Article(id=1304366255453004566, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1304366133864321404, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260545, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1783526400000, receivedDateStr=2026-07-09, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1785772800000, acceptedDateStr=2026-08-04, onlineDate=1788914749253, onlineDateStr=2026-09-09, pubDate=1788451200000, pubDateStr=2026-09-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1788914749253, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-09-09, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1788914749253, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1788914749253, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1304366133864321404, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2026', volume='66', issue='9', pageStart='4291', pageEnd='4651', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1788451200000', pubDateStr='2026-09-04', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1788914720263, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1788914779113, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1304366380803974113, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1304366133864321404, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1304366380803974114, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1304366133864321404, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=4520, endPage=4544, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1304366259697640215, articleId=1304366255453004566, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Metabolic engineering of Methylorubrum extorquens AM1 and its applications in methanol-based chemical biosynthesis: a review, columnId=1192149543727808575, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Methanol is regarded as an ideal non-food feedstock for biomanufacturing due to its abundant supply and low cost. Methylorubrum extorquens AM1 has become a prominent model chassis strain in this field, owing to its natural ability to utilize methanol. This review summarizes recent advances in methanol-based biomanufacturing viaM. extorquens AM1 cell factories. First, the methanol metabolic pathways and compatible synthetic biology tools available for this strain are discussed. Subsequently, we highlight recent achievements in the metabolic engineering of this strain for the production of recombinant proteins, biodegradable materials, organic acids, and terpenoids. Building on these findings, we outline the metabolic engineering strategies that have been employed to enhance the biosynthetic capacity of engineered strains. Finally, we discuss the current limitations in constructing and applying M. extorquens AM1 cell factories and propose future research directions. This review will serve as a valuable reference for the development of M. extorquens cell factories and for the industrial production of methanol-derived products.

, authors=Lin CUI1, 2, Xiaoyu WANG1, Yang HE3, Bin YAO1, Huiying LUO1, *, Xiaolu WANG1, *, authorsList=Lin CUI, Xiaoyu WANG, Yang HE, Bin YAO, Huiying LUO, Xiaolu WANG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Huiying LUO, Xiaolu WANG, authorNote=

These authors contributed equally to this work.

, correspAuthorsNote=
*E-mail: LUO Huiying,
WANG Xiaolu,
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甲醇因产量大、价格低等诸多优势被视为生物制造的理想非粮原料。扭托甲基红杆菌(Methylorubrum extorquens) AM1凭借其天然的甲醇利用特性而成为该领域重要的模式底盘菌株。本文对基于M. extorquens细胞工厂的甲醇生物制造研究进展进行了综述。首先,探讨了M. extorquens AM1的甲醇代谢途径和适配的合成生物学工具。在此基础上,总结了近年来针对菌株进行代谢工程改造以实现甲醇转化为重组蛋白、可降解材料、有机酸和萜类化合物等产物的研究成果,并梳理了提升工程菌株产物合成能力的代谢工程策略。最后,阐述了M. extorquens AM1细胞工厂的构建与应用局限并提出了未来研究方向。本综述将为M. extorquens细胞工厂的开发以及基于甲醇的工业产品生产提供重要参考。

, authors=崔林1, 2, 王晓雨1, 何洋3, 姚斌1, 罗会颖1, *, 王晓璐1, *, authorsList=崔林, 王晓雨, 何洋, 姚斌, 罗会颖, 王晓璐, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=罗会颖, 王晓璐, authorNote=

作者贡献声明

崔林:初稿撰写、修改和插图绘制;王晓雨:初稿撰写、表格和插图修改、文献检索;何洋:文献检索和整理;姚斌:参与综述主题的选择并提供了该领域内的专业见解和建议;罗会颖:负责综述主题选择、文章撰写和修订;王晓璐:文献分析,综述主题选择、文章撰写及修改。

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ArticleFig(id=1304388959170220567, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=EN, label=Figure 2, caption=Methanol metabolic pathway in Methylorubrum extorquens AM1. MxaF: Methanol dehydrogenase; XoxF: Methanol dehydrogenase; Fae: Formaldehyde-activating enzyme; MtdA: Methylene-H4MPT dehydrogenase; MtdB: Methylene-H4MPT dehydrogenase; Mch: Methenyl-dH4MPT cyclohydrolase; FhcABCD: Formyltransferase/hydrolase complex; Fdh: Formate dehydrogenase; Fch: Methenyl-H4F cyclohydrolase; FtfL: Formyl-H4F ligase; Sga: Serine:glyoxylate aminotransferase; GlyA: Serine hydroxymethyltransferase; Hpr: Hydroxypyruvate reductase; Gck: Glycerate kinase; Eno: Enolase; Ppc: Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase; Mdh: Methanol dehydrogenase; MtkAB: Malate thiokinase; Mcl: Malyl-CoA lyase; PhaA: Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase; PhaB: Acetoacetyl-CoA reductase; CroR: Crotonase; Ccr: Crotonyl-CoA reductase; Epi: Ethylmalonyl-CoA/methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase; Ecm: Ethylmalonyl-CoA mutase; Msd: Methylsuccinyl-CoA dehydrogenase; Mcd: Mesaconyl-CoA hydratase; PccAB: Propionyl-CoA carboxylase; Mcm: Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase; SucCD: Succinyl-CoA synthetase; SdhABCD: Succinate dehydrogenase; FumC: Fumarase; cyt cL(ox): Oxidized cytochrome cL; cyt cL(red): Reduced cytochrome cL; dH4MPT: Dephosphotetrahydromethanopterin; H4F: Tetrahydrofolate; CoA: Coenzyme A; [Q]: Ubiquinone; [QH2]: Ubiquinol; GDP: Guanosine diphosphate; GTP: Guanosine triphosphate; 2-PGA: 2-phosphoglycerate; PEP: Phosphoenolpyruvate; OAA: Oxaloacetate; TCA cycle: Tricarboxylic acid cycle; MFR: Methanofuran., figureFileSmall=+hUg56qsKvFkj2hD2aWVNw==, figureFileBig=rwQd3ptsU8kkkB3wRis2vA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388959241523736, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=CN, label=图2, caption=Methylorubrum extorquens AM1的甲醇代谢途径, figureFileSmall=+hUg56qsKvFkj2hD2aWVNw==, figureFileBig=rwQd3ptsU8kkkB3wRis2vA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388959321215513, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=Gene editing tools adapted for Methylorubrum extorquens AM1. A: Homologous recombination; B: Cre/loxP; C: Transposon; D: CRISPRi; E: sRNA. abR: Antibiotics resistance gene., figureFileSmall=YHoQk4+t3MrjtIvVkylgtw==, figureFileBig=SoqUkbXHvK3+kf08S8V+LQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388959409295898, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=CN, label=图3, caption=适配 Methylorubrum extorquens AM1的基因编辑工具, figureFileSmall=YHoQk4+t3MrjtIvVkylgtw==, figureFileBig=SoqUkbXHvK3+kf08S8V+LQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388959472210459, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Commonly used vectors for Methylorubrum extorquens AM1 strain

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
VectorsDescriptionReferences
pCM433sacB-based allelic exchange vector, antibiotics, AmpR, CmR, TetR, suicide plasmid[27]
pK18mobSacBpMB1 ori, RP4 mob, modified sacB, lacZa, KanR, suicide plasmid[28]
pREDSIXAmpR, mobilizable, oriV, β-lactamase gene bla and P tuF -mCherry, oriT of plasmid RP4[24]
pRK310IncP, oriT, TetR[25]
pVK100IncP, KanR, TetR[25]
pCM46traJ′ allele, oriV, TetR, oriT[25]
pCM80pCM62 derivative, TetR, P mxaF, oriT, pBR322 ori[27]
pCM80KmpCM62 derivative, KanR, P mxaF, oriT, pBR322 ori[29]
pCM48traJ′ allele, oriV, TetR, oriT[25]
pCM62traJ′ allele, oriV, TetR, oriT, improved broad-host-range cloning vector[25]
pCM110traJ′ allele, oriV, TetR, oriT, P mxaF[30]
pHC115traJ′, oriV, oriT, KanR, pBR322 ori[31]
pBBRIMCS-3ColE1 ori, pBBR1 Rep, oriV, TetR[32]
pBBR1-MCS2ColE1 ori, pBBR1 Rep, oriV, KanR[33]
pMis1_1BColE1 ori, pBBR1 Rep, oriV, KanR[34]
), ArticleFig(id=1304388959560290844, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

适配 Methylorubrum extorquens AM1菌株的常用载体

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
VectorsDescriptionReferences
pCM433sacB-based allelic exchange vector, antibiotics, AmpR, CmR, TetR, suicide plasmid[27]
pK18mobSacBpMB1 ori, RP4 mob, modified sacB, lacZa, KanR, suicide plasmid[28]
pREDSIXAmpR, mobilizable, oriV, β-lactamase gene bla and P tuF -mCherry, oriT of plasmid RP4[24]
pRK310IncP, oriT, TetR[25]
pVK100IncP, KanR, TetR[25]
pCM46traJ′ allele, oriV, TetR, oriT[25]
pCM80pCM62 derivative, TetR, P mxaF, oriT, pBR322 ori[27]
pCM80KmpCM62 derivative, KanR, P mxaF, oriT, pBR322 ori[29]
pCM48traJ′ allele, oriV, TetR, oriT[25]
pCM62traJ′ allele, oriV, TetR, oriT, improved broad-host-range cloning vector[25]
pCM110traJ′ allele, oriV, TetR, oriT, P mxaF[30]
pHC115traJ′, oriV, oriT, KanR, pBR322 ori[31]
pBBRIMCS-3ColE1 ori, pBBR1 Rep, oriV, TetR[32]
pBBR1-MCS2ColE1 ori, pBBR1 Rep, oriV, KanR[33]
pMis1_1BColE1 ori, pBBR1 Rep, oriV, KanR[34]
), ArticleFig(id=1304388959660954141, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Promoters used in the Methylorubrum extorquens AM1 strain

