Article(id=1297571108979495749, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1297570992835023717, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260054, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1768838400000, receivedDateStr=2026-01-20, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1774713600000, acceptedDateStr=2026-03-29, onlineDate=1787294660085, onlineDateStr=2026-08-21, pubDate=1785772800000, pubDateStr=2026-08-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1787294660085, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-08-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1787294660085, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1787294660085, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1297570992835023717, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2026', volume='66', issue='8', pageStart='3681', pageEnd='4288', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1785772800000', pubDateStr='2026-08-04', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1787294632395, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1787294931551, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1297572247670124783, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1297570992835023717, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1297572247670124784, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1297570992835023717, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=3681, endPage=3694, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1297571109189210950, articleId=1297571108979495749, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Research progress in microbial synthesis of eumelanin, columnId=1192149543727808575, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Eumelanin, a natural biological pigment formed by the polymerization of 5,6-dihydroxyindole and its carboxylic acid derivatives, is ubiquitous in animals and microorganisms. Its highly conjugated molecular structure confers multiple functional properties, including broad-spectrum light absorption, antioxidant activity, free radical scavenging, and metal ion chelation, making it a promising material for applications in biomedicine, functional coatings, and environmental remediation. The conventional production of eumelanin relies largely on extraction from animal tissue or chemical synthesis, which are constrained by limited raw materials and uncontrollable product structures. Recently, microbial cell factory-based biosynthesis of eumelanin has attracted increasing attention due to its environmental sustainability and structural controllability. This review comprehensively summarizes the biosynthetic pathways, strategies for metabolic engineering and genetic engineering, analysis and characterization methods for eumelanin, and discusses future perspectives for the application and development of microbial eumelanin production.

, authors=Xiaobing YANG1, Jing ZHANG1, Haijun GAO2, authorsList=Xiaobing YANG, Jing ZHANG, Haijun GAO, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Jing ZHANG, Haijun GAO, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
E-mail: GAO Haijun, ;
ZHANG Jing,
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真黑素是由5,6-二羟基吲哚及其羧酸衍生物聚合形成的天然生物色素,广泛存在于动物和微生物中。其高度共轭的分子结构赋予了宽谱光吸收、抗氧化、自由基清除及金属离子螯合等多重功能特性,在生物医学材料、功能涂层和环境修复等领域显示出重要的应用潜力。传统真黑素制备主要依赖动物组织提取或化学合成,但存在原料来源受限和产物结构不可控等问题。近年来,基于微生物细胞工厂的真黑素生物合成技术因其绿色可持续性和结构可控性而受到广泛关注。本文系统综述了真黑素的生物合成途径、代谢工程和基因工程策略以及分析与表征方法,并探讨了微生物真黑素生产的应用前景和未来发展。

, authors=杨晓冰1, 张静1, 高海军2, authorsList=杨晓冰, 张静, 高海军, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=张静, 高海军, authorNote=

作者贡献声明

杨晓冰:提出概念,撰写论文;张静:修改论文,审阅;高海军:修改论文,审阅。

