Article(id=1316714497935524864, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1316714454184739470, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260219, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1773331200000, receivedDateStr=2026-03-13, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1775836800000, acceptedDateStr=2026-04-11, onlineDate=1791858799680, onlineDateStr=2026-10-13, pubDate=1791043200000, pubDateStr=2026-10-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1791858799680, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-13, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1791858799680, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1791858799680, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1316714454184739470, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2026', volume='66', issue='10', pageStart='4661', pageEnd='5310', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1791043200000', pubDateStr='2026-10-04', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1791858789249, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1791885400527, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1316826070066774161, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1316714454184739470, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1316826070066774162, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1316714454184739470, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=4773, endPage=4790, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1316714498162016256, articleId=1316714497935524864, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Research progress in prokaryotic antiphage mechanisms based on nucleotide homeostasis regulation, columnId=1192149543727808575, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The arms race between bacteria and phages has driven the evolution of diverse antiphage defense systems. In recent years, a series of defense mechanisms targeting the nucleotide pool have been discovered, revealing that nucleotides are not only fundamental molecules for metabolism but also serve as key signaling carriers, effector substrates, and toxic weapons in bacterial immunity. According to the interaction modes between defense mechanisms and the nucleotide pool, this review systematically summarizes seven representative antiphage systems and categorizes them into three major classes: (1) Systems mediated by nucleotide cyclization into signaling molecules [e.g., cyclic oligonucleotide-based antiphage signaling system (CBASS), pyrimidine cyclase system for antiphage resistance (Pycsar), and Panoptes], which utilize nucleotidyltransferases to synthesize cyclic oligonucleotide second messengers that activate downstream effector proteins, leading to abortive infection; (2) Systems mediated by nucleotide depletion [e.g., deoxycytidine triphosphate (dCTP) deaminase, deoxyguanosine triphosphatase (dGTPase), and Nezha], which specifically hydrolyze or modify dNTPs or NAD+, resulting in a nucleotide pool imbalance and an energy crisis that block phage replication; (3) Systems mediated by aberrant nucleotide conversion [e.g., restriction by an adenosine deaminase acting on RNA (RADAR) and type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase (CAAD)], which convert canonical nucleotides into toxic analogs [e.g., inosine triphosphate (ITP) and deoxyinosine triphosphate (dITP)], poisoning the nucleotide pool and inducing abortive infection. This review focuses on the core components, protein structural features, assembly mechanisms, and antiphage regulatory strategies of each category of system and discusses the escape mechanisms evolved by phages against these systems. In summary, the regulation of nucleotide pool homeostasis has emerged as a core strategy in bacterial immunity. In-depth investigation of these systems not only helps elucidate the molecular basis of prokaryote-phage co-evolution but also provides important insights for developing novel antimicrobial strategies and tools in synthetic biology.

, authors=Guolun LI, Bocheng HUANG, Dandan ZHANG*, Xiangkai ZHEN*, authorsList=Guolun LI, Bocheng HUANG, Dandan ZHANG, Xiangkai ZHEN, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Dandan ZHANG, Xiangkai ZHEN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*E-mail: ZHANG Dandan,
ZHEN Xiangkai,
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细菌与噬菌体之间的“军备竞赛”驱动了多种抗噬菌体防御系统的演化。近年来,一系列以核苷酸为核心的防御机制被相继发现,揭示了作为生命代谢基本分子的核苷酸也是细菌免疫系统中的关键信号载体、效应底物和毒性武器。本文根据防御机制与核苷酸的相互作用方式系统综述了7种代表性抗噬菌体系统,并将其归纳为三大类别:(1)作为信号分子发挥功能的系统[如基于环状寡核苷酸的抗噬菌体信号系统(cyclic oligonucleotide-based antiphage signaling system, CBASS)、抗噬菌体抗性嘧啶环化酶系统(pyrimidine cyclase system for antiphage resistance, Pycsar)、Panoptes系统],它们通过核苷酸环化酶合成环状寡核苷酸第二信使,激活下游效应蛋白引发流产感染;(2)核苷酸耗竭引起宿主流产感染的系统[如脱氧胞苷三磷酸脱氨酶(deoxycytidine triphosphate deaminase, dCTP deaminase)及脱氧鸟苷三磷酸酶(deoxyguanosine triphosphatase, dGTPase)、Nezha系统],通过特异性水解或修饰三磷酸脱氧核糖核苷(deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate, dNTPs)或烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD+),导致核苷酸失衡与能量危机,阻滞噬菌体复制;(3)核苷酸异常转化介导的系统[如基于RNA腺苷脱氨酶的限制系统(restriction by an adenosine deaminase acting on RNA, RADAR)、三型CRISPR-Cas关联脱氨酶(type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase, CAAD)],通过将正常核苷酸转化为具有毒性的类似物[如肌苷三磷酸(inosine triphosphate, ITP)、脱氧肌苷三磷酸(deoxyinosine triphosphate, dITP)],有毒的代谢物诱导流产感染。本文重点阐述了各系统的核心组分、蛋白结构特征、组装机制及抗噬菌体调控策略,并探讨了噬菌体针对上述系统的逃逸机制。综合表明,核苷酸稳态调控已成为细菌免疫的核心策略之一,对这些系统的深入研究不仅有助于揭示原核生物与噬菌体共进化的分子基础,也为开发新型抗菌策略和合成生物学元件提供了重要启示。

, authors=李国伦, 黄勃诚, 张丹丹*, 甄向凯*, authorsList=李国伦, 黄勃诚, 张丹丹, 甄向凯, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=张丹丹, 甄向凯, authorNote=