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
PromoterCharacteristicsConstitutive/inducibleReferences
P mxaFPromoter of endogenous mxaF geneConstitutive[38]
P mxaF*T159C mutation of P mxaFConstitutive[39]
P fumCPromoter of endogenous fumC geneConstitutive[24]
P coxBPromoter of endogenous coxB geneConstitutive[24]
P tufPromoter of endogenous tuf geneConstitutive[24]
P meta1_002Promoter of endogenous meta1_002 geneConstitutive[40]
P meta1_3616Promoter of endogenous meta1_3616 geneConstitutive[41]
P RPromoter from the rhizobial phage 16-3Constitutive[26]
P lacPromoter of Escherichia coli lactose operonConstitutive[40]
P tacArtifical promoterConstitutive[40]
P R/cmtOCumate-inducible promoterInducible[42]
P S6Cumate-inducible promoterInducible[43]
P R/tetOTetracycline-inducible promoterInducible[31]
P A1lacO-1IPTG-inducible promoterInducible[36]
HexR/P zwf1Glucose-inducible promoterInducible[44]
XutR/P xutAXylose-inducible promoterInducible[44]
HpdR/P hpdHLevulinic acid-inducible promoterInducible[44]
P sgaPromoter of endogenous sga geneInducible[45]
), ArticleFig(id=1304388959744840222, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

应用于 Methylorubrum extorquens AM1菌株中的启动子

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
PromoterCharacteristicsConstitutive/inducibleReferences
P mxaFPromoter of endogenous mxaF geneConstitutive[38]
P mxaF*T159C mutation of P mxaFConstitutive[39]
P fumCPromoter of endogenous fumC geneConstitutive[24]
P coxBPromoter of endogenous coxB geneConstitutive[24]
P tufPromoter of endogenous tuf geneConstitutive[24]
P meta1_002Promoter of endogenous meta1_002 geneConstitutive[40]
P meta1_3616Promoter of endogenous meta1_3616 geneConstitutive[41]
P RPromoter from the rhizobial phage 16-3Constitutive[26]
P lacPromoter of Escherichia coli lactose operonConstitutive[40]
P tacArtifical promoterConstitutive[40]
P R/cmtOCumate-inducible promoterInducible[42]
P S6Cumate-inducible promoterInducible[43]
P R/tetOTetracycline-inducible promoterInducible[31]
P A1lacO-1IPTG-inducible promoterInducible[36]
HexR/P zwf1Glucose-inducible promoterInducible[44]
XutR/P xutAXylose-inducible promoterInducible[44]
HpdR/P hpdHLevulinic acid-inducible promoterInducible[44]
P sgaPromoter of endogenous sga geneInducible[45]
), ArticleFig(id=1304388959837114911, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=

Commonly used genomic integration sites

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Integration siteGenBank entryDescriptionReferences
depCMexAM1_META1p1079Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) depolymerase encoding gene[47]
celABCMexAM1_META1p1167-MexAM1_META1p1169Cellulose synthase gene operon[62]
poxBMexAM1_META1p1455Pyruvate oxidase encoding gene[52]
attTn7Between MexAM1_META1p4546 and MexAM1_META1p4547An intergenic region between glucosamine-6-phosphate synthetase (GlmS) and which encodes 1,3-propanediol dehydrogenase (DhaT) encoding genes[52]
ccrMexAM1_META1p0178Crotonyl-CoA reductase encoding gene[28]
), ArticleFig(id=1304388959900029472, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

常用的基因组整合位点

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Integration siteGenBank entryDescriptionReferences
depCMexAM1_META1p1079Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) depolymerase encoding gene[47]
celABCMexAM1_META1p1167-MexAM1_META1p1169Cellulose synthase gene operon[62]
poxBMexAM1_META1p1455Pyruvate oxidase encoding gene[52]
attTn7Between MexAM1_META1p4546 and MexAM1_META1p4547An intergenic region between glucosamine-6-phosphate synthetase (GlmS) and which encodes 1,3-propanediol dehydrogenase (DhaT) encoding genes[52]
ccrMexAM1_META1p0178Crotonyl-CoA reductase encoding gene[28]
), ArticleFig(id=1304388959962944033, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=EN, label=Table 4, caption=

Chemicals produced using methanol as a feedstock

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
ClassificationProductsTiterCulture methodsReferences
Recombinant proteinLn3+-dependent methanol dehydrogenase-Shake flask[69]
PQQ-dependent methanol dehydrogenase-Shake flask[70]
Methanol dehydrogenase 1-Shake flask[71]
Cry1Aa4.5% of total cellular proteinShake flask[72]
Haloalkane dehalogenase10% of total cellular proteinShake flask[73]
Biodegradable polymerPHB43% of the dry weight of the cellsShake flask[74]
3HV-3HHx-PHA41% of the dry weight of the cellsShake flask[28]
Organic acids and platform chemicals3-hydroxypropionic acid69.8 mg/LShake flask[41]
3-hydroxypropionic acid0.857 g/LFed-batch fermentation[27]
3-hydroxypropionic acid1.75 g/LShake flask[67]
2-hydroxyisobutyric acid2.1 g/LFed-batch fermentation[32]
Itaconic acid31.6 mg/LShake flask[45]
D-lactate8.39 g/LFed-batch fermentation[52]
Mevalonate70 mg/LShake flask[75]
Methylsuccinic acid60 mg/LShake flask[75]
Mevalonate2.22 g/LFed-batch fermentation[76]
Mevalonate2.59 g/LFed-batch fermentation[77]
1-butanol15.2 mg/LShake flask[40]
Isobutanol19 mg/LShake flask[38]
TerpenoidPatchoulol-Shake flask[78]
α-humulene1.65 g/LFed-batch fermentation[42]
OtherViolacein11.7 mg/LShake flask[33]
Pregnenolone100 mg/LShake flask[48]
Phloroglucinol108.8 mg/LShake flask[24]
), ArticleFig(id=1304388960051024418, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

利用甲醇原料生产的化学品

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
ClassificationProductsTiterCulture methodsReferences
Recombinant proteinLn3+-dependent methanol dehydrogenase-Shake flask[69]
PQQ-dependent methanol dehydrogenase-Shake flask[70]
Methanol dehydrogenase 1-Shake flask[71]
Cry1Aa4.5% of total cellular proteinShake flask[72]
Haloalkane dehalogenase10% of total cellular proteinShake flask[73]
Biodegradable polymerPHB43% of the dry weight of the cellsShake flask[74]
3HV-3HHx-PHA41% of the dry weight of the cellsShake flask[28]
Organic acids and platform chemicals3-hydroxypropionic acid69.8 mg/LShake flask[41]
3-hydroxypropionic acid0.857 g/LFed-batch fermentation[27]
3-hydroxypropionic acid1.75 g/LShake flask[67]
2-hydroxyisobutyric acid2.1 g/LFed-batch fermentation[32]
Itaconic acid31.6 mg/LShake flask[45]
D-lactate8.39 g/LFed-batch fermentation[52]
Mevalonate70 mg/LShake flask[75]
Methylsuccinic acid60 mg/LShake flask[75]
Mevalonate2.22 g/LFed-batch fermentation[76]
Mevalonate2.59 g/LFed-batch fermentation[77]
1-butanol15.2 mg/LShake flask[40]
Isobutanol19 mg/LShake flask[38]
TerpenoidPatchoulol-Shake flask[78]
α-humulene1.65 g/LFed-batch fermentation[42]
OtherViolacein11.7 mg/LShake flask[33]
Pregnenolone100 mg/LShake flask[48]
Phloroglucinol108.8 mg/LShake flask[24]
), ArticleFig(id=1304388960134910499, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=EN, label=Table 5, caption=

Strategies for enhancing target product synthesis

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
StrategiesTypesProductsTiter enhancementReferences
Increasing the metabolic flux of methanolIncorporating the RuMP cycle3-hydroxypropionic acid3.1-fold[27]
Adaptive laboratory evolution-Cell density was increased by 7.1-fold[82]
Mutation of QscRMevalonate2.8-fold[83]
PHA synthase knockoutMesaconic acid5.0-fold[84]
Expression of YciAF35L mutantMesaconic acid6.4-fold[85]
Optimization of cofactor supplyActivation of the photosynthetic system3-hydroxypropionic acid3.0-fold[67]
Mixed carbon source cultivation3-hydroxypropionic acid1.6-fold[39]
Improvement of strain product toleranceAdaptive laboratory evolution1-butanol-[86]
Elimination of product re-utilizationIsolated a dicarboxylic acid import mutantCitramalic acid1.4-fold[87]
Culture medium and fermentation process optimizationReduction of manganese ion concentrationPhloroglucinol1.7-fold[24]
Two-phase fermentationα-humulene-[42]
), ArticleFig(id=1304388960231379492, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366255453004566, language=CN, label=表5, caption=

提升目标产物合成的策略

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
StrategiesTypesProductsTiter enhancementReferences
Increasing the metabolic flux of methanolIncorporating the RuMP cycle3-hydroxypropionic acid3.1-fold[27]
Adaptive laboratory evolution-Cell density was increased by 7.1-fold[82]
Mutation of QscRMevalonate2.8-fold[83]
PHA synthase knockoutMesaconic acid5.0-fold[84]
Expression of YciAF35L mutantMesaconic acid6.4-fold[85]
Optimization of cofactor supplyActivation of the photosynthetic system3-hydroxypropionic acid3.0-fold[67]
Mixed carbon source cultivation3-hydroxypropionic acid1.6-fold[39]
Improvement of strain product toleranceAdaptive laboratory evolution1-butanol-[86]
Elimination of product re-utilizationIsolated a dicarboxylic acid import mutantCitramalic acid1.4-fold[87]
Culture medium and fermentation process optimizationReduction of manganese ion concentrationPhloroglucinol1.7-fold[24]
Two-phase fermentationα-humulene-[42]
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扭托甲基红杆菌AM1代谢工程改造及甲醇基化学品合成研究进展
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崔林 1, 2 , 王晓雨 1 , 何洋 3 , 姚斌 1 , 罗会颖 1, * , 王晓璐 1, *
微生物学报 | 综述 2026,66(9): 4520-4544
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微生物学报 |综述 2026 , 66 (9) : 4520 -4544
扭托甲基红杆菌AM1代谢工程改造及甲醇基化学品合成研究进展
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崔林1, 2, 王晓雨1, 何洋3, 姚斌1, 罗会颖1, * , 王晓璐1, *
作者信息
  • 1.中国农业科学院北京畜牧兽医研究所,动物营养与饲养国家重点实验室,北京
  • 2.中国农业科学院饲料研究所,北京
  • 3.中国农业科学院生物技术研究所,北京
通讯作者:
罗会颖, 王晓璐
作者简介:

作者贡献声明

崔林:初稿撰写、修改和插图绘制;王晓雨:初稿撰写、表格和插图修改、文献检索;何洋:文献检索和整理;姚斌:参与综述主题的选择并提供了该领域内的专业见解和建议;罗会颖:负责综述主题选择、文章撰写和修订;王晓璐:文献分析,综述主题选择、文章撰写及修改。

