细菌基因组中有537种可以鉴定出AI-2合成酶LuxS的同源物[21].这使得AI-2成为迄今为止发现的最常见的细菌自诱导剂.AI-2分子主要有两种构象:(2S,4S)-2-甲基-2,3,3,4-四羟基四氢呋喃(S-THMF-硼酸盐)和(2R,4S)-2-甲基-2,3,3,4-四羟基四氢呋喃(图1中S-THMF).许多细菌都能识别环化后的不同AI-2,且均能产生和分泌相同的线性分子DPD.迄今已经确定了四种类型的AI-2受体.通过研究AI-2与哈维氏弧菌受体LuxP的复合物晶体结构,发现哈维氏弧菌可以识别S-THMF-硼酸盐(图1).鼠伤寒沙门氏菌(Salmonella typhimurium)、炭疽芽孢杆菌(Bacillus anthracis)和草木樨中华根瘤菌(Sinorhizobium meliloti)等其他细菌通过受体蛋白LsrB识别不同的非硼化DPD加合物S-THMF(图1).与LsrB类似,伴放线聚合杆菌(Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans)含有一种对AI-2的摄取和响应所必需的核糖转运酶RbsB.最近发现了含有dCACHE结构域的第四种AI-2受体(钙通道和趋化受体).例如,在铜绿假单胞菌中,无硼酸的小分子AI-2(S-THMF)结合到趋化受体PctA和TlpQ的dCACHE结构域,调节趋化性和生物膜的形成[22].
目前已经提出了两种类型的AI-2合成途径.在经典的合成路径中,AI-2的前体DPD是活化甲基循环中SAM代谢的副产物(图3).活化甲基循环生成的同型半胱氨酸在甲基转移酶作用下生成甲硫氨酸,其结合腺苷后生成SAM.SAM经去甲基化作用将甲基转移至底物,得到有毒的中间体S-腺苷型同型半胱氨酸(SAH).许多细菌能够通过SAH水解酶(SahH)将一部分SAH转变为同型半胱氨酸,同时也会产生腺苷,进入下一循环;而另一部分SAH会在S-核苷酶(Pfs)的催化下,经过裂解,变成S-核糖同型半胱氨酸(SRH).随后,LuxS蛋白会通过水解SRH,生成同型半胱氨酸和DPD,从而实现对SAH的有效降解.需注意,活化甲基循环不仅是AI-2前体的合成路径,也是细胞实现甲基转化的重要代谢过程[23-24].前面已讨论,LuxI型蛋白也利用SAM和acyl-ACP作为底物产生AHL自诱导剂;霍乱弧菌的自诱导剂CAI-1也是由SAM和癸醇辅酶A经多步反应合成的(图3).SAM是这些信号合成反应的重要节点,在一定程度上说明细菌的信号转导可能经历了长时间的演化,甚至这些演化过程开始于细菌的系统分化之前,并见证了整个细菌进化过程.除了这种普遍接受的合成途径外,超嗜热菌(Hyperthermophile)可能存在另一条生物合成途径:在没有LuxS而只有Pfs的情况下,超嗜热菌利用SAH水解酶将SAH裂解为腺苷和同型半胱氨酸,腺苷经磷酸化再经异构化生成核糖-5-磷酸.最后,核糖5-磷酸通过热诱导转化为DPD[25].也有研究者认为是核酮糖5-磷酸而非核糖-5-磷酸最后转化为DPD[26].
AI-2合成酶编码基因luxS在细菌中高度保守.例如,对变形链球菌(Streptococcus mutans)和化脓性链球菌(S. pyogenes)中luxS基因序列的比较分析表明,这两个基因具有84%的同源性和92%的相似性[27].LuxS蛋白是一种同源二聚体金属酶,含有两个相同的四面体金属结合位点.每个金属结合位点的核心包含一个Zn2+和两个组氨酸、一个半胱氨酸和一个水分子.例如,Zn2+是猪链球菌(S. suis)中LuxS酶活性中心的主要成分[28].除了Zn2+,一些LuxS合酶中也存在Fe2+或Co2+活性中心,Rajan等[29]发现枯草芽孢杆菌的LuxS中存在Fe2+.在有氧条件下,以Fe2+形式存在的LuxS会迅速失活.然而,由Zn2+或Co2+组成的LuxS蛋白非常稳定,Co-LuxS的催化能力与Fe-LuxS相同,比Zn-LuxS强10倍.这些结果表明,不同的细菌LuxS蛋白可能具有不同的金属离子,并最终决定它们的催化效率和最佳工作环境条件.