作者贡献声明

李国伦:文章初稿撰写,图表绘制等;黄勃诚:文献整理,辅助图表制作;张丹丹:论文审阅与修改;甄向凯:论文选题、论文框架搭建。

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A: Composition of the CBASS system; B: Molecular mechanism of the CBASS system., figureFileSmall=dkDwwoKvi8wKEshI4HW7rQ==, figureFileBig=xmLVKm+Mm40s0oxJ1jnMBw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829800514302525, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图1, caption=CBASS系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[14]修改), figureFileSmall=dkDwwoKvi8wKEshI4HW7rQ==, figureFileBig=xmLVKm+Mm40s0oxJ1jnMBw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829800635937342, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 2, caption=Antiphage model diagram of the Pycsar system (modified from the reference [19]). A: Composition of the Pycsar system; B: Molecular mechanism of the Pycsar system., figureFileSmall=bpBon4Jrm1xsVyjAXC/mDQ==, figureFileBig=NAp1tp/j71WR6pY+3MZfUA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829800875012672, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图2, caption=Pycsar系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[19]修改), figureFileSmall=bpBon4Jrm1xsVyjAXC/mDQ==, figureFileBig=NAp1tp/j71WR6pY+3MZfUA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829800967287360, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=Antiphage model diagram of the Panoptes system (modified from the reference [20]). A: Composition of the Panoptes system; B: Molecular mechanism of the Panoptes system., figureFileSmall=9uqY3gtLlCWcE/wba0HaQw==, figureFileBig=hsQa8pynv/qmhINoRaRgbw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829801059562049, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图3, caption=Panoptes系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[20]修改), figureFileSmall=9uqY3gtLlCWcE/wba0HaQw==, figureFileBig=hsQa8pynv/qmhINoRaRgbw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829802733089346, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 4, caption=Antiphage model diagram of the defense-type dCTP deaminase and dGTPase system (modified from the reference [21]). A: Domain organization of dCTP deaminase and dGTPase; B: Molecular mechanism of defense-type dCTP deaminase and dGTPase in antiphage immunity., figureFileSmall=tx2c2AfsvtaMBV2GSIt8cA==, figureFileBig=WuPosDuPI4jECE+vslNVmg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829802804392515, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图4, caption=防御型dCTP deaminase和dGTPase系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[21]修改), figureFileSmall=tx2c2AfsvtaMBV2GSIt8cA==, figureFileBig=WuPosDuPI4jECE+vslNVmg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829802888278596, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 5, caption=Antiphage model diagram of the Nezha system (modified from the reference [26]). A: Composition of the Nezha system; B: Molecular mechanism of the Nezha system in antiphage immunity., figureFileSmall=QvppLgsLzaGZaJgFVrExyw==, figureFileBig=D5niz0YXorMJw8dpzbBgxw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829802951193157, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图5, caption=Nezha系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[26]修改), figureFileSmall=QvppLgsLzaGZaJgFVrExyw==, figureFileBig=D5niz0YXorMJw8dpzbBgxw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829803018302022, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 6, caption=Antiphage model diagram of the RADAR system (modified from the reference [23]). A: Composition of the RADAR system; B: Molecular mechanism of the RADAR system in antiphage immunity., figureFileSmall=cI+uk7mvSqUx3t5TJiWa1w==, figureFileBig=viyvwT2EE2wT1quZLHaFXQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829803089605191, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图6, caption=RADAR系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[23]修改), figureFileSmall=cI+uk7mvSqUx3t5TJiWa1w==, figureFileBig=viyvwT2EE2wT1quZLHaFXQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829803169296969, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 7, caption=Antiphage model diagram of the type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase system (modified from the reference [28]). A: Domain organization of CAAD in the type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase system; B: Molecular mechanism of the type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase system in antiphage immunity., figureFileSmall=HgMqNTumOCyTiTXidCU7nw==, figureFileBig=LU8LDDLENK0e/vUZpp5pQw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829803265765962, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图7, caption=三型CRISPR-Cas关联脱氨酶系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[28]修改), figureFileSmall=HgMqNTumOCyTiTXidCU7nw==, figureFileBig=LU8LDDLENK0e/vUZpp5pQw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829803395789387, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Comparison of three classes of antiphage defense systems based on nucleotide homeostasis regulation

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
CategoryRepresentative systemCore componentsKey nucleotide changesCore role of nucleotidesReferences
Nucleotides as signaling moleculesCBASSCD-Ntase (cGAS/DncV-like nucleotidyltransferase), effectorATP/GTP/UTP/CTP→cOA (cyclic oligonucleotides, e.g., 3′3′-cGAMP, 3′3′3′-cAMP-AMP-AMP)Cyclic oligonucleotides act as second messengers, binding to effectors to activate membrane perforation, NADase, or nuclease activities[17-18]
PycsarPycC (pyrimidine cyclase), PycE (pyrimidine cyclase effector)UTP/CTP→cUMP/cCMPcUMP/cCMP activate PycE to exert NADase and membrane-disrupting functions[19]
PanoptesOptS (nucleotide second-messenger synthase), OptE (nucleotide-binding effector protein)ATP/GTP/UTP→cyclic dinucleotides (e.g., 2′,3′-c-di-AMP, 3′,2′-cGAMP)Cyclic dinucleotides suppress OptE; their sequestration by phage Acb2 relieves this inhibition, activating OptE and triggering membrane damage[20]
Nucleotide depletiondCTP deaminase/dGTPasedCTP deaminase, dGTPasedCTP→dUTP, dGTP→dGdCTP and dGTP are consumed via deamination and hydrolysis, respectively, depleting two key dNTPs from the host nucleotide pool[21]
NezhaSir2 (NADase), HerA (RecA-like ATPase)NAD+→ADPR+NAM, ATP→ADP+PiThe NADase activity of Sir2 and the ATPase activity of HerA function synergistically, eliminating phage genomes through NAD+ depletion and ATP-dependent DNA unwinding[22]
Aberrant nucleotide conversionRADARRdrA (AAA+ATPase), RdrB (adenosine deaminase)ATP/dATP→ITP/dITPRdrB utilizes its adenosine deaminase activity to convert ATP/dATP into toxic ITP/dITP, which are misincorporated into DNA/RNA, disrupting genetic information transfer[23-24]
Type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminaseCAADATP/dATP→ITP/dITPCyclic oligoadenylates (cA4, cA6) activate CAAD, which converts ATP/dATP into ITP/dITP, poisoning the nucleotide pool[25]
), ArticleFig(id=1316829803471286860, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

基于核苷酸稳态调控的3类抗噬菌体防御系统特征比较

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
CategoryRepresentative systemCore componentsKey nucleotide changesCore role of nucleotidesReferences
Nucleotides as signaling moleculesCBASSCD-Ntase (cGAS/DncV-like nucleotidyltransferase), effectorATP/GTP/UTP/CTP→cOA (cyclic oligonucleotides, e.g., 3′3′-cGAMP, 3′3′3′-cAMP-AMP-AMP)Cyclic oligonucleotides act as second messengers, binding to effectors to activate membrane perforation, NADase, or nuclease activities[17-18]
PycsarPycC (pyrimidine cyclase), PycE (pyrimidine cyclase effector)UTP/CTP→cUMP/cCMPcUMP/cCMP activate PycE to exert NADase and membrane-disrupting functions[19]
PanoptesOptS (nucleotide second-messenger synthase), OptE (nucleotide-binding effector protein)ATP/GTP/UTP→cyclic dinucleotides (e.g., 2′,3′-c-di-AMP, 3′,2′-cGAMP)Cyclic dinucleotides suppress OptE; their sequestration by phage Acb2 relieves this inhibition, activating OptE and triggering membrane damage[20]
Nucleotide depletiondCTP deaminase/dGTPasedCTP deaminase, dGTPasedCTP→dUTP, dGTP→dGdCTP and dGTP are consumed via deamination and hydrolysis, respectively, depleting two key dNTPs from the host nucleotide pool[21]
NezhaSir2 (NADase), HerA (RecA-like ATPase)NAD+→ADPR+NAM, ATP→ADP+PiThe NADase activity of Sir2 and the ATPase activity of HerA function synergistically, eliminating phage genomes through NAD+ depletion and ATP-dependent DNA unwinding[22]
Aberrant nucleotide conversionRADARRdrA (AAA+ATPase), RdrB (adenosine deaminase)ATP/dATP→ITP/dITPRdrB utilizes its adenosine deaminase activity to convert ATP/dATP into toxic ITP/dITP, which are misincorporated into DNA/RNA, disrupting genetic information transfer[23-24]
Type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminaseCAADATP/dATP→ITP/dITPCyclic oligoadenylates (cA4, cA6) activate CAAD, which converts ATP/dATP into ITP/dITP, poisoning the nucleotide pool[25]
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基于核苷酸稳态调控的原核生物抗噬菌体机制研究进展
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李国伦 , 黄勃诚 , 张丹丹 * , 甄向凯 *
微生物学报 | 综述 2026,66(10): 4773-4790
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微生物学报 |综述 2026 , 66 (10) : 4773 -4790
基于核苷酸稳态调控的原核生物抗噬菌体机制研究进展
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李国伦, 黄勃诚, 张丹丹* , 甄向凯*
作者信息
  • 福建师范大学 生命科学学院,福建 福州
通讯作者:
张丹丹, 甄向凯
作者简介:

作者贡献声明

李国伦:文章初稿撰写,图表绘制等;黄勃诚:文献整理,辅助图表制作;张丹丹:论文审阅与修改;甄向凯:论文选题、论文框架搭建。

Research progress in prokaryotic antiphage mechanisms based on nucleotide homeostasis regulation
Guolun LI, Bocheng HUANG, Dandan ZHANG* , Xiangkai ZHEN*
Affiliations
  • College of Life Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
  • Corresponding Author:
    *E-mail: ZHANG Dandan,
    ZHEN Xiangkai,
出版时间: 2026-10-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260219
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细菌与噬菌体之间的“军备竞赛”驱动了多种抗噬菌体防御系统的演化。近年来,一系列以核苷酸为核心的防御机制被相继发现,揭示了作为生命代谢基本分子的核苷酸也是细菌免疫系统中的关键信号载体、效应底物和毒性武器。本文根据防御机制与核苷酸的相互作用方式系统综述了7种代表性抗噬菌体系统,并将其归纳为三大类别:(1)作为信号分子发挥功能的系统[如基于环状寡核苷酸的抗噬菌体信号系统(cyclic oligonucleotide-based antiphage signaling system, CBASS)、抗噬菌体抗性嘧啶环化酶系统(pyrimidine cyclase system for antiphage resistance, Pycsar)、Panoptes系统],它们通过核苷酸环化酶合成环状寡核苷酸第二信使,激活下游效应蛋白引发流产感染;(2)核苷酸耗竭引起宿主流产感染的系统[如脱氧胞苷三磷酸脱氨酶(deoxycytidine triphosphate deaminase, dCTP deaminase)及脱氧鸟苷三磷酸酶(deoxyguanosine triphosphatase, dGTPase)、Nezha系统],通过特异性水解或修饰三磷酸脱氧核糖核苷(deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate, dNTPs)或烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD+),导致核苷酸失衡与能量危机,阻滞噬菌体复制;(3)核苷酸异常转化介导的系统[如基于RNA腺苷脱氨酶的限制系统(restriction by an adenosine deaminase acting on RNA, RADAR)、三型CRISPR-Cas关联脱氨酶(type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase, CAAD)],通过将正常核苷酸转化为具有毒性的类似物[如肌苷三磷酸(inosine triphosphate, ITP)、脱氧肌苷三磷酸(deoxyinosine triphosphate, dITP)],有毒的代谢物诱导流产感染。本文重点阐述了各系统的核心组分、蛋白结构特征、组装机制及抗噬菌体调控策略,并探讨了噬菌体针对上述系统的逃逸机制。综合表明,核苷酸稳态调控已成为细菌免疫的核心策略之一,对这些系统的深入研究不仅有助于揭示原核生物与噬菌体共进化的分子基础,也为开发新型抗菌策略和合成生物学元件提供了重要启示。

核苷酸池  /  抗噬菌体防御  /  流产感染  /  环状核苷酸  /  核苷酸耗竭  /  核苷酸脱氨

The arms race between bacteria and phages has driven the evolution of diverse antiphage defense systems. In recent years, a series of defense mechanisms targeting the nucleotide pool have been discovered, revealing that nucleotides are not only fundamental molecules for metabolism but also serve as key signaling carriers, effector substrates, and toxic weapons in bacterial immunity. According to the interaction modes between defense mechanisms and the nucleotide pool, this review systematically summarizes seven representative antiphage systems and categorizes them into three major classes: (1) Systems mediated by nucleotide cyclization into signaling molecules [e.g., cyclic oligonucleotide-based antiphage signaling system (CBASS), pyrimidine cyclase system for antiphage resistance (Pycsar), and Panoptes], which utilize nucleotidyltransferases to synthesize cyclic oligonucleotide second messengers that activate downstream effector proteins, leading to abortive infection; (2) Systems mediated by nucleotide depletion [e.g., deoxycytidine triphosphate (dCTP) deaminase, deoxyguanosine triphosphatase (dGTPase), and Nezha], which specifically hydrolyze or modify dNTPs or NAD+, resulting in a nucleotide pool imbalance and an energy crisis that block phage replication; (3) Systems mediated by aberrant nucleotide conversion [e.g., restriction by an adenosine deaminase acting on RNA (RADAR) and type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase (CAAD)], which convert canonical nucleotides into toxic analogs [e.g., inosine triphosphate (ITP) and deoxyinosine triphosphate (dITP)], poisoning the nucleotide pool and inducing abortive infection. This review focuses on the core components, protein structural features, assembly mechanisms, and antiphage regulatory strategies of each category of system and discusses the escape mechanisms evolved by phages against these systems. In summary, the regulation of nucleotide pool homeostasis has emerged as a core strategy in bacterial immunity. In-depth investigation of these systems not only helps elucidate the molecular basis of prokaryote-phage co-evolution but also provides important insights for developing novel antimicrobial strategies and tools in synthetic biology.