Metabolic engineering of Methylorubrum extorquens AM1 and its applications in methanol-based chemical biosynthesis: a review
Lin CUI1, 2, Xiaoyu WANG1, Yang HE3, Bin YAO1, Huiying LUO1, * , Xiaolu WANG1, *
Affiliations
  • 1.State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
  • 2.Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
  • 3.Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
  • Corresponding Author:
    *E-mail: LUO Huiying,
    WANG Xiaolu,
出版时间: 2026-09-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260545
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甲醇因产量大、价格低等诸多优势被视为生物制造的理想非粮原料。扭托甲基红杆菌(Methylorubrum extorquens) AM1凭借其天然的甲醇利用特性而成为该领域重要的模式底盘菌株。本文对基于M. extorquens细胞工厂的甲醇生物制造研究进展进行了综述。首先,探讨了M. extorquens AM1的甲醇代谢途径和适配的合成生物学工具。在此基础上,总结了近年来针对菌株进行代谢工程改造以实现甲醇转化为重组蛋白、可降解材料、有机酸和萜类化合物等产物的研究成果,并梳理了提升工程菌株产物合成能力的代谢工程策略。最后,阐述了M. extorquens AM1细胞工厂的构建与应用局限并提出了未来研究方向。本综述将为M. extorquens细胞工厂的开发以及基于甲醇的工业产品生产提供重要参考。

扭托甲基红杆菌  /  代谢工程  /  甲醇  /  化学品生产  /  生物制造策略

Methanol is regarded as an ideal non-food feedstock for biomanufacturing due to its abundant supply and low cost. Methylorubrum extorquens AM1 has become a prominent model chassis strain in this field, owing to its natural ability to utilize methanol. This review summarizes recent advances in methanol-based biomanufacturing viaM. extorquens AM1 cell factories. First, the methanol metabolic pathways and compatible synthetic biology tools available for this strain are discussed. Subsequently, we highlight recent achievements in the metabolic engineering of this strain for the production of recombinant proteins, biodegradable materials, organic acids, and terpenoids. Building on these findings, we outline the metabolic engineering strategies that have been employed to enhance the biosynthetic capacity of engineered strains. Finally, we discuss the current limitations in constructing and applying M. extorquens AM1 cell factories and propose future research directions. This review will serve as a valuable reference for the development of M. extorquens cell factories and for the industrial production of methanol-derived products.