AI-2信号分子的受体包括哈维氏弧菌受体LuxP、鼠伤寒沙门氏菌受体蛋白LsrB、伴放线聚合杆菌核糖转运酶RbsB.其中,LuxP是一种高亲和力底物结合蛋白家族中的外膜结合蛋白,该蛋白家族通常与ATP结合盒(ABC)摄取转运系统相联系[30].然而,与其他典型的底物结合蛋白不同,LuxP不与转运系统直接作用,而是在与AI-2结合时调节跨膜蛋白LuxQ的活性.与其他双组分调节系统一样,LuxPQ通过控制磷酸化信号转导级联反应,控制下游AI-2群体感应调节子(图2).LuxP受体仅在弧菌中发现,如哈维氏弧菌等.哈维氏弧菌LuxP的配体为S-THMF-硼酸盐.LsrB位于周质空间,也是一种高亲和力的底物结合蛋白,它与ABC转运系统的膜组分相互作用,参与AI-2的摄取.目前鼠伤寒沙门氏菌(Salmonella typhimurium)、草木樨中华根瘤菌(Sinorhizobium meliloti)和鼠疫耶尔森菌(Yersinia pestis)中LsrB-配体配合物的晶体结构已得到解析,三种结晶体中的信号分子配合物均为R-THMF.需指出,三种结晶LsrB蛋白序列具有惊人的相似性,表明这些AI-2受体的同源性[31].
以哈维氏弧菌、霍乱弧菌的信号转导过程为例,LuxP首先结合硼化的AI-2,并与同源的跨膜组氨酸激酶LuxQ相互作用(图2).随着AI-2浓度的变化,这种跨膜蛋白的状态从激酶转变为磷酸酶,下游途径中磷酸传递通量和群体感应调节因子LuxR(哈维氏弧菌)、HapR(霍乱弧菌)和AphA(两物种)的活性都会因此发生改变.具体而言,当细胞密度和AI-2浓度较低时,LuxQ起组氨酸激酶的作用(图2),细胞质磷酸转移酶LuxU被磷酸化,然后将磷酸转移到反应调节剂LuxO,磷酸化的LuxO反过来激活多个sRNA的转录.这些sRNAs与Hfq相互作用,并破坏luxRhapR转录的mRNA的稳定性.在这些条件下,LuxR和HapR的表达被阻止,而低细胞密度调节剂AphA的表达被促进.相反,当细胞密度和自体诱导剂浓度较高时,AI-2与其同源受体的结合将LuxQ活性从激酶转换为磷酸酶.磷酸基团通过该途径的流动被逆转,使LuxO处于未磷酸化状态,LuxR和HapR蛋白积累,而AphA的表达受到抑制.这促进了细菌低和高细胞密度状态之间的转换[21].
在利用细菌开展废水治理和水土修复中,细菌通过合成和释放自诱导分子(如AHLs)来感知周围环境中的细菌密度.这些信号分子在细菌群体中积累,当浓度达到一定阈值时,表明细菌数量足够多,可以开始集体行动,如形成生物膜[42].因此,利用生物膜消减环境中难降解污染物的技术是目前最主要生物修复方法.生物膜技术通过促进微生物在非生物载体表面的附着、富集和繁殖,形成生物膜结构,提高生物量密度,增强对疏水性和有毒化合物的代谢效率.生物膜基质为微生物提供了更强的抵抗恶劣环境条件的能力,同时促进了微生物间的遗传物质转移和多代谢途径的污染物降解.群体感应通过信号分子调控胞外聚合物(EPS)的产生,改变生物膜特性,增强了对污染物的修复效果[43].