nucleotide pool  /  antiphage defense  /  abortive infection  /  cyclic nucleotide  /  nucleotide depletion  /  nucleotide deamination
李国伦, 黄勃诚, 张丹丹, 甄向凯. 基于核苷酸稳态调控的原核生物抗噬菌体机制研究进展. 微生物学报, 2026 , 66 (10) : 4773 -4790 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260219
Guolun LI, Bocheng HUANG, Dandan ZHANG, Xiangkai ZHEN. Research progress in prokaryotic antiphage mechanisms based on nucleotide homeostasis regulation[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2026 , 66 (10) : 4773 -4790 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260219
细菌、古菌与噬菌体之间的“军备竞赛”被认为是自然界中最为广泛且持久的演化驱动力之一,为抵御噬菌体的持续侵染,细菌与古菌演化出了多种多样的抗噬菌体防御系统[1-2]。根据作用方式,这些系统可分为非流产感染与流产感染两大类。非流产感染型系统,如限制性修饰(restriction-modification, RM)系统和成簇规律间隔短回文重复序列及其相关蛋白(clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated proteins, CRISPR-Cas)系统,通过特异性识别并降解外源遗传物质来实现防御[3-4]。流产感染型系统则通过触发受感染细胞的程序性死亡或生长停滞来阻断噬菌体传播,常见的如Thoeris、抗噬菌体信号系统(cyclic oligonucleotide-based antiphage signaling system, CBASS)和抗噬菌体抗性嘧啶环化酶系统(pyrimidine cyclase system for antiphage resistance, Pycsar)等系统,它们通过识别噬菌体入侵信号产生特定的第二信使,进而激活执行细胞自杀的效应蛋白[5-11]。近年来发现,通过靶向宿主的核苷酸最终引起宿主的流产感染是抵御噬菌体感染的重要策略之一。本文根据防御机制是否通过消耗或扰动宿主核苷酸来实现免疫效应进行分类,重点总结了目前报道的7种与核苷酸稳态调控相关的抗噬菌体系统的作用机制[12]。
细菌体内核苷酸处于动态平衡,作为核酸的基本组成单元,包括作为RNA合成原料的三磷酸核糖核苷[ribonucleoside triphosphate (NTPs),如ATP、GTP、UTP、CTP],以及作为DNA合成前体的三磷酸脱氧核糖核苷[deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate (dNTPs),如dATP、dGTP、dCTP、dTTP],还包含一系列核苷酸衍生物,如作为经典辅酶和信号分子的烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD+)及其代谢产物二磷酸腺苷核糖(adenosine diphosphate ribose, ADPR)等[13]。在已报道的原核抗噬菌体系统中核苷酸代谢成为原核生物抗噬菌体系统发挥功能的核心[14]。
近年来,一系列基于宿主核苷酸代谢与稳态调控的新型抗噬菌体机制被相继发现[15],当噬菌体入侵细菌时细菌体内核苷酸稳态随之受到剧烈扰动,进而转化为启动自身防御的预警信号[16]。上述系统共同构成了一个以核苷酸为核心的防御网络。根据其核心作用机制可将其归纳为三大类别(表1)。(1)核苷酸作为信号分子的抗噬菌体系统(如CBASS、Pycsar、Panoptes等)。此类系统通过合成多种形式的环状核苷酸,作为信号分子,激活下游的效应蛋白,诱导细菌发生流产感染,从而保护细菌群体[14]。(2)耗竭核苷酸的抗噬菌体系统[如Nezha、脱氧鸟苷三磷酸酶(deoxyguanosine triphosphatase, dGTPase)、脱氧胞苷三磷酸脱氨酶(deoxycytidine triphosphate deaminase, dCTP deaminase)等]。在此类系统核苷酸直接被消耗,使细菌因缺乏无法完成复制等生命历程,因而能够抗击噬菌体入侵[21,26-27]。(3)催化核苷酸转化为核苷酸衍生物介导的抗噬菌体系统[如基于RNA腺苷脱氨酶的限制系统(restriction by an adenosine deaminase acting on RNA, RADAR)、三型CRISPR-Cas关联脱氨酶(type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase, CAAD)等]。此类系统将核苷酸转化为对细菌有毒的核苷酸衍生物[如肌苷三磷酸(inosine triphosphate, ITP)、脱氧肌苷三磷酸(deoxyinosine triphosphate, dITP)][23]。这类物质会被噬菌体或细菌自身错误利用,干扰DNA或RNA合成,最终通过流产感染方式保护细菌群体[24,28]。近年来,关于核苷酸在细菌免疫系统中核心作用的研究不断涌现,表明细菌通过操纵体内核苷酸是其免疫防御的重要策略。
在核苷酸作为信号分子介导的抗噬菌体防御系统中,噬菌体入侵后细菌通过特定的核苷酸环化酶将细胞内的常规核苷酸(如ATP、GTP、UTP、CTP或NAD+等)反应为环状寡核苷酸信号分子(包括环状单核苷酸、环状二核苷酸、环状三核苷酸等)[26]。这些环状核苷酸作为第二信使,通过结合下游效应蛋白的感应结构域[如CRISPR相关Rossmann折叠结构域,(CRISPR-associated Rossmann fold, CARF)、SMODS-associated and fused to various effector domains(SAVED)等]解除其自抑制状态,激活效应蛋白的毒力功能;被激活的效应蛋白可通过破坏细胞膜完整性、降解NAD+、水解磷脂或切割核酸等方式最终触发流产感染,使被感染细胞死亡,从而保护细菌群体[27]。根据环化酶类型、信号分子特征及效应蛋白差异,目前已被鉴定的该类系统主要包括CBASS、Pycsar和Panoptes系统等。