Methylorubrum extorquens  /  metabolic engineering  /  methanol  /  chemicals production  /  biomanufacturing strategy
崔林, 王晓雨, 何洋, 姚斌, 罗会颖, 王晓璐. 扭托甲基红杆菌AM1代谢工程改造及甲醇基化学品合成研究进展. 微生物学报, 2026 , 66 (9) : 4520 -4544 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260545
Lin CUI, Xiaoyu WANG, Yang HE, Bin YAO, Huiying LUO, Xiaolu WANG. Metabolic engineering of Methylorubrum extorquens AM1 and its applications in methanol-based chemical biosynthesis: a review[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2026 , 66 (9) : 4520 -4544 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260545
随着全球化学品与能源消费需求的持续攀升,依赖于化石能源的生产模式正面临资源短缺与碳排放导致气候恶化的双重压力。凭借绿色、高效、可持续等优势,生物制造成为推动我国未来经济增长的重要新质生产力[1]。构建微生物细胞工厂并利用可再生原料进行高附加值化学品生产是绿色生物制造的主要方向之一。然而,传统基于糖基原料的生物制造业正受到“与人争粮”等现实困境。因此,亟需开发非粮、低成本的替代原料以拓展新型生物转化路径[2]。其中,可实现“负碳”生产的一碳原料[甲酸、甲醇、甲烷和二氧化碳(CO2)等]凭借来源广泛和可再生性,将在生物制造领域扮演起日益重要的角色[3]
在诸多一碳化合物中,甲醇具有储量大、价格低和传质效率高等诸多优点,是基于生物制造的化工产品生产的理想原料[4]。目前,甲醇的全球年产量超1亿t,且随着以煤炭、甲烷及二氧化碳为原料的制造工艺不断成熟,将进一步为其生产开辟新的途径[5]。此外,与传统碳源(葡萄糖、木糖和甘油等)相比,甲醇具有更强的还原性和更高的能量,是理想的生物发酵底物[6]。能够天然利用甲醇作为唯一碳源和能量源的甲基营养型微生物,包括甲醇酵母和甲基营养型细菌,是建立甲醇生物转化细胞工厂的潜在底盘菌株[7]
常见的甲醇酵母和甲基营养型细菌包括毕赤酵母(Komagataella phaffii)和扭托甲基红杆菌[Methylorubrum extorquens,曾被称为扭托甲基杆菌(Methylobacterium extorquens)] AM1等。作为代表性的甲基营养型酵母,毕赤酵母基于木酮糖单磷酸途径(xylulose monophosphate, XuMP)利用甲醇为唯一碳源进行增殖。毕赤酵母因其公认的安全性(generally recognized as safe, GRAS)、生长速度快及适合高密度发酵等特点,目前已被广泛用作生产异源重组蛋白、高附加值化学品等的微生物细胞工厂[8]。当以甲醇作为碳源时,其代谢通量被限制在XuMP途径中而难以进入下游产物生成途径,从而对产物产量造成了限制。此外,该菌株还存在基因敲除效率低等缺陷[9]。作为甲基营养型细菌的模式菌株,M. extorquens AM1是一株好氧型兼性革兰氏阴性α-变形菌[10],具有碳固定效率高、代谢灵活性强、可利用廉价培养基并实现高密度发酵和基因组测序注释数据完备等诸多优势,但同时也存在生长周期长等缺陷[11]M. extorquens中进行甲醇代谢的丝氨酸循环和乙基丙二酰辅酶A途径(ethylmalonyl-CoA pathway, EMCP)能够形成丰富的辅酶A活化中间体,为化学品的生产提供了充足的前体物[12]。随着遗传操作工具被相继开发,M. extorquens AM1已成为以甲醇为原料的生物制造研究的代表性底盘菌株[13]。尤其具有应用价值的是,在培养胁迫条件下M. extorquens会在胞内合成聚合物聚3-羟基丁酸酯(polyhydroxybutyrate, PHB)颗粒作为储存还原力和碳源的物质,该物质可用于生产生物塑料。目前,基于M. extorquens AM1以甲醇为原料的生物制造已被广泛用于合成多种高附加值化合物,如重组蛋白、有机酸以及生物可降解聚合物等(图1)[5]
本文首先总结了M. extorquens AM1的甲醇代谢途径及合成生物学工具开发的研究进展。在此基础上,重点介绍了将其改造为细胞工厂,以甲醇为原料生产化学品的最新研究成果。同时,分析了提升菌株产物合成能力的策略。最后,总结并展望了M. extorquens AM1作为下一代工业菌株用于生物制造所面临的挑战与未来研究方向。
M. extorquens AM1的甲醇代谢包括甲醇氧化、甲醛同化和异化等过程,有超过100个基因参与其中(图2)[14]
M. extorquens AM1中,甲醇代谢的第一步是被氧化生成甲醛。这一反应是由位于周质空间内不需消耗还原力的吡咯喹啉醌(pyrroloquinoline quinone, PQQ)依赖型甲醇脱氢酶催化的[15]。在这过程中,甲醇脱氢酶中的PQQ吸收电子后传递给特异性的细胞色素cL,而后再经I型细胞色素cH传递至细胞色素c氧化酶,最终传递给氧气[16]。目前,M. extorquens AM1已被鉴定出的甲醇脱氢酶有2种,分别为Ca2+依赖的MxaF型甲醇脱氢酶和La3+依赖的XoxF型甲醇脱氢酶(图2)[17]M. extorquens中的XoxF1兼具甲醇和甲醛氧化活性,在特定条件下可替代MxaF发挥功能。此外,XoxF1及其旁系同源蛋白XoxF2还被认为参与了甲醇代谢相关基因的调控[12]。Good等[18]研究表明,当菌株以甲醇为碳源,且培养基中外加La3+时PQQ-依赖型的乙醇脱氢酶(ExaF)也具有甲醇氧化活性。
甲醇被氧化成甲醛后有2种途径参与后续代谢:(1)经异化途径氧化生成CO2;(2)通过同化途径转变为细胞组分。
甲基营养菌中的甲醛异化途径既是细胞免受甲醛毒害作用的自我保护机制,也是NAD(P)H和ATP的重要来源。在M. extorquens AM1中,甲醛经四氢叶酸(tetrahydrofolate, H4F)依赖型和四氢甲基蝶呤(tetrahydromethanopterin, H4MPT)依赖型途径发生进一步氧化。其中,由于甲醛活化酶(formaldehyde-activating enzyme, Fae)的存在且亚甲基-H4MPT脱氢酶(methylene-H4MPT dehydrogenase, Mtd)催化的反应为基本不可逆的放能反应,因此胞内大部分甲醛会被引导进入H4MPT依赖型的途径进行转化(图2)[19]。首先,甲醛与缺少末端α-羟基戊二酰磷酸基团的去磷酸化H4MPT (dH4MPT)自发缩合生成亚甲基-dH4MPT;同时,该反应也可由Fae催化发生;亚甲基-dH4MPT随后在MtdA (NADP+依赖)和MtdB [NAD(P)+依赖]作用下被氧化为次甲基-dH4MPT;其中,MtdB是主要的催化酶,而MtdA则可能主要作为H4F依赖型酶发挥功能;因此,该过程主要生成NADH,而后其可直接进入呼吸链用于有氧能量代谢;随后,次甲基-dH4MPT在次甲基-dH4MPT环水解酶(methenyl-dH4MPT cyclohydrolase, Mch)的催化下生成甲酰基-dH4MPT;接着,其通过甲酰基转移酶/水解酶复合体(formyltransferase/hydrolase complex, FhcABCD)催化依次生成甲酰基-甲烷呋喃和甲酸[12]。最后,甲酸在甲酸脱氢酶(formate dehydrogenase, Fdh)的催化下生成CO2M. extorquens AM1中存在4种非同源的甲酸脱氢酶(Fdh1-Fdh4)。甲醛氧化每生成1分子CO2的同时会生成2分子NADH (图2)[20]
甲醛需经同化途径进入中心代谢以供给细胞生长所需前体和能量。在M. extorquens AM1中,甲醛的同化依赖于H4F和H4MPT所分别介导的直接和间接途径。
甲醛能够在直接途径中通过非酶促反应和H4F生成亚甲基-H4F,而后进入丝氨酸循环。然而,间接途径是亚甲基-H4F生成的主要途径。在该途径中,甲醛经H4MPT依赖途径生成甲酸后,在甲酸四氢叶酸连接酶(formyl-H4F ligase, FtfL)催化下与H4F发生缩合反应生成甲酰基-H4F,其在亚甲基-H4F环化水解酶(methenyl-H4F cyclohydrolase, Fch)的催化下转化为次甲基-H4F,再经MtdA催化生成亚甲基-H4F;在大多数已知细菌中,这2步反应通常是由folD基因编码的双功能酶完成的;随后,亚甲基-H4F进入丝氨酸循环;其中,MtdA和Fch与丝氨酸循环酶系会受到协同调控[21]
亚甲基-H4F与甘氨酸在丝氨酸羟甲基转移酶(serine hydroxymethyltransferase, GlyA)催化下生成丝氨酸,同时释放H4F。丝氨酸在丝氨酸:乙醛酸氨基转移酶(serine:glyoxylate aminotransferase, Sga)的作用下生成羟基丙酮酸。而后在羟基丙酮酸还原酶(hydroxypyruvate reductase, Hpr)的催化下转变成甘油酸,再由甘油酸激酶(glycerate kinase, Gck)催化生成2-磷酸甘油酸[12]。随后通过一系列与糖酵解和三羧酸循环部分共享的反应步骤生成苹果酸。经苹果酸硫激酶(malate thiokinase, Mtk)生成苹果酰辅酶A。苹果酰辅酶A经苹果酰辅酶A裂解酶(malyl-CoA lyase, Mcl)催化生成乙酰辅酶A和乙醛酸。乙醛酸在Sga催化下再生为甘氨酸进入下一个循环。
乙醛酸持续再生才能维持丝氨酸循环的运行。与经典乙醛酸循环不同,M. extorquens AM1具有一条基于辅酶A硫酯中间体的替代途径,即EMCP。首先,2个乙酰辅酶A分子缩合并经一系列辅酶A硫酯中间体转化生成β-甲基苹果酰辅酶A。β-甲基苹果酰辅酶A随后裂解生成乙醛酸和丙酰辅酶A。该途径包含了一些特有反应,如由巴豆酰辅酶A还原酶(crotonyl-CoA reductase, Ccr)催化的巴豆酰辅酶A生成乙基丙二酰辅酶A,而后其由乙基丙二酰辅酶A变位酶(ethylmalonyl-CoA mutase, Ecm)催化生成甲基琥珀酰辅酶A (图2)[12]
丝氨酸途径理论上不会造成碳损失,而且1分子甲醇还能同化1分子CO2,但该过程需要消耗ATP与NADH,在某种程度上也属于碳损失[22]
合成生物学工具的开发是构建细胞工厂的先决条件[23]。近年来,研究者围绕M. extorquens AM1逐步构建了较为完善的遗传操作工具体系,包括游离质粒载体及启动子等表达调控元件、转化方法、基因编辑技术以及基因组规模代谢模型(genome-scale metabolic modeling, GSM)等,为外源基因表达、代谢通路重构提供了支撑,推动了甲醇生物制造研究。
在构建目标产物合成通路的过程中,代谢途径相关基因需以适当水平表达。目前,在M. extorquens AM1中利用游离型质粒表达系统已成功实现了内源和异源蛋白的过表达。此外,已有多个菌株适配的组成型和诱导型启动子被鉴定出来,能够精准调控靶基因表达[24]
游离质粒载体是基因工程中不可或缺的工具,其不但能用于工程菌株中合成代谢通路相关酶基因的表达,还可作为便捷测试平台,在酶基因筛选与染色体整合之间提供快速的中间验证[23]