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Tyr: Tyrosine; TYR: Tyrosinase; DOPA: 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine; DA: Dopamine; DQ: Dopaquinone; DAQ: Daquinone; LDQ: Leucodopachrome; IQCA: 5,6-indolequinone-2-carboxylic acid; IQ: Indole-5,6-quinone; DHICA: 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid; DHI: 5,6-dihydroxyindole; TRP-1: Tyrosinase-related protein 1; TRP-2: Tyrosinase-related protein 2; PDA: Polydopamine., figureFileSmall=AkMxXbnmQ7nmFeM06mlsRg==, figureFileBig=wNHn+2wGi2jewS8gLD8w9A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571113521927020, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571108979495749, language=CN, label=图1, caption=天然真黑素和聚多巴胺的合成路径, figureFileSmall=AkMxXbnmQ7nmFeM06mlsRg==, figureFileBig=wNHn+2wGi2jewS8gLD8w9A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571113702282093, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571108979495749, language=EN, label=Figure 2, caption=Metabolic pathway of engineered Escherichia coli for eumelanin synthesis. Glu: Glucose; GalP: Galactose permease; GlK: Glucose kinase; PTS: Phosphotransferase system; PtsG: Glucose-specific PTS transporter; TktA: Transketolase I; TalB: Transaldolase; PykF: Pyruvate kinase; AroGfbr: Feedback-resistant variant of 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate synthase; AroB: 3-dehydroquinate synthase; AroD: 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase; AroE: Shikimate dehydrogenase; AroK: Shikimate kinase; AroA: 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase; AroL: Shikimate kinase; TyrR: Tyrosine transcriptional repressor; PheAfbr: Feedback-resistant variant of chorismate mutase/prephenate dehydratase; TyrAfbr: Feedback-resistant variant of chorismate mutase/prephenate dehydrogenase; TyrB: Aromatic amino acid aminotransferase; TrpE: Anthranilate synthase component I; TYR: Tyrosinase; TCA: Tricarboxylic acid cycle; PEP: Phosphoenolpyruvate; E4P: Erythrose-4-phosphate; G6P: Glucose-6-phosphate; F6P: Fructose-6-phosphate; FBP: Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate; GAP: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate; Ru5P: Ribulose-5-phosphate; X5P: Xylulose-5-phosphate; S7P: Sedoheptulose-7-phosphate; DAHP: 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate; SA: Shikimate; CHA: Chorismate; PRE: Prephenate; PPA: Phenylpyruvate; 4HPPA: 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate; Phe: Phenylalanine; Tyr: Tyrosine; Trp: Tryptophan., figureFileSmall=4keSeujxM2usGE5gUnGpPA==, figureFileBig=p5ncRnYILDEDWVROOQeiOA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571113769390958, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571108979495749, language=CN, label=图2, caption=重组大肠埃希氏菌合成真黑素的代谢路径, figureFileSmall=4keSeujxM2usGE5gUnGpPA==, figureFileBig=p5ncRnYILDEDWVROOQeiOA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571113857471343, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571108979495749, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=Application of eumelanin., figureFileSmall=9Ml7PegMxkOKcRVOAVtSgA==, figureFileBig=LlkuPPH14z8jddnZoHGH6w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571113920385904, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571108979495749, language=CN, label=图3, caption=真黑素的应用, figureFileSmall=9Ml7PegMxkOKcRVOAVtSgA==, figureFileBig=LlkuPPH14z8jddnZoHGH6w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571113991689073, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571108979495749, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Microbial synthesis of eumelanin

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
MicroorganismMediumExtra addition of tyrosineCultivation time/dProduction/(g/L)References
Stachybotrys sp. HSS-1Tyrosine fermentation mediumYes711.56[4]
Streptomyces lasalocidi NTB 42Tyrosine agar mediumYes140.14[20]
Streptomyces lasalocidi NTB 42Liquid medium containing tyrosineYes103.74[21]
Corynebacterium glutamicum expressing gene tyrRsCorynebacterium glutamicum medium Ⅻ without 3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acidNo31.03[22]
Escherichia coli expressing gene melAM9 mediumNo53.22[23]
Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) expressing gene melCM9 mediumYes0.50.12[24]