CBASS是一类基于环状寡核苷酸的抗噬菌体信号系统,广泛存在于原核生物中[26]。CBASS系统最初是通过发现霍乱弧菌(Vibrio cholerae)中的寡核苷酸环化酶与人类环状GMP-AMP合酶(cyclic GMP-AMP synthase, cGAS)属于结构同源物而被鉴定出来的[29]。CBASS系统主要由2个核心组分构成(图1A):(1)寡核苷酸环化酶(cGAS/DncV-like nucleotidyltransferase, CD-NTase),该酶能够在感知噬菌体入侵后将单核苷酸环化为寡核苷酸信号分子(3′3′-cGMP-AMP、3′3′3′-cAMP-AMP-AMP等),从而传递噬菌体入侵信号;(2)效应蛋白,该类蛋白能够接受环状寡核苷酸信号分子并被激活,对细胞产生毒害作用[23]。此外,在不同类型的CBASS系统中还存在具有调控作用的辅助蛋白,能对CBASS系统进行高效调节[30]。
根据组成差异,目前已被鉴定的CBASS系统可分为4种类型:(1) Ⅰ型CBASS,结构最为简单,仅包含上述2个核心组分[30];(2) Ⅱ型CBASS,除2个核心组分外,还包含2个与真核经典泛素化途径相关的结构域蛋白,参与系统调控[31-32];(3) Ⅲ型CBASS,由含有HORMA (Hop1、Rev7、Mad2)结构域和甲状腺激素受体相互作用蛋白13 (thyroid hormone receptor interacting protein 13, TRIP13)结构域的辅助蛋白以及2个核心组分共同构成[33];(4) Ⅳ型CBASS,由2个核心组分以及含有核苷酸修饰结构域的辅助蛋白组成。尽管不同类型的CBASS系统已被充分发现,但其中许多辅助蛋白的具体调控机制尚未被完全阐明[34-35]。
寡核苷酸环化酶作为CBASS系统的核心组分,含有Pol-β样核苷酸转移酶折叠结构;该核苷酸转移酶折叠形成的笼状结构主要由N端的长棘状螺旋以及C端的α螺旋共同构成,笼状结构内部存在能够催化核苷酸信号分子生成的酶活口袋,以维持其NTase核心功能[18]。在CD-NTase的背面存在一个α螺旋区域,该区域被认为参配体结合,进而调控CD-NTase的酶活性[36]。例如,在霍乱弧菌寡核苷酸环化酶(dinucleotide cyclase in Vibrio, DncV)与叶酸类似物的复合物结构中,DncV的C端存在一个特殊的变构口袋,该口袋可通过结合叶酸代谢的中间产物二氢叶酸,进而使DncV催化结构域处的α5螺旋发生12°旋转,这种构象改变会导致酶活性丧失[37]。此外,CD-Ntase的活性依赖于金属离子,其酶活中心存在金属离子结合区域,协助供体和受体核苷酸的定位以及反应中间体的稳定[37]。在CD-NTase的酶活口袋中受体核苷酸与供体核苷酸分别结合于相应位点,受体核苷酸的2′和3′羟基经过去质子化后对供体核苷酸的α磷酸基团发起亲核攻击,从而生成环状二核苷酸或环状三核苷酸[18,37-39]。
效应蛋白作为CBASS系统的第2个核心组分,承担着执行细胞杀伤功能的关键作用。4类不同的CBASS操纵子共同拥有6种效应蛋白类型(图1B),分别为:(1)含有跨膜螺旋结构域的效应蛋白;(2)核酸酶效应蛋白;(3)含有TIR结构域的NADase效应蛋白;(4)含有patatin样磷脂酶结构域的效应蛋白;(5)磷酸化酶/核苷酶超家族效应蛋白;(6)含有肽酶结构域的效应蛋白[14]。目前已被解析的CBASS效应蛋白研究表明,不同的效应蛋白能够通过其感应结构域识别并结合特定的环状寡聚核苷酸,从而从静息状态转变为活性状态,发挥对细胞的毒害效应[14]。跨膜螺旋效应蛋白Cap15的晶体结构显示,当3′3′-cGAMP核苷酸第二信使存在时该蛋白从静息状态转变为寡聚化的活性状态,诱导细胞内膜破裂[30];Cap4核酸内切酶效应蛋白依赖其CARF结构域感知环状寡聚核苷酸,激活其核酸内切酶活性,对细胞内的DNA进行非特异性降解[32,40];含有TIR结构域的效应蛋白通过融合CARF相关结构域感知信号分子,相邻的TIR亚基就会组装成纤维状超分子复合物,获得NAD+降解活性[41-43];大肠埃希氏菌(Escherichia coli) CBASS系统中的磷脂酶效应蛋白CapE在静息状态下以紧密的二聚体形式存在,当cUMP-AMP结合于其闭合口袋后CapE发生构象变化并形成纤维状超分子复合物,从而打开其酶活中心的底物通道[44]。
Pycsar是一类广泛存在于数百种细菌基因组中的抗噬菌体系统,常与其他已知防御系统共定位[19]。Pycsar系统由嘧啶环化酶(pyrimidine cyclase, PycC)和环状单磷酸核苷受体效应蛋白共同组成(图2A),其功能依赖于嘧啶环化酶以UTP或CTP为底物,生成cUMP或cCMP信号分子,导致细胞内核苷酸发生显著变化,这类信号分子进而激活效应蛋白,通过消耗NAD+或破坏细胞膜引发细胞死亡(图2B),从而抵抗T5等噬菌体的侵染[4]。PycC虽与腺苷酸环化酶具有序列相似性,但其底物特异性使其仅能合成环状单磷酸嘧啶核苷。Pycsar系统的效应蛋白由与其相关联的pap基因表达,这些基因编码的蛋白分别含有TIR结构域或TM跨膜结构域,负责执行细胞杀伤功能[14]。Pycsar系统的核苷酸信号分子与CBASS系统的差异表明了核苷酸信号分子具有较高的多样性。
来自洋葱伯克霍尔德氏菌(Burkholderia cepacia)和铜绿假单胞菌(Pseudomonas aeruginosa)的PycC已通过晶体学手段获得结构解析。该类嘧啶环化酶通常以同源二聚体或单链伪异源二聚体的形式存在;在二聚体结构中,一个原聚体提供金属配位残基,而对侧原聚体则构成核苷酸碱基结合口袋[45-46]。该结合口袋中存在多个酪氨酸、苯丙氨酸和精氨酸残基,空间结构较为紧凑,因此能够限制嘌呤碱基的进入,倾向于结合体积较小的胞嘧啶或尿嘧啶核苷酸底物[45]。
嘧啶环化酶TIR效应蛋白(pyrimidine cyclase TIR effector protein, PycTIR)和嘧啶环化酶跨膜效应蛋白(pyrimidine cyclase transmembrane effector protein, PycTM)蛋白的N端均含有能够特异性识别cCMP或cUMP信号分子的核苷酸结合结构域,二者的C端则存在差异:PycTIR的C端融合了一个TIR结构域,而PycTM的C端则融合了跨膜相关结构域;通过解析PycTIR-环核苷酸结合结构域(cyclic nucleotide-binding domain, CNBD)-cCMP复合物结构可知,cUMP结合于PycTIR的N143位点后,蛋白C端的茎螺旋向配体结合口袋方向发生显著位移,从而促进PycTIR (CNBD)的二聚化[19,45]。这种激活方式与CBASS系统中的效应蛋白类似:效应蛋白在结合特异性环核苷酸信号分子后发生聚合,从而获得细胞死亡效应功能。这表明不同环核苷酸信号分子对效应蛋白的激活机制具有相似性[45,47]。