基于IncP复制子的大型质粒pRK310 (19 kb)和pVK100 (23 kb)均能应用于M. extorquens AM1中。然而,该类载体的使用受限于其大小和有限的酶切位点[25]。在小型游离载体的构建方面,Marx等[25]从基于小型IncP复制子的质粒pDN19突变体库中分离出一个能在M. extorquens中稳定存在的突变体pDN19X,并衍生出了pCM46、pCM48以及广宿主载体pCM62等。基于此构建了目前在M. extorquens AM1中应用最广泛的表达载体pCM80、pCM110等pCM系列及pTE系列载体(表1)[26]。Orita等[29]通过替换pCM80中的抗性基因构建了卡那霉素抗性的载体pCM80Km。此外,Chubiz等[31]基于pHC115构建了利用诱导型启动子在M. extorquens AM1中表达红色荧光蛋白的表达载体pLC290和pLC291。为进一步拓展适配质粒种类,Rohde等[32]和Quynh Le等[33]分别利用在多种革兰氏阴性菌中均可稳定复制的广宿主载体pBBR1MCS-3和pBBR1-MCS2实现了在M. extorquens AM1中的外源基因表达(表1),但该类载体也存在电转化效率较低的缺陷。
除小分子量游离载体外,许多α-变形菌拥有巨大质粒组成的多分区基因组并由repABC表达盒驱动在菌株中的垂直传递[35]。Carrillo等[36]利用repABC表达盒、大肠埃希氏菌(Escherichia coli)复制起点、抗生素(卡那霉素、庆大霉素、四环素等)抗性基因表达盒成功组装了适用于M. extorquens AM1的微型染色体。
单质粒在使用中会受限于载体分子量和酶切位点可用性。使用2种兼容的独立质粒可提高实验灵活性并简化工程菌株的开发流程。Pöschel等[34]开发了基于pBBR1的rep基因启动子区域发生突变的质粒pMis1_1B;作为一种可被用于M. extorquens的新型游离载体,它能够与广泛使用的pCM系统质粒兼容,拓展了M. extorquens AM1的遗传操作工具箱。
启动子负责在宿主系统中驱动基因表达。为了实现酶蛋白表达量和作用时间上的精确调控,需开发适配M. extorquens AM1的覆盖不同表达强度的启动子[37]
目前已为M. extorquens AM1开发了一系列天然组成型启动子(表2)。Schada von Borzyskowski等[26]建立了基于荧光蛋白(mCherry)的组成型启动子筛选系统,挖掘和表征了一套不同强度的组成型启动子,以满足不同基因的表达调控需求,包括P mxaF 、P fumC 、P coxB 和P tuf 等,其强度排序为P fumC <P coxB <P tuf ≈P mxaF。其中,P mxaF 是目前细胞工厂中最常用的组成型启动子[24,38]。P mxaF 的T159C突变(P mxaF* )使其活性增加了60%[39]。同时,M. extorquens内源启动子P meta1_002 和P meta1_3616 也在构建产物生产菌株时被用于调控合成途径中关键酶基因的表达[40-41]。除内源启动子外,人工启动子P tac 、大肠埃希氏菌来源启动子P lac 以及来自根瘤菌噬菌体16-3的强启动子P R 也被应用于M. extorquens AM1中[26,40]
在实际应用中,菌株中不受控的组成型表达系统可能会导致目标蛋白的过度生产和结构不稳定,从而对细胞造成损害。为规避上述缺陷,已有多种适配M. extorquens AM1的诱导型启动子被开发出来(表2)。研究人员基于转录抑制因子CymR和TetR及相应操纵基因位点cmtO和tetO,开发了分别以4-异丙基苯甲酸(cumate)或脱水四环素(anhydrotetracycline)作为诱导剂的启动子,如P R/cmtO 、P S6 和P R/tetO 等。这些启动子因具有基础表达水平低、诱导后表达水平高的特点而被广泛使用[31,36,42-43]。此外,Carrillo等[36]构建了由异丙基-β-D-硫代半乳糖苷(isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside, IPTG)作为诱导剂的诱导型启动子;同时,为了克服该类启动子表达弱和渗漏问题,开发了一套由不同lacO调控的诱导型启动子,其诱导倍数在6-36倍之间;此外,由P A1 和P L 衍生的诱导型启动子,其最大强度介于强启动子P mxaF 的9%-166%之间,这为蛋白质的可控过表达提供了新的可能。然而,IPTG因其毒性和成本问题并不适合工业规模应用。因此,使用廉价的可再生底物作为诱导剂可能成为大规模生产生物化学品的可行策略[46]。Sathesh-Prabu等[44]评估了由葡萄糖(HexR/P zwf1 )、木糖(XutR/P xutA )和乙酰丙酸(HpdR/P hpdH )诱导的启动子系统在M. extorquens AM1中的功能,结果表明乙酰丙酸诱导系统展现出了最强的外源基因表达;该系统可调且控制严谨,基础表达水平极低,表达效率与广泛使用的强启动子(如P mxaF 和P L/O4 )几乎相当。除外源杂合启动子外,Casaroli等[47]利用M. extorquens内源sga基因启动子(P sga )成功实现了依赖于甲醇诱导的绿色荧光蛋白的表达。
将外源质粒导入宿主细胞是构建工程菌株的基本技术。接合转移和电穿孔转化方法已在M. extorquens AM1中获得了广泛应用。
接合转移是由质粒或转座子介导的借助性菌毛建立细胞间连接而实现的质粒的水平转移过程。在利用接合转移将外源质粒转入M. extorquens AM1的过程中,大肠埃希氏菌S17-1λpir是最常用的质粒供体菌株。Lim等[45]将基于pCM433的基因敲除载体通过接合转移转化到M. extorquens AM1菌株中,实现了phaR基因的敲除。Tekucheva等[48]将处于指数生长期的M. extorquens AM1受体菌株与等量的大肠埃希氏菌S17-1λpir供体菌混合并置于带有微孔滤膜的培养基上进行孵育;随后洗涤滤膜并将细胞悬液涂布于选择性培养基上实现了pCM160及其衍生质粒向M. extorquens中的转化。虽然接合转移转化效率较高,但该过程涉及复杂且费时的步骤。因此,诸如电穿孔法等简单省时的方法更受青睐。
电穿孔法即通过瞬时的电脉冲在细胞质膜上形成孔道,使核酸得以进入细胞质,是目前所有转化方法中最为便捷且高效的方法。Toyama等[49-50]基于前期报道建立了适配M. extorquens AM1的电转化方法。对于2 mm电击杯,采用2.5 kV、400 Ω、25 μF;对于1 mm间隙电击杯,参数设置采用2 kV、200 Ω、25 μF。Ledermann等[51]对上述方法进行了优化,即使用1 mm间隙电击杯时将电击条件改为2.15 kV和200 Ω。Zhang等[52]利用电转化法成功将基因表达载体pCM80和基因敲除载体pCM433转入M. extorquens AM1中。
M. extorquens AM1基因组进行精准、高效的遗传改造是工程菌株开发的关键。随着合成生物学的发展,应用于该菌株的基因编辑技术也取得了系列突破,包括基于正筛-反筛标记的同源重组、Cre/loxP和转座系统等在内的多种技术为M. extorquens AM1的代谢工程改造提供了机遇(图3)。
基于自杀质粒的同源重组(homologous recombination, HR)系统依赖于含有抗生素抗性基因以及果聚糖蔗糖酶编码基因(sacB)的自杀质粒。其中,抗生素抗性作为正向筛选标记赋予宿主抗生素抗性,而SacB作为反向筛选标记,可催化培养基中的蔗糖转化为对细胞有毒的果聚糖,从而导致第二轮同源重组以实现基因的敲除或插入(图3A)[23]。作为在M. extorquens AM1中应用最广的基因编辑技术,Zhang等[52]利用pCM433载体实现了对PHA合酶(PHA synthase, PhaC)编码基因phaC和丙酮酸氧化酶(pyruvate oxidase)编码基因poxB的敲除(表1)。Orita等[28]利用pK18mobSacB载体将豚鼠气单胞菌(Aeromonas caviae)来源的PhaCN149S/D171G突变体编码基因敲入了M. extorquens AM1基因组中(表1)。尽管该系统已广泛应用于多种细菌物种,但也容易产生假阳性、蔗糖抗性的克隆。Ledermann等[51]利用pREDSIX载体在M. extorquens AM1中建立了不依赖于SacB反选,而是依靠抗性标记替换目标基因实现基因敲除的基因编辑系统,并实现了对mxaF基因的敲除(表1)。Van Woudenberg等[24]利用该系统成功敲除了菌株的phaC基因。
Cre/loxP系统不需要宿主蛋白和能量因子的辅助,具有操作简单、适应性高等特点,已经被用于各种物种的基因编辑。Cre是来自P1噬菌体的重组酶。该蛋白天然具有内源核定位序列,可经被动扩散进入真核生物细胞核。loxP (locus of X-over of P1)是一段34 bp的DNA序列,该位点包括2个位于两端大小为14 bp的倒置重复序列,以及一段6 bp的间隔序列组成。Cre重组酶可特异性地识别loxP片段,并引导其重组。Cre/loxP系统能够实现基因敲除、基因功能鉴定以及外源基因整合等多种功能(图3B)[53]。Marx等[54]构建了适配M. extorquens AM1的Cre/loxP系统,该系统由一个携带位于loxP位点之间卡那霉素抗性基因表达盒的等位交换载体,以及一个表达Cre重组酶的质粒组成。Liang等[55]测试了Cre/loxP系统介导的甲羟戊酸合成途径相关酶表达盒在M. extorquens AM1基因组中的基因多拷贝整合的能力,通过在高浓度卡那霉素(600 mg/L)培养基中对突变体进行筛选获得了携带2-3个拷贝的菌株。传统的Cre/loxP系统会随着使用次数的增多而逐渐在基因组中积累多个loxP位点,进而影响基因组稳定性。为解决这一问题,Zhu等[56]构建了基于单质粒pSL-TP-cre-km,包含miniHimar1转座子和可诱导的cre-lox71/lox66系统的基因组多位点整合工具,并成功实现了外源基因的多轮整合。
转座子是一类可在基因组中自主移动位置的DNA序列,即DNA片段在负责“切割”和“连接”的转座酶帮助下,在基因组中“复制粘贴”自身的过程。利用转座子系统可实现外源DNA片段的随机或定点插入[57]。目前,已在M. extorquens AM1中成功构建了多种类型的转座系统(图3C)。Marx等[58]使用微型Tn5转座系统衍生而来的IsphoA/hah-Tc在M. extorquens AM1中实现了二氢甲烷蝶呤还原酶编码基因的筛选。Schada von Borzyskowski等[26]使用基于pAG408载体的微型Tn5转座系统实现了荧光蛋白mCherry编码基因在M. extorquens AM1基因组中的整合,为外源基因表达盒在菌株染色体中的整合提供了一种高效的方案。
为应对M. extorquens中必需基因敲除困难及代谢途径关键基因需动态调控的双重挑战,作为CRISPR/Cas9系统衍生技术的CRISPR interference (CRISPRi)和反式作用小调控RNA (trans-acting small regulatory RNA, sRNA)系统提供了一种有效的基因调控策略。
CRISPRi系统由一个保留了DNA结合能力而核酸酶失活的Cas9突变体(dCas9)和共表达的单链向导RNA (single guide RNA, sgRNA)组成。dCas9与sgRNA形成的复合物会结合到与sgRNA互补的特异性DNA序列上,从而阻断靶基因转录(图3D)[23]。Mo等[59]通过平衡失活的酿脓链球菌(Streptococcus pyogenes)来源Cas9 (dCas9)和sgRNA的启动子强度,开发了适配M. extorquens AM1的CRISPRi系统;通过靶向编码丝氨酸羟甲基转移酶编码基因glyA的不同位点,可实现41.9%-96.6%的生长抑制效率;同时,其还能将菌株中的番茄红素脱氢酶编码基因crtI的表达水平降低97.7%。