Escherichia coli expressing gene tyr1M9 glucose mediumNo17.57[25]
Gluconacetobacter tumulisoli FBFS 97Glucose-yeast extract fermentation mediaYes16Not reported[26]
Pseudomonas koreensis UIS 19Molasses waste mediumYes35.50[27]
Pseudomonas stutzeri SGM-1DOPA-containing liquid mediumYes (DOPA)10.12[28]
Streptomyces nashvillensisGlucose elemental medium version Ⅲ nitrogen-modified mediumNo47.90[29]
), ArticleFig(id=1297571114062992242, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571108979495749, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

微生物合成真黑素

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
MicroorganismMediumExtra addition of tyrosineCultivation time/dProduction/(g/L)References
Stachybotrys sp. HSS-1Tyrosine fermentation mediumYes711.56[4]
Streptomyces lasalocidi NTB 42Tyrosine agar mediumYes140.14[20]
Streptomyces lasalocidi NTB 42Liquid medium containing tyrosineYes103.74[21]
Corynebacterium glutamicum expressing gene tyrRsCorynebacterium glutamicum medium Ⅻ without 3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acidNo31.03[22]
Escherichia coli expressing gene melAM9 mediumNo53.22[23]
Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) expressing gene melCM9 mediumYes0.50.12[24]
Escherichia coli expressing gene tyr1M9 glucose mediumNo17.57[25]
Gluconacetobacter tumulisoli FBFS 97Glucose-yeast extract fermentation mediaYes16Not reported[26]
Pseudomonas koreensis UIS 19Molasses waste mediumYes35.50[27]
Pseudomonas stutzeri SGM-1DOPA-containing liquid mediumYes (DOPA)10.12[28]
Streptomyces nashvillensisGlucose elemental medium version Ⅲ nitrogen-modified mediumNo47.90[29]
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微生物合成真黑素的研究进展
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杨晓冰 1 , 张静 1 , 高海军 2
微生物学报 | 综述 2026,66(8): 3681-3694
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微生物学报 |综述 2026 , 66 (8) : 3681 -3694
微生物合成真黑素的研究进展
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杨晓冰1, 张静1 , 高海军2
作者信息
  • 1.郑州大学 化工学院,河南 郑州
  • 2.北京理工大学 生命学院,北京
通讯作者:
张静, 高海军
作者简介:

作者贡献声明

杨晓冰:提出概念,撰写论文;张静:修改论文,审阅;高海军:修改论文,审阅。

Research progress in microbial synthesis of eumelanin
Xiaobing YANG1, Jing ZHANG1 , Haijun GAO2
Affiliations
  • 1.School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
  • 2.School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
  • Corresponding Author:
    E-mail: GAO Haijun, ;
    ZHANG Jing,
出版时间: 2026-08-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260054
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真黑素是由5,6-二羟基吲哚及其羧酸衍生物聚合形成的天然生物色素,广泛存在于动物和微生物中。其高度共轭的分子结构赋予了宽谱光吸收、抗氧化、自由基清除及金属离子螯合等多重功能特性,在生物医学材料、功能涂层和环境修复等领域显示出重要的应用潜力。传统真黑素制备主要依赖动物组织提取或化学合成,但存在原料来源受限和产物结构不可控等问题。近年来,基于微生物细胞工厂的真黑素生物合成技术因其绿色可持续性和结构可控性而受到广泛关注。本文系统综述了真黑素的生物合成途径、代谢工程和基因工程策略以及分析与表征方法,并探讨了微生物真黑素生产的应用前景和未来发展。

真黑素  /  微生物合成  /  微生物细胞工厂  /  分析与表征

Eumelanin, a natural biological pigment formed by the polymerization of 5,6-dihydroxyindole and its carboxylic acid derivatives, is ubiquitous in animals and microorganisms. Its highly conjugated molecular structure confers multiple functional properties, including broad-spectrum light absorption, antioxidant activity, free radical scavenging, and metal ion chelation, making it a promising material for applications in biomedicine, functional coatings, and environmental remediation. The conventional production of eumelanin relies largely on extraction from animal tissue or chemical synthesis, which are constrained by limited raw materials and uncontrollable product structures. Recently, microbial cell factory-based biosynthesis of eumelanin has attracted increasing attention due to its environmental sustainability and structural controllability. This review comprehensively summarizes the biosynthetic pathways, strategies for metabolic engineering and genetic engineering, analysis and characterization methods for eumelanin, and discusses future perspectives for the application and development of microbial eumelanin production.