Panoptes抗噬菌体系统能够特异性防御斯特拉波噬菌体科(Straboviridae)家族的噬菌体[20]。Panoptes系统与CBASS、Pycsar等依赖环状核苷酸信号分子的系统具有高度相关性,但其独特之处在于能够通过监测噬菌体的抗防御行为来触发系统启动[14]。
该系统已经在创伤弧菌(Vibrio vulnificus)及肺炎克雷伯氏菌(Klebsiella pneumoniae)中被鉴定探究,整个系统由一对保守的双基因操纵子optSE组成,分别编码能够将核苷酸合成为环状核苷酸信号分子的OptS核苷酸环化酶,以及含有跨膜结构域的OptE效应蛋白(图3A)[20]。在稳态下,Panoptes系统依靠OptS组成性合成的环状二核苷酸信号分子,并抑制OptE效应蛋白的毒性,只有当噬菌体感染并编码能够结合环状核苷酸的“海绵蛋白” [如噬菌体抗CBASS蛋白Acb2 (phage anti-CBASS protein 2, Acb2)]时信号分子才会被清除,从而解除对OptE效应蛋白的抑制(图3B),使其对细胞产生毒害作用,实现防御功能[14,20,46]。
OptS是Panoptes系统中负责合成环状二核苷酸信号分子的核苷酸环化酶,含有一个最小型CRISPR聚合酶(minimal CRISPR polymerase, mCpol)结构域[48]。通过晶体学手段,肺炎克雷伯菌中的OptS蛋白结构已被解析。OptS以四聚体的形式存在,每个单体包含一个聚合酶掌状结构域折叠,由4个主要α螺旋环绕5股β折叠片层及1个含有催化位点的环状区域构成[20]。该原聚体结构与CRISPR-Cas10蛋白的聚合酶掌状结构域高度保守[20,49]。通过解析OptS与α,β-亚甲基三磷酸腺苷(alpha,beta-methylene adenosine 5′-triphosphate, ApCpp)的复合物结构可知,OptS合成环状核苷酸信号分子的活性中心关键氨基酸为第6位和第57位的天冬酰胺,二者共同形成核苷酸的催化和结合口袋。OptS合成的环状二核苷酸主要包括2′,3′-c-di-AMP、3′,2′-cGAMP和3′,2′-cUAMP等;于CRISPR-Cas10蛋白的主要产物是环状寡聚腺苷酸,结构域的高度保守性决定了OptS所合成的环状二核苷酸信号分子都必须至少含有一个腺苷酸[50-51]。
OptE作为Panoptes系统的效应蛋白,由2个主要结构域组成:2个连续的跨膜结构域,以及一个能够特异性识别并结合环状二核苷酸信号分子的S-2TMβ结构域[20,48,52]。在稳态条件下,其S-2TMβ结构域结合环状二核苷酸信号分子,从而维持抑制状态;只有当环状二核苷酸信号分子被解除后OptE才会从抑制态转变为激活态,通过其跨膜结构域对细胞膜造成损伤,以对抗噬菌体入侵[20]。目前,OptE的具体结构基础尚未被解析,其解除环状二核苷酸信号分子后如何实现构象转变的详细机制仍有待进一步研究。
目前多个抗噬菌体系统通过激活特定的效应酶,主动水解或修饰细胞内的脱氧核苷三磷酸、核糖核苷三磷酸或能量货币NAD+,造成细菌核苷酸库发生失衡与耗竭。核苷酸池的耗竭导致噬菌体无法依赖宿主核苷酸池提供DNA合成原料和能量来源,而且宿主细胞自身也因能量危机或原料短缺而进入生长停滞状态,最终通过流产感染方式清除噬菌体。
由防御型脱氧胞苷三磷酸脱氨酶(dCTP deaminase)和脱氧鸟苷三磷酸酶(dGTPase)共同介导的抗噬菌体系统是近期发现的一类通过耗竭脱氧核苷酸来抵御噬菌体感染的防御机制[21]。这类防御基因广泛分布于假单胞菌门(Pseudomonadota)、放线菌门(Actinomycetota)和拟杆菌门(Bacteroidota)等多个细菌门类的基因组防御岛附近[1]。2个核心酶在抵御噬菌体过程中发挥关键作用(图4A):(1) dCTP deaminase,该类酶在噬菌体感染时能够特异性作用于细菌核苷酸池中的dCTP,将其脱氨生成dUTP,dUTP进一步被细菌内组成型表达的三磷酸脱氧尿苷酶迅速转化为dUMP[21,53-54];(2) dGTPase,该类酶在噬菌体感染时能够将细菌核苷酸池中的dGTP特异性降解为不含磷酸基团的脱氧鸟苷[21,55]。然而,只有当噬菌体入侵后dCTP脱氨酶和dGTPase才会被激活耗竭细菌内部的dCTP或dGTP分子达到防御功能(图4B)。
通过AlphaFold预测的大肠埃希氏菌(Escherichia coli) dCTP脱氨酶与变异链球菌(Streptococcus mutans)嘧啶脱氨酶的结构比对显示,dCTP脱氨酶由N端的激酶结构域和C端的脱氨酶结构域共同构成[21]。其中,N端激酶结构域是防御型dCTP脱氨酶所特有的结构特征,该结构域被认为可能参与dCTP脱氨酶识别噬菌体感染的过程[54]。脱氨酶结构域中第370位和第410位的半胱氨酸通过结合锌离子参与脱氨酶的催化反应[21]。
通过AlphaFold预测的希瓦氏菌(Shewanella) dGTPase与人类SAM结构域和histidine-aspartate (HD)结构域抗病毒蛋白1 (sterile alpha motif and histidine-aspartate domain-containing protein 1, SAMHD1)的结构比对表明,二者具有高度同源性,均含有脱氧鸟苷酸水解酶所必需的HD基序[21,56]。与dCTP脱氨酶类似,dGTPase的HD酶活中心同样需要结合二价金属离子来协助其发挥酶活功能[21]。
Nezha系统(也称Sir2-HerA系统或PD-T7-2系统)广泛分布于金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)、大肠埃希氏菌和芽孢杆菌(Bacillus)等多种细菌及古菌的防御岛中[57-58]。已有研究证实该系统能够有效抵御T4、T5和T7噬菌体的侵染[22]。Nezha系统由2个核心组分构成(图5A):(1)沉默信息调节因子2 (silent information regulator 2, Sir2)蛋白,该蛋白属于Sirtuin家族,是一类NAD+依赖性组蛋白去乙酰化酶,在Nezha系统中主要依赖其NAD+水解酶活性参与抗噬菌体防御[22,58-59];(2) HerA蛋白,属于P-loop ATP酶超家族的解旋酶,该蛋白在Nezha系统中集ATP酶活性、解螺旋酶活性及核酸酶活性于一体[26,60]。值得注意的是,HerA蛋白除与Sir2蛋白协同发挥抗噬菌体功能外,还可与DUF4297蛋白共同组成Hailibu防御系统[61],这种功能多样性表明HerA是一个多功能组件蛋白,能够与多种不同功能蛋白偶联发挥作用。