生物膜的生命周期经历附着、EPS产生、生物膜成熟和分散四个阶段[44].在生物膜形成的早期阶段,群体感应通过调节细菌表面的分子,如胞外多糖和蛋白质,促进细菌间的初步粘附.这些分子作为连接细菌细胞的桥梁,有助于细菌聚集并开始形成生物膜[45].随着生物膜的成熟,群体感应通过调节EPS的合成,影响生物膜的稳定性和结构.EPS是生物膜的主要成分,对生物膜的机械强度和保护作用至关重要[46].群体感应允许生物膜内的细菌通过分泌和感知信号分子进行通讯,从而协调生物膜内部的微生物行为,如细菌的分化、群体行为的同步等.在生物膜成熟后期,群体感应还可能参与调控生物膜的分散过程,通过控制特定酶的表达来分解EPS,从而促进老化细胞的脱落,维持生物膜的更新和动态平衡.生物膜通过群体感应可以更好地适应环境变化,如抗污染、抗捕食等[47-48].群体感应有助于生物膜内部细菌对外界环境变化做出快速响应,增强生物膜的抵抗力.群体感应还可能促进生物膜内部细菌的水平基因转移,这有助于细菌获得新的降解能力,特别是在有机污染物降解方面,有助于生物膜适应和处理更广泛的污染物[49].在污水处理中生物膜的形成对于活性污泥的处理效果关系紧密,群体感应所释放的信号分子主要分布在污泥周围,促进EPS的产生,帮助微生物从悬浮生长转变为粘附生长,从而促进污泥颗粒化.短链AHLs更容易在水相中扩散,而长链AHLs则因溶解度低而主要在污泥周围分布.AI-2主要存在于水相中,它通过缩短微生物间距离和增强EPS的产生,促进污泥颗粒化[50].
群体感应通过调控特定基因的表达,影响生物膜中细菌的代谢活动和酶的合成,包括与有机污染物降解相关的酶,这有助于生物膜内部细菌对污染物的有效降解[51-52].水体沉积物、污染土壤和水体中广泛存在兼具有QS调节系统和有机污染物降解能力的菌株.Huang等[53]通过检索基因组数据库发现,有超过11%的细菌兼具环羟化双加氧酶基因和AHL/AI合成基因;Chicca等[54]自土壤中分离出BTEX(苯、甲苯、乙苯、二甲苯)恶臭假单胞菌AQ8,并且发现AHL-QS系统调控AQ8对BTEX的降解过程.此外,作为QS研究的模式微生物铜绿假单胞菌,QS系统调控环芳烃、石油烃等多种有机污染物的降解过程.例如,短链AHLs提高铜绿假单胞菌对苯酚降解能力.其机制在于,Rhl群体感应系统能够在转录水平上正向调控转录因子nahR,位于其下游的儿茶酚双加氧酶C23O操纵子NAH和酶活也受到群体感应的正向调节.Zeng等[55]发现在新鞘氨醇杆菌(Novosphingobium)中存在两套群体感应QS系统分别为novR1/novRI1novR2/novRI2,它们可以通过调控mlr相关基因的转录来影响微囊藻毒素的降解.
群体感应系统在污染水体修复和废水生物处理中发挥重要作用.QS系统通过调控细菌的生理行为,如生物膜形成、抗生素合成等,增强了细菌对环境压力的适应能力和对营养物质的获取,从而提高了废水处理的效率.
活性污泥法是废水处理中广泛应用的技术.QS系统在活性污泥中通过影响微生物的黏附和聚集,可以调节污泥的膨胀和沉降性能[56].QS通过影响微生物的自固定化过程来促进颗粒污泥的形成,这有助于加速颗粒污泥的形成并提高其稳定性.Li等[57]通过在生物反应器的启动阶段添加信号分子,显著加速了硝化污泥的颗粒化,其中3-O-C6-HSL的添加效果最为显著.通过外源添加或猝灭QS信号分子,可以控制污泥的膨胀问题,提高污泥的沉降性,从而改善废水处理效果.Shi等[58]发现在污泥丝状膨胀过程中C6-HSL浓度上升,丝状菌群体密度增加导致hdtS基因进化,影响EPS组成,降低絮凝体内微生物的粘附.EPS中PN含量上升,改变污泥表面特性.香草醛作为QS抑制剂,能抑制PN产生和hdtS表达,控制丝状膨胀,为群体猝灭策略提供了新见解.Zeng等[59]研究发现在AHLs介导的群体感应影响下,序批式反应器(SBR)中活性污泥对含镉和铅废水的去除性能得到了增强.AHLs的添加促进了胞外聚合物中蛋白质含量的提高,刺激了微生物代谢和抗氧化反应,有助于微生物抵抗重金属胁迫,从而提高了活性污泥对污染物的去除效率.同时,微生物群落结构得到了优化,优势类群变形菌的丰度显著增加.