eumelanin  /  microbial synthesis  /  microbial cell factory  /  analysis and characterization
杨晓冰, 张静, 高海军. 微生物合成真黑素的研究进展. 微生物学报, 2026 , 66 (8) : 3681 -3694 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260054
Xiaobing YANG, Jing ZHANG, Haijun GAO. Research progress in microbial synthesis of eumelanin[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2026 , 66 (8) : 3681 -3694 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260054
真黑素(eumelanin)是由5,6-二羟基吲哚及其羧酸衍生物聚合形成的天然生物色素[1],广泛存在于动物和微生物中。其分子结构由高度共轭的芳香单元和多种含氧、含氮官能团构成,赋予其宽谱光吸收特性[2]、优异的抗氧化与自由基清除活性[3]以及良好的金属离子络合能力[4]。在生物防护、生物医用材料、功能涂层和环境修复等领域展现出重要应用潜力[5]。作为黑色素家族中分布最广、研究最为深入的一类,真黑素在理化性质和功能表现上具有显著优势。从化学组成上看,真黑素主要由5,6-二羟基吲哚(5,6-dihydroxyindole, DHI)及其羧基化衍生物5,6-二羟基吲哚-2-羧酸(5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid, DHICA)经过复杂的氧化与非酶促反应聚合形成[6],其聚合方式和结构单元比例在不同生物中存在显著差异。这种高度异质性结构既赋予了真黑素独特的功能特性,也为其结构解析与性能调控带来了挑战。长期以来,真黑素主要通过动物组织中提取[7]或化学合成获得,天然提取法受原料来源限制;化学合成虽然具有较高的反应条件可控性,但通常依赖强氧化条件,容易引入非天然结构[8]。相比之下,微生物合成依赖体内酶催化,反应条件温和、原料来源稳定且过程绿色可持续,已成为真黑素制备技术的重要发展方向。近年来,围绕真黑素的生物合成途径解析、关键酶挖掘、代谢通量调控及产物结构表征等方面已取得一系列研究进展,但在高效合成、结构均一性调控及功能定向优化等方面仍面临诸多挑战。因此,对微生物体系中真黑素合成研究进行系统梳理与总结,对于推动其基础研究与应用开发具有重要意义。
天然真黑素广泛分布于人类头发、皮肤、鸟类羽毛和鱿鱼墨汁中,其生物合成起源于酪氨酸。真黑素公认的生物合成途径为Raper-Mason途径[9],在该途径中(图1)酪氨酸(tyrosine, Tyr)在酪氨酸酶(tyrosinase, TYR)催化下首先羟基化生成左旋多巴(3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, DOPA),并进一步氧化为多巴醌(dopaquinone, DQ);DQ自发环化生成白色多巴色素(leucodopachrome, LDQ),随后自发脱羧生成DHI,并产生少量的DHICA;当体系中存在酪氨酸相关蛋白2 (tyrosinase-related protein 2, TRP-2)时,DQ更多地被转化为DHICA,而DHICA又可被酪氨酸相关蛋白1 (tyrosinase-related protein 1, TRP-1)催化,最终上述中间体通过自由基聚合形成高度交联的真黑素高分子;此外,当体系中存在半胱氨酸时,DQ会与之结合转化成半胱氨酸-多巴,并进一步转化为苯并噻嗪和苯并噻唑,最终聚合形成褐黑素[6]。Ni等[10]的研究表明,多巴胺(dopamine, DA)、酪氨酸、DHICA、DHI、酪胺、肾上腺素和去甲肾上腺素等多种中间体均可被TYR催化并参与聚合过程,而非必须遵循经典的顺序转化路径后再发生聚合。这种多种中间体同时参与的聚合方式进一步增加了真黑素的结构复杂性。