sRNA是一种典型的细菌RNA调控因子,其能在RNA伴侣蛋白Hfq的辅助下调控基因的表达(图3E)[60]。该系统具有构建简便、可逆调控和适用于高通量筛选等优势。Zhu等[61]成功在M. extorquens AM1中构建了基于大肠埃希氏菌来源MicC支架和内源伴侣蛋白Hfq组成的功能性sRNA系统;通过利用24 bp反义RNA下调M. extorquens AM1菌株中茄红素脱氢酶编码基因crtI的表达,工程菌株的类胡萝卜素产量降低了86%。
尽管游离质粒载体已广泛用于基因表达,但其在菌株中的不稳定性会导致质粒丢失。将基因表达盒整合至染色体能够避免这一问题,同时,还无需持续施加抗生素维持筛选压力,更适用于工业菌株构建和长期连续发酵。已有研究表明,位置效应会导致外源基因因插入基因组中的不同位点而影响其表达强度。同时,插入位点选择不当还会对菌株的增殖产生负面影响[56]。目前,M. extorquens AM1中已有多个基因组位点被选择为外源基因表达盒的插入位点(表3)。
聚3-羟基丁酸酯解聚酶C是一种参与降解PHB的水解酶。该基因的破坏对M. extorquens的生长和PHA生产均无影响。Casaroli等[47]将构建的甲醇浓度传感器插入了depC位点,编码纤维素合成酶基因的celABC操纵子已被确定为一个中性插入位点。Yuan等[27]将甲醇芽孢杆菌(Bacillus methanolicus)来源的核酮糖单磷酸循环(ribulose monophosphate cycle, RuMP)相关酶编码基因表达盒敲入了该位点,在菌株中构建了一条新型甲醇协同同化途径。poxB基因的敲除能够显著降低M. extorquens的产乙酸能力,从而提升以丙酮酸为前体物的产物产量。attTn7是介于葡萄糖胺-6-磷酸合酶和1,3-丙二醇脱氢酶编码基因之间的位点,该位点是非编码区且外源基因的表达和稳定性良好[63]。Zhang等[52]在利用M. extorquens AM1合成D-乳酸的研究中,将肠膜状明串珠菌(Leuconostoc mesenteroides)来源的乳酸脱氢酶基因ldhA分别整合到了poxB基因和attTn7位点[52]M. extorquens AM1中的Ccr表达处于中等偏高水平。因此,Orita等[28]在构建三元聚合物PHA生产菌株时,将乙基丙二酰辅酶A脱氢酶编码基因插入到了ccr基因的下游,以实现其中等水平的表达。
基因组规模代谢模型是一种基于生物体全基因组注释,通过基因-蛋白质-反应关联构建所有已知代谢反应的知识库,并利用数学约束模拟细胞代谢通量分布,从而将基因型与表型联系起来的系统生物学工具,在研究细菌代谢以及指导细胞工厂设计方面具有重要价值[64]。van Dien等[65]建立了首个针对M. extorquens AM1中心代谢的化学计量模型,以评估其以甲醇为碳源时的稳态生长能力,该模型包含20个可逆反应和47个不可逆反应、65种胞内代谢物以及实验测定的生物量组成。Peyraud等[66]构建了基因组规模代谢模型iRP911,其涵盖了编码761种蛋白质的911个基因,包含1 139个反应和977种代谢物,利用该模型模拟和实验研究鉴定出了在甲基营养型生长条件下的代谢网络。Yuan等[27]通过将丙二酰-CoA途径和RuMP途径添加到代谢模型iRP911中,进行了3-羟基丙酸生产菌株的计算机模拟重建。Ma等[67]利用代谢模型预测分析发现,向菌株中引入光子通量能够有效提升其3-羟基丙酸的生产效率,以敲除了光合作用系统负调控因子编码基因ppsR的菌株为产物生产菌株,3-羟基丙酸的产量和得率均提高了2倍以上。
随着对菌株代谢特性研究的不断深入,遗传操作工具和发酵工艺技术体系日益完善,利用M. extorquens以甲醇为原料的化学品生产成为其绿色生物制造的主要目标。此外,该技术路径还具有产物易分离纯化、发酵污染风险低等优势。目前,M. extorquens AM1细胞工厂已实现了多种产物的生产,包括重组蛋白、聚合物、有机酸和萜类化合物等(表4)[68]
重组蛋白生产涵盖生物制药和酶制剂等诸多领域。M. extorquens AM1虽蛋白表达量相对较低且缺少翻译后修饰机制,但其在某些蛋白生产场景中仍具有独特优势(表4)。含有Ln3+的酶蛋白在多种生物学过程中发挥着重要功能。M. extorquens AM1具有天然合成Ln3+依赖型甲醇脱氢酶的能力[18]。因此,可作为蛋白合成平台用于Ln3+依赖酶的表达。Huang等[69]利用P mxaF 启动子在M. extorquens AM1中实现了草木栖剑菌(Ensifer meliloti)等来源的Ln3+依赖型甲醇脱氢酶XoxF的表达。依赖Ca2+的PQQ依赖型甲醇脱氢酶是甲基营养菌C1化合物代谢中的关键酶之一,也是电化学生物传感器和生物燃料电池领域极具应用前景的催化剂。Karaseva等[70]M. extorquens AM1中实现了内源甲醇脱氢酶的重组表达,该重组酶被用于构建安培型生物传感器,检测限可低至0.7 μmol/L。Phan等[71]M. extorquens AM1中利用pCM110和甲醇诱导启动子P mxaF 进行了甲酸脱氢酶1的同源表达,并通过优化5′非翻译区(5′-untranslated region, 5′ UTR)和终止子实现了酶表达水平的提升;结果表明,使用rrnB终止子时酶产量提高了1.6倍,达到2.1 mg/g细胞湿重;利用甲醛活化酶编码基因fae的5′ UTR效果最好,其表达量比对照序列高出2.5倍;将重组菌株作为全细胞生物催化剂应用于CO2的转化,甲酸盐生产效率达到了5.0 mmol/(L·h)。来自苏云金芽孢杆菌(Bacillus thuringiensis)的Cry1Aa是一种杀虫蛋白,对多种鳞翅目昆虫均表现出高活性。Choi等[72]cry1Aa基因置于启动子P mxaF 的控制下实现了其在M. extorquens AM1中的重组表达,表达量达到了胞内总蛋白的4.5%。卤代烷脱卤酶是多种卤代烃降解途径中的第一个酶,其催化过程无须辅助因子参与,在生物修复领域具有应用价值。Fitzgerald等[73]使用含有强启动子P mxaF 的表达载体,在M. extorquens AM1中实现了来自自养黄色杆菌(Xanthobacter autotrophicus)的卤代烷脱卤酶的表达,在PHB合成缺陷型宿主菌株中表达量占到了细胞总蛋白的10%。
PHA作为不可降解石油基塑料的潜在替代品,因具有良好的生物相容性和生物可降解性而受到广泛关注。
作为菌株中的天然产物,PHB是M. extorquens AM1中研究最早、生产水平最高的天然聚合物。在氮源限制而碳源过量的条件下,胞内乙酰辅酶A在乙酰乙酰辅酶A硫解酶(acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, PhaA)、乙酰乙酰-CoA还原酶(acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, PhaB)和PhaC的催化下聚合形成PHB颗粒[30]。Korotkova等[74]实现了PHB在M. extorquens AM1中的合成,其产量可达细胞干重的43% (表4)。
由于仅由(R)-3-羟基丁酸[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate, 3HB]组成的PHA具有高结晶性而导致材料硬且脆,实际应用受限。将3HB与其他单体,如(R)-3-羟基戊酸[(R)-3-hydroxyvalerate, 3HV]、(R)-3-羟基己酸[(R)-3-hydroxyhexanoate, 3HHx]、4-羟基丁酸(4-hydroxybutyrate)等进行共聚,能够有效降低聚合物的结晶度和熔点,提高材料柔韧性和加工性能[28]。Orita等[29]通过将内源phaC替换为豚鼠气单胞菌(Aeromonas caviae)来源的编码宽底物酶的phaC基因,所获得菌株能够生产由3HB、3HV和3HHx组成的三元共聚物PHA;通过进一步引入PhaC双点突变体、哺乳动物来源乙基甲酰辅酶A脱羧酶、杀虫贪铜菌(Cupriavidus necator)来源NAD+依赖型(S)-3-羟基酰基辅酶A脱氢酶、(S)-特异性烯酰辅酶A水合酶、(S)-烯酰辅酶A水合酶和β-酮硫解酶,工程菌株以甲醇为碳源合成了由摩尔分数5.4% 3HV和0.9% 3HHx组成的三元共聚物PHA,其含量可占细胞干重的41%[28]
有机酸被广泛应用于食品、制药和纺织等行业,以廉价甲醇为原料生产有机酸是提高生物制造经济性以实现其工业化生产的极具前景的选择。M. extorquens独特的丝氨酸循环和EMCP不仅赋予了其高效的一碳同化能力,还形成了丰富的辅酶A活化中间体库,为有机酸及平台化学品的生物合成提供了代谢基础[12]。目前,已利用M. extorquens AM1成功实现了3-羟基丙酸及丁二烯、异丁醇等的生物合成(表4)。
作为一种平台化合物,3-羟基丙酸不仅可被应用于生物可降解聚合物的合成,还可作为生产丙烯酸和1,3-丙二醇等重要基础化工产品的原料。Yang等[41]通过在M. extorquens AM1中表达橙色绿屈挠菌(Chloroflexus aurantiacus)来源编码具有醇脱氢酶和醛脱氢酶活性的双功能酶基因mcr,构建了丙二酰辅酶A途径用于3-羟基丙酸生产,产量可达69.8 mg/L。Yuan等[27]通过进一步在菌株中引入外源RuMP途径将3-羟基丙酸的产量提高到了0.857 g/L。Ma等[67]通过删除光合作用的负调控因子进一步对M. extorquens进行了代谢工程改造,在光照/黑暗交替的分批补料发酵中,3-羟基丙酸产量提升到了1.75 g/L。
2-羟基异丁酸(2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 2-HIBA)是一种支链的C4-羟基羧酸。作为平台化合物,2-HIBA易于转化为用于生产有机玻璃、涂料和油墨的聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯的前体。M. extorquens中的PHB合成途径能够为其合成提供充足的(R)-3-羟基丁酰辅酶A前体。Rohde等[32]将来自马西利亚塞内加尔罗伯特塞穆赖菌(Robertmurraya massiliosenegalensis)的3-羟基丁酰辅酶A特异的辅酶B12依赖的变位酶在M. extorquens AM1中进行表达,实现了利用甲醇生产2-HIBA,产量为2.1 g/L。
衣康酸作为一种重要的基础化工原料,可用于生产性能优异的高分子材料。同时,衣康酸因其抗炎、抗菌及抗病毒作用也受到了医药领域的关注[79]。Lim等[45]M. extorquens AM1表达土曲霉(Aspergillus terreus)来源的顺乌头酸脱羧酶实现了衣康酸的生产,以甲醇为碳源的衣康酸最高产量为31.6 mg/L。
D-乳酸可用于溶剂以及聚合物生产而被广泛应用于医药、农业和轻工等领域。Zhang等[52]M. extorquens进行了工程化改造以实现D-乳酸的高效生物合成,通过将肠膜状明串珠菌(Leuconostoc mesenteroides)来源的D-乳酸脱氢酶进行多拷贝染色体整合,并结合丙酮酸通量增强以及甲醇代谢强化,工程菌株在摇瓶培养中达到了1.17 g/L的D-乳酸产量;在此基础上,对菌株进行了分批补料发酵并在菌株指数生长期补加0.34 g/L甲酸钠,最终D-乳酸产量达到了8.39 g/L。该研究为未来在M. extorquens中合成其他丙酮酸衍生化学品提供了参考。
二元羧酸是化学和制药工业的重要构成板块,也可用作螯合剂或食品添加剂。M. extorquens AM1的EMCP中包含有多种对映异构、支链、饱和或不饱和的羧基化C4和C5酰基辅酶A酯类。其能够作为前体物用于生产目前尚未商业化的二元羧酸产品。Sonntag等[75]M. extorquens AM1中过表达了大肠埃希氏菌来源酰基辅酶A硫酯水解酶YciA,在菌株培养上清液中检测到了70 mg/L的中康酸和60 mg/L的2-甲基琥珀酸。