QS系统通过调节生物膜中微生物的行为,可以加速生物膜的形成和启动,提高生物膜的去污效果.例如,外源添加QS信号分子可以促进生物膜中EPS的合成,增加生物膜的厚度和密度从而增强生物膜的稳定性和功能[60].同时调整pH值可以加速内源性信号分子的释放并促进生物膜的形成[61].通过抑制QS系统,可以减少生物膜的过度增长,控制生物膜的厚度,从而减轻生物膜污染,提高废水处理系统的整体性能[62].Huang等[53]研究了固定化群体淬灭(QQ)菌在短周期膜生物反应器(MBR)中对膜防污能力的影响,发现QQ-MBR能有效减缓跨膜压力增长,降低EPS和可溶性微生物产物的含量,同时有效降解AHLs.对照组MBR在第4d TMP达到43kPa,而QQ-MBR仅为18kPa,显示了QQ菌在控制膜污染方面的潜力.
生物脱氮是废水处理中的关键过程,包括硝化和反硝化步骤,QS系统在这一过程中通过调控参与硝化和反硝化的微生物的活性,可以强化脱氮效率.研究表明,通过外源添加QS信号分子,可以提高好氧氨氧化过程的效率,促进亚氮的积累,从而为调控氨氮氧化速率提供新的手段.此外,QS系统还可以通过影响厌氧氨氧化过程,提高系统的脱氮能力,这对于开发新型高效的废水脱氮技术具有重要意义.Yan等[63]发现,添加C6-HSL和C8-HSL可以增加氨氧化细菌、反硝化细菌、亚硝酸盐氧化细菌和分泌EPS的微生物的丰度,从而提高活性污泥絮体对氮的去除效率.罗锋等[64]添加C7-HSL、C8-HSL和3-O-C10-HSL至活性污泥体系,显著促进微生物生长,提高NOB的活性,优化胞外聚合物组成.C7-HSL效果最佳,提升污泥生长速率35.20%,降解效率17.52%,EPS增长35.45%,增强蛋白质/多糖,改善色氨酸类氨基酸和腐殖酸形成,缓解高氨氮抑制,加快系统稳定.Hu等[65]研究首次探索了硼作为AI-2激活剂在硝化反应器中对部分硝化和污泥性能的影响.实验发现,硼能显著提高AI-2浓度并促进NO2-N积累,尤其在低温条件下改善了硝化效率.群落分析和qPCR进一步证实外源硼对AOB无影响,但抑制了NOB.EPS在不同温度下受硼影响有差异.