除了天然真黑素,其结构类似物的开发也受到广泛关注,其中聚多巴胺(polydopamine, PDA)被普遍认为是一种典型的真黑素类似物[5]。DA最初于2007年被证实可作为贻贝仿生黏合剂[11]。后续研究表明,在可控的体外条件下DA能自发氧化并聚合形成结构均一的PDA纳米颗粒,其光学吸收、抗氧化、自由基稳定性等性能与天然真黑素高度相似[12]。在结构上,二者具有相似的吲哚骨架,但天然真黑素中包含更多的DHICA单元;PDA合成过程中缺失了TRP-2的催化作用,其结构组成以DHI单元为主[5]。PDA的合成可通过酶催化和化学氧化实现,最常用的酶包括TYR和漆酶[13]。DA在pH>7.5的碱性溶液中可自发地被氧气氧化或被其他氧化剂氧化成PDA[12]。除氧气外,常用的氧化剂还包括H2O2、K3[Fe(CN)6]、NO、NaIO4、CuSO4、AgO、KMnO4[14-15]。尽管PDA的聚合方法简单便捷,但由于其聚合过程中产生多种中间体,且存在多重共价与非共价相互作用,其确切的聚合机理尚未完全阐明。目前普遍认为[16] DA先被氧化成多巴胺醌(daquinone, DAQ),DAQ氧化重排成DHI,DHI部分氧化生成吲哚-5,6-醌(indole-5,6-quinone, IQ),最终DHI、DAQ与IQ再通过共价偶联作用聚合形成PDA (图1)。
在人体中,黑色素主要分为真黑素和褐黑素两大类,其中真黑素约占74%,主要分布于皮肤、头发和眼组织等部位[17]。真黑素的合成发生于黑色素细胞内,其生物合成过程依赖于TYR、TRP-1、TRP-2的协同催化,合成后的真黑素以黑素体为载体,通过黑色素细胞延伸形成的树突状结构转运至邻近的角质形成细胞,从而实现其在表皮层中的均匀分布与稳定沉积[18]。除人类外,真黑素也广泛存在于其他动物组织中,如乌骨鸡骨骼肌、鱿鱼墨汁等。其中,鱿鱼墨汁中的黑色素以真黑素为主,具有较高纯度和代表性,因此长期以来被作为研究真黑素结构特征及理化性质的重要天然来源[19]。然而,动物来源的真黑素存在原料供应有限、提取纯化流程复杂、批次间差异大等问题,难以满足规模化应用的需求。
微生物来源的真黑素合成路径相对清晰,又具有操作简便、易于大规模生产等优势,因而成为真黑素研究与开发的重要资源。近年来,研究者已从陆地、海洋环境中筛选鉴定出大量具有真黑素合成能力的微生物(表1),涵盖链霉菌属(Streptomyces spp.)、弧菌属(Vibrio spp.)、玫瑰杆菌属(Roseobacter spp.)等细菌,以及多种真菌,这些菌株通常表现出显著的酪氨酸酶活性。
天然微生物体系中,如拉沙里菌素链霉菌(Streptomyces lasalocidi)、葡萄穗霉属(Stachybotrys),合成的真黑素通常作为其次级代谢产物,主要功能是帮助自身抵御紫外辐射、氧化应激及重金属等多种环境胁迫[20]。这类微生物通常依赖外源酪氨酸合成真黑素,生长周期较长。其合成能力主要受培养基组成、金属离子、氧化还原状态及生长阶段等环境因素调控。通过对培养条件进行系统优化可在一定程度上提升其生产效率。如Asril等[21]S. lasalocidi NTB 42的培养体系中补充硫酸铜后,培养周期由14 d缩短至10 d,真黑素产量由0.14 g/L显著提升至3.74 g/L。不同天然微生物合成的真黑素,在分子结构、官能团分布、自由基含量、抗氧化能力及聚合程度上显示出一定差异,反映了真黑素的天然异质性。工程化细菌体系中,如大肠埃希氏菌(Escherichia coli)、谷氨酸棒杆菌(Corynebacterium glutamicum)则通过基因工程引入了其他微生物来源的酪氨酸酶,并通过代谢工程增强了内源的芳香族氨基酸前体供给、削弱了酪氨酸代谢分支竞争,大幅缩短培养周期,部分体系甚至无需外源补充酪氨酸即可高效合成真黑素。