在宿主菌株中引入外源的甲羟戊酸途径是提高细胞工厂萜烯类产物产量的有效措施之一。因此,针对M. extorquens AM1中的甲羟戊酸生产途径进行工程改造是其作为萜烯合成平台的第一步。Zhu等[76]构建了携带来自德国小蠊(Blattella germanica)的羟基甲基戊二酰辅酶A合酶编码基因hmgcs1和来自克氏锥虫(Trypanosoma cruzi)的羟基甲基戊二酰辅酶A还原酶编码基因hmgr的操纵子并转入M. extorquens AM1中,实现了甲羟戊酸的生产;而后,通过引入来自杀虫贪铜菌的乙酰辅酶A硫解酶编码基因phaA,所获得的最优工程菌株在分批补料发酵中的甲羟戊酸产量达到了2.22 g/L。
EMCP作为M. extorquens AM1中心碳代谢中的一种乙醛酸回补途径,涉及多种辅酶A结合的单羧酸和二羧酸,这些化合物作为化学工业的平台化学品具有应用价值[12]。其中,巴豆酰辅酶A作为关键节点代谢物为产物的合成提供了充足前体,可用于生产1-丁醇等高附加值化学品。作为大宗化学品(丙烯酸丁酯等)的前体,1-丁醇的能量密度接近汽油,可以较高比例与汽油混合,且与现有石油基础设施兼容,被认为是汽油替代品的更优选择。Hu等[40]M. extorquens AM1中过表达齿垢密螺旋体(Treponema denticola)的反式烯酰辅酶A还原酶编码基因ter、丙酮丁醇梭菌(Clostridium acetobutylicum)的醇脱氢酶编码基因adhE2以及内源巴豆酶编码基因cror的菌株,获得了1-丁醇产量为15.2 mg/L的工程菌株。
代谢组学研究表明,当M. extorquens AM1以甲醇为碳源时,丙酮酸及其衍生物丙氨酸在胞内的浓度相当可观。作为一种丙酮酸衍生模式化合物,异丁醇可用作溶剂和化工中间体。Ma等[38]在引入乳酸乳球菌(Lactococcus lactis)来源的2-酮异戊酸脱羧酶突变体(KivdS286T)和大肠埃希氏菌(Escherichia coli)来源的醇脱氢酶后,工程菌株实现了异丁醇的合成;过表达枯草芽孢杆菌(Bacillus subtilis)来源的乙酰乳酸合酶基因使产物产量达到了4 mg/L;进一步提升菌株的异丁醇耐受,增加2-酮异戊酸脱羧酶和醇脱氢酶的拷贝并敲除乳酸脱氢酶基因,异丁醇的产量达到了19 mg/L。
萜类物质是植物中天然存在的一类多样的代谢物且其应用涵盖了香料、化妆品、天然色素以及药物[80]M. extorquens AM1能够依赖甲羟戊酸途径积累类胡萝卜素,这也为萜类物质的合成提供了丰富的前体(表4)。作为一种倍半萜醇,广藿香醇在香水和化妆品行业具有重要应用。Hurt等[78]通过在M. extorquens AM1中表达广藿香(Pogostemon cablin)来源的广藿香醇合成酶,实现了广藿香醇的合成。α-葎草烯因具有抗炎和抗癌的特性而受到了关注。Sonntag等[42]M. extorquens AM1中表达了来自红球姜(Zingiber zerumbet)的α-葎草烯合酶和来自酿酒酵母(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)的法尼基焦磷酸(farnesyl pyrophosphate, FPP)合酶编码基因,α-葎草烯的产量达到了18 mg/L;进一步引入来自橙黄色黏球菌(Myxococcus xanthus)的甲羟戊酸途径并结合对α-葎草烯合酶和FPP合酶表达盒中核糖体结合位点的优化,使产物浓度提高了3倍;结合类胡萝卜素合成缺陷型突变菌株,最终产物产量达到了1.65 g/L。上述萜类化合物产量已具备工业化竞争力。
作为一种水溶性好且耐热的化合物,PQQ具有强大的抗氧化活性,还能通过参与蛋白转运来调节酶的活性。M. extorquens具有天然的PQQ强合成能力。李慧芝等[81]M. extorquens AM1为研究对象,结合诱变和高通量筛选技术,获得的高产株的PQQ产量达到54.0 mg/L,是出发菌株的3倍。
紫色杆菌素是一种具有益生活性的蓝紫色化合物。Quynh Le等[33]通过在M. extorquens AM1中过表达紫色色小杆菌(Chromobacterium violaceum)来源黄素依赖型L-色氨酸氧化酶、2-亚氨基-3-(吲哚-3-基)丙酸二聚酶、前脱氧紫菌素合酶、原脱氧紫菌酸单加氧酶和紫色杆菌素合酶编码基因实现了紫色杆菌素的合成,产量为11.7 mg/L。
与化学法相比,微生物催化甾醇合成能缩短生产流程,且反应具有更高的区域选择性和立体专一性。目前,通过在微生物中表达异源哺乳动物蛋白,并利用其进行甾体化合物的催化合成已成为研究热点。M. extorquens AM1作为潜在的优势菌株,不但可以甲醇为碳源和能源,且自身不具备甾醇分解代谢系统。Tekucheva等[48]M. extorquens AM1中成功表达了编码哺乳动物类固醇生成系统的细胞色素P450scc (CYP11A1)编码基因及其天然氧化还原伴侣肾上腺皮质铁氧还蛋白和肾上腺皮质铁氧还蛋白还原酶;利用该工程菌株成功从胆固醇中获得了单一代谢产物孕烯醇酮;通过优化培养基组成、底物添加方式、生物量和通气量等条件孕烯醇酮产量超过100 mg/L。
作为一种聚酮化合物,间苯三酚的应用横跨医药、农业和精细化工等多个领域。Van Woudenberg等[24]研究表明,在M. extorquens AM1中表达III型聚酮合酶编码基因phlD可实现甲醇向间苯三酚的转化,分批补料发酵96 h,产物产量达到108.8 mg/L。
利用微生物细胞工厂进行重组蛋白、可降解塑料以及有机酸等高值产品的绿色合成逐渐成为替代传统化石能源依赖的生产工艺的重要手段。为提升产物产量,已开发了针对M. extorquens AM1的多种代谢工程策略,包括提升菌株甲醇利用性能、碳流重分配与前体供给强化、辅因子与途径关键酶优化和消除产物再利用等。
在以甲醇为原料的生物制造体系中,提升底盘菌株的甲醇利用能力及其生长性能是构建高效细胞工厂的重要策略。M. extorquens AM1通过丝氨酸循环进行甲醇同化生成乙酰辅酶A虽不会损失碳原子,但存在反应步骤多、高耗能力等缺陷。Ⅰ型甲基营养菌代谢甲醇的RuMP途径比丝氨酸循环具有更明显的还原力和能量合成优势。Yuan等[27]通过在M. extorquens AM1中过表达甲醇芽孢杆菌(Bacillus methanolicus)来源己糖-6-磷酸合酶编码基因hps、己糖-6-磷酸异构酶编码基因phi、磷酸果糖激酶编码基因pfk、葡萄糖-6-磷酸脱氢酶编码基因zwf,构建了一条与内源丝氨酸循环协同进行甲醇同化的途径;该途径的引入使菌株的甲醇消耗速率和细胞增殖速率分别提高了13.1%和16.5%。在摇瓶条件下,产物3-羟基丙酸的产量提高了3.1倍(表5)。M. extorquens AM1的工业应用受限于其较低的甲醇耐受性。当甲醇浓度超过1%时会显著抑制菌株增殖。与理性改造相比,适应性实验室进化技术不需要深入了解复杂的遗传背景,普适性更强。通过适应性进化技术提升细胞的甲醇耐受性和利用能力能够使得甲醇作为碳源的发酵过程更为高效[88]。Cui等[82]采用常压室温等离子体诱变结合适应性实验室进化获得了一株高甲醇耐受性突变株,在含5%甲醇的培养基中诱变菌株的最终细胞密度比野生型菌株高7.1倍(表5)。Belkhelfa等[89]通过适应性进化获得的M. extorquens突变菌株能在10%甲醇条件下稳定生长。Lee等[5]获得了在2.5%甲醇中比生长速率提高1.68倍的突变菌株。Chiba等[90]在添加La3+的条件下对M. extorquens进行了适应性进化,获得了可耐受7%甲醇的突变菌株;在5%甲醇条件下,突变菌株的细胞得率与亲本菌株在0.5%甲醇条件下相当,但PHA含量提高了约2.5倍。野生型M. extorquens AM1菌株在培养中会生成大量胞外纤维素,进而形成团块,对菌株的吸光度值读数产生噪声;研究发现,一个由于转座子插入纤维素合酶基因celB而导致其失活的菌株的结块频率和严重程度均低于野生型;基于此,Delaney等[62]敲除了M. extorquens AM1中的3个纤维素合成相关基因(celAcelBcelC)以及一个功能未知片段,显著改善了菌株的生长性能。该底盘菌株已被广泛应用于M. extorquens微生物细胞工厂的构建[24,91]
微生物细胞工厂中前体供给不足通常是限制目标产物理论产率提升的核心瓶颈之一,它直接制约着碳流从中心代谢向特定合成支路的高效导入。M. extorquens AM1中参与丝氨酸循环的多个基因受到LysR型转录调控因子QscR的正向调控。Liang等[83]通过构建功能特异强化的QscR突变体改善了菌株中丝氨酸循环的碳通量;该策略使胞内乙酰辅酶A的含量提高了7%,进而使甲羟戊酸的产量提高了2.8倍(表5)。微生物进行目标产物生产时,内源副产物合成途径会竞争性地分流胞内碳流,从而造成碳损失,制约菌株的生产性能。因此,敲除或弱化副产物合成途径,将代谢流精准导向目标产物,已成为底盘菌株优化的关键策略之一。Sonntag等[84]通过敲除PHA合成酶基因phaC阻断了从EMCP流向PHB合成途径的非期望代谢流,使产物中康酸和2-甲基琥珀酸的产量提高了5倍(表5)。Zhang等[52]通过破坏了M. extorquens AM1中的PHB合成途径,将D-乳酸的产量提高了5.5倍;随后,敲除丙酮酸氧化酶编码基因poxB使胞外D-乳酸产量进一步提高了40%,而乙酸浓度被显著降低。然而,在一些情况下,该策略非但不能提升产物产量,反而会对产物积累造成负面影响。Van Woudenberg等[24]敲除PHA合酶编码基因phaC并未提高间苯三酚的产量,这可能是phaC缺陷型菌株对间苯三酚的毒性更为敏感所导致的。此外,在M. extorquens AM1中,有多条合成途径(包括醌类、藿烷类和类胡萝卜素等)会与α-葎草烯合酶竞争前体FPP。Sonntag等[42]构建了类胡萝卜素合成缺陷型菌株来提高前体供给,将α-葎草烯的产量提高了30%。
此外,工程菌株中催化产物合成代谢关键节点反应的酶活性及其表达也对目标产物的合成具有重要影响。酰基辅酶A硫酯酶能够水解酰基辅酶A酯并释放相应的酸。来源于流感嗜血杆菌(Haemophilus influenzae)的硫酯酶YciA可被用于在M. extorquens AM1中异源表达以生产二元羧酸。为提升产物产量,Pöschel等[85]对该酶的底物结合区域进行了工程改造。结果表明,突变体YciAF35L的表达使2-甲基琥珀酸和中康酸的产量分别提高了4.4倍和6.4倍(表5)。Zhu等[76]利用M. extorquens AM1实现了以甲醇为原料的甲羟戊酸生产,且杀虫贪铜菌来源的乙酰乙酰辅酶A硫解酶编码基因phaA的表达进一步将产物产量提升了20%。
辅因子[如ATP和NAD(P)H等]作为代谢网络中不可或缺的“通用货币”,在细胞工厂中承担着电子传递、能量耦联等关键角色。
作为M. extorquens菌株中甲醇代谢最为显著的瓶颈,其通过丝氨酸循环进行甲醛同化的途径在3种天然甲醇利用途径中的能耗最高,每合成1分子丙酮酸需要消耗2分子还原力和2分子ATP[68]。如利用M. extorquens细胞工厂生产需要消耗还原力的化学品时,菌株自身的基础代谢会与产物合成竞争辅因子,进而限制产物产量。通过引入外源高效同化路径或激活自身潜在辅因子供给途径能够实现产物产量的提升。Yuan等[27]通过将能量效率更高的异源RuMP途径引入M. extorquens AM1中,菌株中的NADPH含量提高了1.3倍,产物3-羟基丙酸产量提高了3.1倍。M. extorquens AM1基因组中存在一个天然光合作用的基因簇,编码不产氧光合系统II。Ma等[67]通过失活菌株中的负调控因子(PpsR)激活了光合作用系统,显著提升了胞内ATP水平,进而提高了3-羟基丙酸的产量(表5)。Mo等[39]通过适应性进化获得了高耐受甲酸、甲醛的M. extorquens AM1突变菌株;以甲酸和甲醇混合碳源作为底物,胞内NADH和NADPH的浓度分别比在甲醇上生长的菌株高出2.29倍和2.35倍;以混合碳源进行的3 L发酵罐水平分批补料发酵结果表明,3-羟基丙酸的最高产量达到了2.47 g/L (表5)。甲酸经由M. extorquens AM1的代谢可生成NAD(P)H,因此可用于在细胞工厂为产物的合成提供还原力。Cui等[92]通过在甲羟戊酸积累阶段添加10 mmol/L甲酸钠,甲羟戊酸产率提高了64.57%。Zhang等[52]利用甲酸钠和甲醇混合物作为原料,菌株生物量和甲醇消耗量均高于仅以甲醇为碳源的对照组,D-乳酸浓度约提高了50%。Ⅰ型甲基营养菌的RuMP途径耦合非氧化性磷酸戊糖途径及糖酵解途径时,每生成1分子乙酰辅酶A,会产生1分子ATP和2分子NADH,相较于丝氨酸循环具有明显的还原力和能量合成上的优势[27]