通过对已解析的Sir2、HerA及Sir2-HerA复合物结构进行分析可知,Sir2具有典型的双叶结构,单独的Sir2会形成无NAD+水解酶活性的同源二聚体;HerA则由N端β-桶结构域、中央RecA样ATP酶结构域以及C端螺旋束结构域组成,单独存在的HerA会形成无ATP酶活性的同源三聚体[26,60]。当Sir2和HerA同时存在时二者会组装形成约1 MDa的十八聚体复合物(图5B)。在此复合物中,每个Sir2同源二聚体被HerA固定,同时HerA分子在此过程中完成重组,形成六聚体状态[26,60,62]。完成组装后的Sir2获得了NAD+水解酶活性。NAD+水解酶活性受到ATP水平的调控,当ATP水平上升时其活性受到抑制,此时HerA通过其ATP酶活性水解ATP,降低ATP水平,从而激活Sir2的NAD+水解酶活性[26]。
细菌将内部常规核苷酸(NTPs或dNTPs等)通过脱氨等修饰行为被转化为异常核苷酸(如ITP、dITP等)应对噬菌体等外源威胁,在这类系统中异常核苷酸分子直接影响宿主或噬菌体的复制等过程,从而产生防御效应;这一策略的共同特点是核苷酸直接能够作为杀伤细胞的毒性分子[23-24]。现阶段被鉴定的这种类型抗噬菌体有RADAR系统和CAAD系统等。这种通过毒害细胞核苷酸池来触发免疫效应的机制与动物细胞中利用蝰蛇蛋白酶合成核苷酸类似物以破坏病毒复制的策略极为相似,为理解原核与真核生物免疫机制的进化关联提供了有力证据[63]。
RADAR系统是一类由双蛋白组分构成的核苷酸异常转化介导型细菌防御系统[23-24]。该系统的2个核心蛋白分别为(图6A):(1) RdrA,属于AAA+ATP酶家族,发挥水解ATP提供能量的功能,并参与噬菌体的识别[23,64];(2) RdrB,是腺苷酸脱氨酶家族的一员,能够特异性地将ATP或dATP脱氨基生成ITP或dITP,进而毒害细菌内核苷酸池[23,65]。RADAR系统通过二者组装形成RdrA-B复合物对ATP和dATP进行高效脱氨(图6B),生成ITP和dITP肌苷衍生物快速积累,进而毒化了细菌核苷酸池,抑制细菌生长发育。该系统在细菌基因组中较为少见,仅占细菌基因组的1%左右,但其分布较为广泛,已在包括假单胞菌门(Pseudomonadota)和芽孢杆菌门(Bacillota)在内的至少7个细菌门、75个属中被发现[57]。研究证实,大肠埃希氏菌中的RADAR系统能够有效防御T-even类噬菌体(如T2、T4、T6)的侵染[23,57]。
RdrA蛋白包含2个结构域,分别为N端的AAA+ATP酶结构域和C端的α螺旋结构域。通过冷冻电镜解析的大肠埃希氏菌(Escherichia coli) RdrA蛋白结构显示,RdrA蛋白会聚合形成双层环状的七聚体结构,上层为N端ATP酶结构域,下层为C端α螺旋结构域;其顶部形成一个Crown结构域,负责与RdrB的相互作用。该七聚体内部不同亚基之间可形成不同的断裂界面,并可依靠其ATP酶活性通过水解ATP来调控七聚体的构象变化[23]。
RdrB蛋白含有腺苷脱氨酶结构域。来源于大肠埃希氏菌的RdrB蛋白冷冻电镜结构表明,RdrB通过12个原聚体组装形成直径约160 Å的中空十二聚体壳状结构,这是目前已知的唯一一种具有十二聚体结构的腺苷脱氨酶[23]。
RdrA-RdrB超分子复合体的冷冻电镜结构显示,RdrB十二聚体构成该复合体的中心枢纽,最多可容纳12个RdrA七聚体通过其Crown结构结合于RdrB表面,整体呈现花朵状结构。完成组装后的RdrA-RdrB超分子复合物中RdrB的腺苷脱氨酶活性显著上升,高效催化ATP和dATP的脱氨反应[23-24]。RdrB的腺苷脱氨酶结构呈现出独特的十二聚体组装形式,体现了其结构多样性;而RdrA与RdrB形成复合物后发生的结构与功能偶联,表明二者在激活与效应阶段协同运作,为理解细菌防御系统的演化提供了新视角。
三型CRISPR-Cas系统关联的腺苷脱氨酶是近年来被发现的一类新型抗噬菌体系统,其免疫效应与细菌核苷酸池高度相关,该系统不依赖传统CRISPR-Cas系统的核酸切割功能,而是通过消耗细菌核苷酸池发挥免疫功能[28]。三型CRISPR-Cas效应复合体通过crRNA (CRISPR RNA)识别噬菌体入侵,引导Cas10核苷酸环化酶合成环状寡腺苷酸信号分子(cA6、cA4),形成噬菌体入侵信号[51,66-67];而CAAD蛋白是该系统的核心组分,它是一个融合蛋白,分别由N端感知第二信使cA6或cA4的CARF结构域和C端腺苷脱氨酶结构域组成,可将腺苷酸脱氨形成肌苷三磷酸(图7A)[68];此外,Nudix水解酶是这个系统辅助组分,可以水解肌苷三磷酸,与CAAD协同发挥防御功能[28,69]。
通过冷冻电镜手段发现,CAAD蛋白在无cOA小分子信号存在下会形成自抑制的六聚体结构,通过其脱氨酶结构域之间的相互疏水界面组装形成“三叶草”形状,而CARF感知结构域则位于六聚体的顶点,与脱氨酶结构域通过6个组氨酸(6His, 6H)形成的铰链区域连接[28,68]。细菌在正常发育状态下,cOA环状寡腺苷酸小分子呈现极低浓度,CAAD酶的CARF结构域为无cOA结合状态,从而通过动态破坏C端的脱氨酶结构域酶活中心,导致CAAD处于自抑制状态;当细菌内部cOA浓度上升,CAAD的CARF结构域便会通过其正电荷cOA结合口袋结合小分子信号,结合3个或以上的cOA信号分子(cA4或cA6)后诱导CARF发生约60°的旋转变化,最终通过6H铰链区将cOA信号传递至脱氨酶结构域,重塑了2个原本高度无序的环状区域(402-411和439-456位氨基酸),从而稳定形成正确的ATP结合口袋,发挥腺苷酸脱氨酶活性,将ATP或dATP脱氨成ITP或dITP[28,65,70]。
细菌利用核苷酸为核心的防御系统构筑了强大的抗噬菌体屏障,然而噬菌体在共进化压力下也演化出多样化的逃逸策略。目前发现的逃逸机制主要靶向免疫系统的2个关键位点核苷酸信号分子或系统激活信号[46]。
针对CBASS、Pycsar、Thoeris等依赖环状核苷酸第二信使的系统,目前已被发现的噬菌体逃逸蛋白有以下2类。(1)信号分子降解酶:如抗CBASS蛋白1 (anti-CBASS protein 1, Acb1)和抗Pycsar蛋白1 (anti-Pycsar protein 1, Apyc1)可靶向降解CBASS和Pycsar系统的环状核苷酸信号[46,71];而最新发现的抗CBASS蛋白5 (anti-CBASS protein 5, Acb5)则能切割3′,3′-cGAMP信号分子,形成2′,3′-cyclic AMP和2′,3′-cyclic GMP,以此来阻止CBASS系统的激活[72]。(2)信号分子海绵蛋白:如Acb2通过六聚体结构隔离cGAMP,此外还有最新发现的Sequestin和Lockin蛋白能通过自身聚合形成的正电荷口袋结合3′-cADPR或His-ADPR,阻断Thoeris系统效应蛋白的激活[72]。这类针对环状核苷酸信号的噬菌体逃逸蛋白通常由约100个氨基酸残基构成,需通过聚合形成特定的正电荷口袋,从而降解或捕捉环状核苷酸信号分子,最终抑制宿主免疫应答。