总体而言,不同宿主的代谢网络、调控层级和酶学特征决定了真黑素合成能力的差异。天然微生物更适合用于机制解析,为后续合成途径的设计与工程优化提供理论依据。工程化微生物适合大规模、可控生产真黑素,但也引入了新的代谢负担与调控复杂性。
早期研究主要通过从微生物中筛选出天然产生真黑素的菌株,并通过培养基组成和发酵条件的优化来提升真黑素的生产水平[21]。然而这种方法在产量、结构一致性及遗传稳定性方面存在一定局限。随着合成生物学的发展,工程化微生物合成真黑素逐渐成为研究热点,其基本思路是围绕酪氨酸这一关键前体重构并强化相关代谢通路,通过引入或调控关键酶反应提高酪氨酸的供给能力,并促进后续氧化聚合过程的发生。
构建高效的酪氨酸催化模块是合成真黑素的关键步骤。酪氨酸酶是一种铜依赖性多功能氧化酶,能催化酪氨酸羟基化生成DOPA,并进一步氧化为DQ。该反应是真黑素生物合成的起始反应,也被认为是合成过程的速率限制步骤[30]。在酪氨酸酶进行异源表达时,其高水平表达常会对宿主细胞生长产生毒性效应和氧化应激负担。为此,研究中常采用诱导型启动子调控表达时序,以避免在细胞生长初期过早积累高浓度酶蛋白[25]。同时,合理调控培养基中的Cu2+供给,保证酪氨酸酶的活性中心结构完整[30],也是提高催化效率的重要工程化手段,适量浓度的Cu2+可提高酪氨酸酶活性,过量的Cu2+会导致真黑素提前沉淀,从而导致产量降低。
强化酪氨酸的内源性供给是构建高效真黑素合成菌株的关键代谢工程策略。早期研究常通过外源补加酪氨酸来提升真黑素产量,该方式增加了生产成本,不适合应用于大规模工业生产。相比之下,通过代谢工程手段提高宿主细胞内源性酪氨酸合成能力更具工业化应用潜力。已有研究在多种微生物宿主中通过对芳香族氨基酸代谢通路的系统调控与重构,显著提升了酪氨酸产量。以E. coli为例(图2),典型策略包括解除芳香族氨基酸合成途径中关键酶的反馈抑制,如构建抗反馈抑制型3-脱氧-D-阿拉伯-庚酮糖-7-磷酸合成酶(3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate synthase, AroG)、分支酸变位酶/预苯酸脱氢酶(chorismate mutase/prephenate dehydrogenase, TyrA)突变体[31]。增强莽草酸途径关键节点的碳代谢流输入,如过表达转酮醇酶I (transketolase I, TktA)和转醛酶(transaldolase, TalB)可提高赤藓糖-4-磷酸供给。削弱竞争支路,如敲除分支酸变位酶/预苯酸脱水酶(chorismate mutase/prephenate dehydratase, PheA)、蒽酸合成酶组分I (anthranilate synthase component I, TrpE),分别减少苯丙氨酸和色氨酸的分流[32]。将关键基因整合至染色体有助于提高菌株遗传稳定性并降低质粒导致的负担,更适用于长期发酵过程[33]。这类策略已在E. coliC. glutamicum等微生物中得到广泛验证,并为构建以酪氨酸为前体的真黑素工程化合成体系奠定了代谢基础。例如,Kurpejović等[22]利用高产酪氨酸的C. glutamicum,以葡萄糖为底物合成真黑素,使真黑素产量达到了1.03 g/L。Chávez-Béjar等[23]通过敲除E. coli中的葡萄糖转运系统和TyrR转录因子,并过表达限速基因aroGfbr,将真黑素产量提升至3.22 g/L。Zou等[25]在大肠埃希氏菌中过表达解除反馈抑制的关键酶(AroGfbr、TyrAfbr),将碳代谢流定向至酪氨酸合成途径,利用葡萄糖合成了7.57 g/L真黑素。
此外,抑制竞争代谢途径、减少副产物生成也有利于代谢流更多地流向真黑素。在微生物细胞中,酪氨酸、DOPA和DA等中间体易被内源性转氨酶、脱羧酶或其他降解途径消耗[34-35]。通过敲除相关竞争途径关键酶编码基因或调控其表达水平可减少前体损失,从而提高真黑素合成效率。