提升细胞工厂对产物的耐受性并消除菌株对目标产物的再利用是实现产物高效生产的重要保障。Hu等[86]通过适应性实验室进化获得了对1-丁醇耐受性增强的突变菌株(表5)。Pöschel等[87]获得了一株二羧酸摄入缺陷型M. extorquens AM1突变体,其2-甲基琥珀酸的摄取显著减少,中康酸的摄取则被完全阻止,相应产物产量分别达到了104 mg/L和85 mg/L;此外,在利用该菌株合成甲基苹果酸时,相较于野生型菌株,转运缺陷型菌株的产物产量提高了1.4倍(表5)。Yang等[41]构建了基于M. extorquens AM1的3-羟基丙酸合成菌株,代谢组学分析和13C标记实验结果表明,菌株中存在一条还原性途径可对产物进行再利用;通过敲除编码丙烯酰辅酶A还原酶的基因(META1_4251),显著降低了3-羟基丙酸的降解速率从而增加了产物的积累。
菌株发酵是实现M. extorquens AM1细胞工厂目标产物高效生产的重要环节之一。作为一碳同化的模式菌株,其培养基组成需兼顾其独特的甲基营养代谢特征与产物合成需求。
Van Woudenberg等[24]研究表明,培养基中的锰离子和铁离子会促进产物间苯三酚的氧化聚合。通过降低培养基中锰离子浓度,将间苯三酚的产量提高了1.7倍(表5)。Orita等[29]通过降低培养基中的Co2+浓度,提升了PHA中的(R)-3-羟基戊酸的比例。为了解决M. extorquens AM1工程菌株在传统培养基中的生长及甲羟戊酸产量不稳定问题,Cui等[77]开发了优化的培养基,其中含有更高浓度的磷酸盐缓冲液和较低浓度的微量元素,利用该培养基可显著稳定工程菌株的生长。针对产物(尤其是还原性化学品)合成对能量与还原力的高需求,两阶段发酵已成为一项被广泛验证的有效策略。第一阶段以细胞生长为主,而在第二阶段使碳流最大程度地转向产物合成。Rohde等[32]在利用M. extorquens AM1于发酵罐水平生产2-HIBA过程中,首先将菌株于氮源充足条件下培养以积累菌体,而后在氮源消耗后随即进入产物合成的第二阶段。此外,利用M. extorquens AM1合成α-葎草烯的研究表明,相关基因的组成型表达对菌株的生长具有严重的负面影响。为克服这一问题,Sonntag等[42]进行了两阶段分批补料发酵,首先,将菌株培养至OD600=5-10,而后用4-异丙基苯甲酸诱导产物合成代谢途径相关基因的表达,实现了α-葎草烯的高产(表5)。
甲醇因来源广泛、价格低廉、运输存储便捷等优势,展现出了成为传统生物制造原料替代品的巨大潜力。在此背景下,开发高效的以甲醇为原料的细胞工厂是实现甲醇生物制造的关键,也是助力我国“双碳”目标顺利实现的潜在有效措施[5]。随着合成生物学技术的不断发展和人们对M. extorquens AM1以甲醇为唯一碳源时独特生理和代谢特征理解的不断加深,其在重组蛋白、有机酸和萜类化合物的生物制造中展现出极大的应用潜力。因此,高性能细胞工厂构建和应用研究成为目前的热点方向。
包括同源重组和Cre/loxP系统等在内的基因编辑技术为基于M. extorquens AM1的细胞工厂的构建提供了底层技术支撑。然而,仍然存在操作周期长、编辑效率低、大片段基因组整合困难等诸多问题。作为目前最具变革性的遗传操作技术之一,CRISPR系统凭借其设计简便、操作灵活、靶向精准等优势,已迅速超越传统基因编辑工具。同时,多样化的Cas效应蛋白不断被发现和改造,进一步拓展了该系统的应用边界[93]。尽管Mo等[59]已在该菌株中建立了CRISPRi系统用于基因转录调控,但应用CRISPR系统介导基因编辑的研究尚未见报道。因此,未来研究应着力于开发适配M. extorquens AM1的更高效、更精准的CRISPR衍生工具,如CRISPR/Cas9、CRISPR/Cpf1系统、碱基编辑器[94]及IS110系统[95]等更为先进的技术,为构建异源代谢途径提供新的策略,进而缩短复杂代谢工程改造的周期,提升菌株迭代效率。随着人工智能技术的飞速发展,深度学习模型在高效基因编辑蛋白方面展现出了巨大潜力。在前期研究中,本课题组开发了用于筛选和改造Cas9蛋白的深度学习模型CasMiner并成功挖掘了能够在水稻和玉米中实现高效基因编辑的新型Cas9蛋白[96],该工具在后续研究中将助力适配M. extorquens的CRISPR基因编辑系统开发。
M. extorquens菌株以甲醇为碳源和能量源生长时,为缓解甲醇氧化过程中产生的具有生理毒性的甲醛对细胞的损伤并获取还原力和能量,84%的甲醇将被氧化为CO2,从而造成大量碳损失[91]。相较于M. extorquens内源甲醇代谢途径丝氨酸循环,RuMP途径虽然具有明显的还原力和能量合成优势,但同样也会导致30%的碳损失。已有研究在M. extorquens中建立了基于卡尔文循环的CO2再利用途径,但其效率低下,并不能满足高效碳回收的目的[91]。本课题组在前期针对天然一碳化合物利用菌株的研究中解析了基于代谢途径重构的卡尔文循环途径强化机制[97]。在后续研究中将该机制与M. extorquens菌株中的碳回收途径相结合将有望显著提升菌株碳利用效率。虽然自然界微生物中存在着丰富的甲醇代谢途径,为甲醇利用效率提升的M. extorquens AM1菌株的构建提供了参考[27]。然而,这些天然途径存在诸如速率慢、碳利用效率低等短板。为弥补天然途径的不足,已有多种人工甲醇同化途径被开发出来,如甲醇缩合循环(methanol condensation cycle, MCC)、甲醛酶途径(formolase pathway, FLS)和合成乙酰辅酶A途径(synthetic acetyl-CoA pathway, SACA)等[98]。在未来研究中,可将人工途径和M. extorquens AM1内源丝氨酸循环相结合重构成双途径甲醇同化过程。同时,结合实验室适应性进化来克服外源途径的引入给菌株造成的代谢压力,提高合成途径与底盘菌株之间的兼容性[99]
甲醇脱氢酶催化甲醇生成甲醛的性能和热力学特性较差是制约甲基营养菌工业化应用的因素之一[68]。作为甲醇同化途径的关键酶,M. extorquens AM1进行甲醇同化所利用的PQQ依赖型甲醇脱氢酶的催化效率存在劣势,且该步骤需至少25个基因的参与[100],限制了菌株的甲醇利用速率。在前期研究中,本课题组开发了人工智能驱动的酶蛋白大规模筛选、从头设计模型[101-102]。利用该类工具,高效的甲醇同化途径关键酶将不断被挖掘出来,并基于此催生更具碳转化效率与热力学优势的人工转化途径,为高效甲醇利用的M. extorquens AM1底盘菌株的构建带来了新机遇。与此同时,基因组规模代谢模型已被应用于预测M. extorquens AM1代谢过程并指导对其工程改造,大幅提升了细胞工厂优化的精准性[27,67]。通过利用人工智能整合化学合成逻辑与细胞系统生物学知识,利用基于多组学数据训练的大型语言模型,进而生成细胞功能的层级化表征,模拟细胞整体的物质和能量转化,为实现智能、动态的代谢通路重建描绘路线图,将为M. extorquens的代谢工程改造提供理论支撑[103]
甲醇的还原态低于葡萄糖,氧化1 g甲醇需消耗高达0.85 g的氧气[11]。这就导致高密度菌体培养的高耗氧与高产热问题对发酵设备的供氧及冷却能力要求更高,运行成本也相对增加,进而成为M. extorquens细胞工厂工业化应用的限制性因素。为了克服上述缺陷,可对搅拌桨设计进行优化、增加通气量和提高罐压,同时,维持发酵液中稳定但较低的甲醇浓度。在菌株的代谢工程改造方面,可开发甲醇和木糖等底物的共利用底盘菌株,以降低甲醇氧化供能的占比,从而降低总体耗氧量[104]。此外,还可通过在菌株内过表达如透明颤菌属(Vitreoscilla)等来源的血红蛋白来提升菌株对氧气的利用能力[105]
合成生物学技术的快速发展和对菌株代谢特征认知的不断深入,将实现M. extorquens AM1的甲醇生物制造过程中诸多局限的突破,在提高底盘菌株碳利用效率的同时强化化学品生产。目前,以M. extorquens AM1为细胞工厂的产物合成研究主要集中于以PHB合成途径、乙基丙二酰辅酶A途径等中的中间代谢物为前体的相关合成途径。碳水化合物及其衍生物的合成主要以糖酵解途径中的中间代谢物为前体,其作为多种产品(包括食品、药品和特种化学品)的原料,应用场景日益扩展[23]。理论上,M. extorquens AM1能够提供充足的碳水化合物合成前体物质,例如果糖-6-磷酸和葡萄糖-6-磷酸等。课题组在前期研究中对基于M. extorquens细胞工厂的饲用活性物质合成进行了探索。目前已成功实现了基于甲醇原料的肌醇、N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖等多种产物的合成。在未来的研究中,可进一步拓宽产物类别,不断拓展M. extorquens AM1细胞工厂的应用领域边界。
合成生物学技术突破的协同演进将铸就甲醇生物制造的创新基石,推动M. extorquens AM1细胞工厂从实验室走向工业化生产应用,为实现我国“碳中和”与可持续发展目标提供新路径。
  • 国家自然科学基金(32573271)
  • 中央级公益性科研院所基本科研业务费专项(Y2024QC08)
  • 畜禽营养与饲养全国重点实验室自主研究课题(2004DA125184G2613)
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2026年第66卷第9期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260545
  • 接收时间:2026-07-09
  • 首发时间:2026-09-09
  • 出版时间:2026-09-04
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  • 收稿日期:2026-07-09
  • 录用日期:2026-08-04
基金
the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32573271)
国家自然科学基金(32573271)
the Central Public-interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund(Y2024QC08)
中央级公益性科研院所基本科研业务费专项(Y2024QC08)
the Self-directed Research Projects of the State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding(2004DA125184G2613)
畜禽营养与饲养全国重点实验室自主研究课题(2004DA125184G2613)
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    1.中国农业科学院北京畜牧兽医研究所,动物营养与饲养国家重点实验室,北京
    2.中国农业科学院饲料研究所,北京
    3.中国农业科学院生物技术研究所,北京

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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