污染土壤修复过程中,QS系统通过激活关键降解酶基因表达、影响胞外聚合物合成、调整生物膜污染物溶解度、影响微生物呼吸强度,增强微生物对有机污染物的降解能力.雍阳春[1]发现铜绿假单胞菌CGMCC 1.860可通过合成AHLs信号分子增强芳香族污染物的降解能力,外源AHLs能提升其对苯酚降解效率,Rhl群体感应系统正向调控关键酶活性和基因表达,并且发现该系统对儿茶酚间位途径的促进是其提高芳香族污染物降解能力的主要原因.另有研究发现群体感应对新鞘氨醇单胞菌(Novosphingobium pentaromativorans)US6-1的细胞表面特性、菲去除能力及铜耐受性有影响[66].QS缺失导致突变株的细胞表面疏水性显著升高,而EPS产量降低.此外,QS缺失的突变株对菲的去除效率更高,表明QS对US6-1去除菲的过程具有负调控作用.同时,QS的存在对US6-1的表面特性有一定的保护作用.Al-Kharusi等[67]发现,通过外源添加AHLs信号分子能提高微生物的呼吸活性,促进土壤中碳氢化合物的降解.并且AHLs与外源细菌共加时降解效果最佳,但其具体作用机制和对生物强化内外源细菌存活的影响仍需深入研究.此外,土壤污染修复过程中还可以通过外源添加AHLs来调整菌群丰度、多样性或改变菌群中的优势种从而影响污染物的降解.例如:根际土壤AHLs含量高于非根际土壤,且与土壤有机碳和pH值呈显著相关.潮间带沼泽土壤细菌多样性可能受AHLs的调节,50种最丰富的微生物中有12种与AHLs浓度显著相关.此外,C6-HSL、C8-HSL和C12-HSL可能在硝化、反硝化和厌氧氨氧化等氮转化过程中发挥重要作用[68].
QS信号分子还能调控微生物分泌物的产生,如乳化剂和表面活性剂,这些分泌物对于有机污染降解菌的代谢至关重要.Lee等[69]最新研究发现ambBCDE基因簇控制新型信号分子IQS的合成.IQS的生成受LasI-LasR信号通路的调控,对多种关键基因如毒力因子、酶类和鼠李糖脂的表达产生显著影响.鼠李糖脂作为一种生物表面活性剂,显著提升了微生物对有机污染物如正十六烷烃的降解效率.它通过降低污染物的表面张力和增加其溶解度,促进了微生物与污染物的接触和吸收[70].此外,鼠李糖脂还能改变微生物细胞表面的性质,提高其疏水性,从而增强细胞与疏水性有机化合物的相互作用[71].在铜绿假单胞菌NY3中,鼠李糖脂的加入不仅加速了烃的传质过程,还提高了氧化酶活性和电子传递速率,进一步促进了烃的降解[72].除了鼠李糖脂,像脂肽类生物表面活性剂、槐糖脂等都具备强化修复有机污染土壤的潜力[73].
本文讨论了革兰氏阴性和阳性细菌主要的信号分子、合成原理及其介导的QS调节机制.除了分别调控革兰氏阴性和阳性细菌群体行为的AHL类和AIP类分子,AI-2信号分子为两种类型细菌共有.QS系统群体感应系统在生物修复中具有重要的调控作用,既可以通过促进QS信号分子的产生来增强微生物的降解能力,也可以通过群体感应调控微生物分泌物促进污染物消减.通过精确调控QS系统,可以更有效地利用生物膜技术开展环境修复和污染物处理.然而,有关QS调控微生物修复技术的研究仍有许多不足,可关注以下方面:
6.1 人们对QS系统的主要信号分子与调控机制认识仍非常有限.未来可利用宏基因组测序技术,开展QS系统调控基因的解析工作,查明QS的主要分类与关键基因,认清QS系统的“家底”,阐明QS系统的演化规律与关键节点,建立QS系统的信号分子、关键调控基因等基础数据库.
6.2 现有研究集中于单一物种或单一种群微生物QS系统及其调控机制,对于异种微生物共存环境中的QS调控网络和调控降解机制缺乏系统研究,导致实验室中的研究结论与实际应用效果有较大差异.未来的研究可以着重探索种间通讯机制在废水处理与土壤修复中的应用潜力,开发基于QS系统的新型修复处理技术,以提高处理效率和环境适应性.
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(42207025)
  • 江苏省基础研究计划项目(BK20221025)
  • 江苏省农业科技自主创新资金(CX(24)1002)
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2025年第45卷第6期
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  • 接收时间:2024-12-15
  • 首发时间:2026-02-27
  • 出版时间:2025-06-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-12-15
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国家自然科学基金资助项目(42207025)
江苏省基础研究计划项目(BK20221025)
江苏省农业科技自主创新资金(CX(24)1002)
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    1.南京农业大学资源与环境科学学院,江苏 南京 210095
    2.南京农业大学生命科学学院,江苏 南京 210095
    3.生态环境部南京环境科学研究所,江苏 南京 210042

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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