通过细胞工厂整体优化可进一步提升真黑素积累水平。真黑素通常以不溶性高分子聚合物的形式沉积于胞内或胞外,其合成过程中产生的醌类中间体可能对细胞造成生理负担和氧化胁迫[36],仅通过增强合成途径难以获得理想产量。通过定向进化或适应性实验室进化[37]提高真黑素生产菌株对氧化胁迫的耐受性,有助于提升其在发酵过程中的稳定性、产量和批次间可重复性。研究表明,培养条件中的pH、溶氧水平及金属离子浓度不仅影响真黑素的合成效率[38-39],还会显著影响其氧化程度与聚合行为。pH[40]和金属离子[41]能够通过影响多巴醌及其后续中间体的反应路径影响DHI与DHICA的相对生成比例,从而改变真黑素的聚合结构与功能特性。因此,合理调控发酵条件至关重要。此外,采用分阶段发酵策略[42]可以在维持细胞正常生长的同时有效促进真黑素的合成与积累,是提升产物产量的重要工艺手段。
真黑素是一种结构高度异质性的天然高分子。其提取纯化、定量分析与结构表征一直是该领域研究的重点和难点。提取真黑素时,需要在保证真黑素产率的同时尽量减少结构破坏;定量分析时需要克服真黑素聚合状态、杂质干扰带来的误差;结构表征时需要综合运用光谱学、电子顺磁共振、质谱以及显微分析等多种手段,以全面解析其化学组成、聚合方式及功能。
传统提取方法主要基于真黑素在碱性溶解、酸性沉淀的特性。典型流程为:首先利用强碱(如1 mol/L NaOH)将真黑素从细胞或培养基中溶解出来,然后将溶液酸化至pH 2.0-3.0以促使其沉淀。经过离心收集沉淀,洗涤、干燥获得真黑素粉末[20]。该方法因操作简便、试剂易得而被广泛采用,但需要反复溶解、沉淀,以及多次洗涤以提高真黑素纯度,适用于从微生物发酵液中初步提取真黑素。
除传统方法外,研究人员也在探索提取新方法。例如,Ghadge等[43]采用四丁基氢氧化物水相有机溶剂体系,从内生细菌中提取真黑素。该方法不仅可显著提高提取产率,也可实现溶剂循环使用,具备规模化应用潜力。为了提高提取效率和产物纯度,超声波辅助提取[44]和微波辅助提取[45]等物理强化技术也被引入提取过程。超声处理可借助空化效应破坏细胞结构,增强溶剂对目标产物的渗透能力;微波作用则主要通过加快体系内热量与物质的传递过程,提高提取速率。然而,这类物理强化作用可能对真黑素聚合体结构产生影响,需根据用途权衡使用。
由于真黑素在微生物细胞内常与蛋白质等生物大分子紧密结合,酶解预处理成为改善提取效果的一种策略[7]。在碱提取前,使用蛋白酶或细胞壁裂解酶对菌体细胞进行处理可有效减少杂质,提高产物纯度。此外,有机溶剂如乙醇、丙酮等也常用于清洗或协助去除脂类等非极性杂质[46],以进一步纯化产物,但需综合考虑溶剂使用量与环境安全问题。
紫外-可见分光光度法是真黑素研究中应用最为广泛的定量手段之一。由于真黑素具有高度共轭的聚合结构,在紫外-可见光区表现出典型的宽谱连续吸收特征。真黑素在400-500 nm范围内吸光度与浓度之间通常呈现良好的线性关系。因此,多数研究在碱性条件(如NaOH溶液)下将真黑素溶解,并选择400 nm处测定吸光度[20],以商品化真黑素作为标准品进行定量分析。该方法操作简便,适用于真黑素快速定量分析与发酵过程优化。然而,由于不同类型的真黑素在光谱吸收上存在一定重叠,单靠紫外吸光度测定难以对其结构类型进行明确区分,也可能影响定量的准确性。
酸沉-干重法是一种较为直观的定量方法,其原理是在低pH时沉淀真黑素,经离心、洗涤和干燥后称量以计算产物质量。然而,该方法易受蛋白质、多糖等杂质的干扰。为了提高定量准确性,可将酸沉与碱溶-紫外吸光度法相结合,即先通过酸沉初步纯化,再溶于碱性溶液进行光谱定量,从而降低培养基和代谢产物的干扰[24]。该组合策略在微生物合成真黑素研究中被广泛采用,操作简便且结果可靠。
针对真黑素结构高度异质、难以直接准确定量的问题,研究人员也通过分析其特征降解产物进行间接定量。例如,在碱性过氧化氢条件下真黑素可降解生成吡咯-2,3-二羧酸和吡咯-2,3,5-三羧酸,采用高效液相色谱可对这些特征性降解产物进行定量分析[8]。该方法可实现真黑素的特异性定量,用于区分真黑素与其他类型黑色素,但实验流程相对复杂、分析成本较高,多用于机理研究或结构解析。