对于通过感知噬菌体蛋白来激活的防御的dCTP deaminase/dGTPase系统,噬菌体则采取关键蛋白突变的策略。例如,Gp5.7蛋白突变后无法被系统识别,导致免疫激活失败[21];类似地,噬菌体的Acb2突变可影响Panoptes系统的OptE蛋白激活[20]。逃逸机制的多样性揭示了噬菌体与细菌之间军备竞赛的复杂性,而绝大多数策略均围绕核苷酸信号分子的清除或隔离展开,这进一步印证了核苷酸在细菌免疫系统中的核心地位。
目前关于噬菌体逃逸核苷酸免疫系统的研究仍处于起步阶段,已报道的逃逸蛋白主要集中在CBASS系统(如Acb1、Acb2、Acb5)和Thoeris系统(如Sequestin、Lockin)等少数系统中。对于dCTP deaminase/dGTPase、Nezha、RADAR、CAAD等系统,噬菌体是否编码相应的抗防御蛋白、其作用机制如何,仍缺乏系统性研究。这一领域的研究空白主要源于噬菌体基因组多样性极高,传统同源比对方法难以发现结构新颖的逃逸蛋白。
未来该领域的研究可从以下方向展开:(1)利用宏基因组数据库(如NCBI RefSeq、IMG/VR)结合结构预测工具(如AlphaFold3、ESMFold)对噬菌体编码的未知蛋白进行高通量结构比对,识别可能具有核苷酸结合口袋或水解酶活性位点的候选逃逸蛋白,再通过体外生化验证(如核苷酸结合/降解活性测定)确认功能;(2)利用冷冻电镜或X射线晶体学解析逃逸蛋白与宿主核苷酸信号分子(如cGAMP、cUMP、cA4等)的复合物结构,并且结合等温滴定量热法(isothermal titration calorimetry, ITC)或表面等离子体共振(surface plasmon resonance, SPR)测定结合亲和力与动力学参数,定量评估逃逸效率;(3)采用噬菌体-细菌共进化实验,通过长期共培养结合全基因组测序,追踪噬菌体逃逸突变体的出现规律,鉴定新型逃逸基因;利用系统发育分析揭示逃逸蛋白家族在不同噬菌体类群中的分布与演化历史。
以上7种以核苷酸为核心的细菌抗噬菌体防御系统揭示了细菌通过精准操控自身核苷酸代谢来抵御外源入侵的重要策略,表明核苷酸不仅是生命遗传与能量的基本载体,更是细菌免疫系统中至关重要的信号分子、代谢底物和毒性武器。
CBASS、Pycsar、Panoptes等系统将核苷酸转化为第二信使,激活下游效应蛋白引发流产感染,展现了原核生物中存在的级联放大免疫效应[17,19-20]。dGTPase、dCTP deaminase和Nezha系统通过耗竭dNTP或NAD+剥夺噬菌体复制所需的原料与能量[21]。RADAR和CAAD系统则采取“投毒”策略,将正常核苷酸转化为ITP/dITP等毒性类似物,通过错误掺入破坏遗传信息传递[24,28]。这些系统以核苷酸为核心枢纽,通过不同模块组合实现对噬菌体的多重打击。
从进化的视角审视,上述以核苷酸为核心的细菌防御系统与真核生物的先天免疫通路存在深远的关联。例如,CBASS系统的核心CD-NTase与人类cGAS结构同源,二者均通过合成环状核苷酸第二信使激活下游免疫应答,真核内质网相关干扰素诱导型病毒抑制蛋白(virus inhibitory protein, endoplasmic reticulum-associated, interferon-inducible, Viperin)与原核Viperin同源,均能利用S-腺苷甲硫氨酸辅因子将NTP转化为核苷酸类似物,通过竞争性抑制病毒/噬菌体RNA聚合酶阻断遗传物质合成,展现了原核与真核免疫机制的保守性[73];TIR结构域作为NADase在细菌抗噬菌体防御与植物/动物免疫中功能保守[74]。这些进化上的保守性表明真核生物的先天免疫系统可能起源于原核生物的抗噬菌体防御机制,通过水平基因转移和功能创新逐步演化出更为复杂的免疫调控网络。对原核防御系统的深入研究,不仅有助于揭示免疫系统的进化起源,也为理解真核免疫的分子机制提供了重要启示。
尽管上述研究已取得重要进展,但围绕核苷酸为核心的细菌防御系统仍有多项关键科学问题有待阐明。如防御系统间的协同互作网络尚不清晰。细菌基因组中通常同时携带多个防御系统,它们之间是否存在协同、互补或层级调控?未来可通过单细胞转录组学解析单个细菌在感染过程中多个防御系统的表达时序,结合荧光报告系统(如将不同防御系统启动子与不同荧光蛋白偶联)在微流控芯片中实时追踪单个细胞的防御响应动态,揭示系统间的协同与竞争关系。其次,噬菌体感染信号的感知机制尚未阐明。未来可结合光交联质谱技术,以防御系统的感知结构域为“诱饵”,捕获与之瞬时互作的噬菌体组分;或通过非靶向代谢组学比较感染前后宿主代谢物的动态变化,鉴定可能作为“危险信号”的代谢分子。
此外,基于核苷酸免疫原理的合成生物学应用尚处于起步阶段。目前对防御系统的研究多集中于机制解析,如何将其转化为可编程的工具仍有待探索。例如,利用逃逸蛋白的底物特异性开发基于核苷酸信号的生物传感器,用于噬菌体污染的实时监测。这些探索将为工程菌株的噬菌体抗性改造、噬菌体治疗的精准调控提供新思路。
综上所述,对核苷酸免疫系统的深入研究不仅有助于揭示原核生物与噬菌体共进化的分子基础,也为开发新型抗菌策略和合成生物学元件提供了重要启示。
  • 国家自然科学基金(82570035)
  • 福建省自然科学基金(2025J01638)
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2026年第66卷第10期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260219
  • 接收时间:2026-03-13
  • 首发时间:2026-10-13
  • 出版时间:2026-10-04
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  • 收稿日期:2026-03-13
  • 录用日期:2026-04-11
基金
National Natural Science Foundation of China(82570035)
国家自然科学基金(82570035)
Fujian Provincial Natural Science Foundation(2025J01638)
福建省自然科学基金(2025J01638)
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    福建师范大学 生命科学学院,福建 福州

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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