在结构表征方面,紫外-可见吸收光谱常用于表征真黑素在可见光及近紫外区域的宽谱吸收特性[47],可用于定性判断其聚合程度及共轭电子体系的形成情况,但难以提供精确的分子结构信息。红外光谱可用于检测真黑素中羟基、羧基、酚羟基及C=C键等官能团,从而揭示其基本化学组成与结构特征[48],具备快速、无损检测的优势。核磁共振谱(nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, NMR)可提供真黑素的化学骨架和官能团信息,检测时通常将真黑素溶解于氘代碱性溶液中。例如,在13C NMR光谱中,160-185 ppm的峰主要对应羧基或肽键中的羰基碳原子,120-140 ppm的峰反映芳香碳,50-60 ppm的峰可归因于与氮或硫相连的碳原子,而10-40 ppm的峰对应甲基或亚甲基碳。这些特征峰为识别真黑素的主要骨架单元(DHI和DHICA)及其官能团提供了直接证据[49],但难以解析精确结构和单体比例。质谱法可用于分析真黑素的分子量、聚合状态以及组成单元。然而,由于真黑素高度聚合、结构异质且溶解性差,质谱通常只能提供样品的部分信息,难以反映整体聚合物的完整结构;此外,不同电离方式可能导致选择性检测,限制了非靶向分析的应用[50]。电子顺磁共振波谱可通过检测真黑素中天然存在的稳定自由基信号,揭示其自由基结构特征与电子动力学行为[51],同时可评估其自由基含量与稳定性,是表征真黑素抗氧化活性的重要手段。元素分析所得的碳氮物质的量比(C/N)是判定真黑素类型与来源的重要参数,其中DHI单元的C/N理论值约为8:1,DHICA单元约为9:1;硫元素的有无可用于区分真黑素与褐黑素,其中真黑素不含硫,而褐黑素含硫量可达9%-12%[52]。然而,元素分析无法提供详细的化学骨架与官能团信息,其结果可能受到酸碱处理、干燥或氧化条件的影响,因此通常需与其他结构表征方法结合使用。在形态学方面,通过显微技术可获得真黑素的形态特征和粒径分布。扫描电子显微镜和透射电子显微镜可用于观察真黑素颗粒大小、形貌及聚集状态[53];原子力显微镜可提供表面拓扑结构的高分辨率信息[54],可根据实际用途并考虑成本问题选用。
这些技术不仅可以揭示真黑素的化学组成、聚合程度及自由基特性,还为理解其光吸收、抗氧化、金属螯合及功能化改造提供了重要依据。
真黑素凭借其独特的化学结构和理化性质,在多个应用领域展现出重要的应用潜力(图3)。在抗菌领域,研究发现其对革兰氏阳性菌和革兰氏阴性菌均具有一定抑制作用[29,36,55],在抗菌涂层、医用敷料等领域展现出潜在的应用前景。在紫外防护方面,真黑素具有宽谱紫外-可见光吸收能力,能够高效吸收并耗散紫外线能量,同时清除紫外辐射诱导产生的自由基,因此在防晒材料、生物防护涂层及皮肤护理相关产品中受到广泛关注[2]。作为天然染料,真黑素色泽稳定,呈深褐色至黑色,并具备良好的耐光、耐热、耐化学腐蚀特性,相较于部分合成染料具有良好的生物安全性和环境相容性,在纺织、染料及功能涂层等领域显示出潜在的应用前景[56]。同时,真黑素具有优异的光热转换性能,在近红外光辐照下能够将光能高效转化为热能,这一特性推动其在光热治疗、太阳能利用领域的相关研究[57-58]
真黑素的分子骨架中富含酚羟基、羧基、氨基等多种活性官能团,在环境保护领域也展现出独特优势。研究表明,真黑素可通过配位螯合、静电作用及表面吸附等多种机制与Cu2+、Pb2+、Cd2+、Hg2+等重金属离子发生稳定结合,从而实现高效去除[59]。相较于传统无机或合成高分子吸附剂,真黑素具有吸附容量大、作用位点多、环境相容性好及毒性低等优点。此外,真黑素在酸碱条件变化下仍能保持较好的结构稳定性,具备一定的可再生性和重复使用潜力。因此,将真黑素及其衍生材料应用于重金属离子吸附,不仅有助于提升污染治理效率,也为构建绿色、可持续的环境修复材料体系提供了新的思路。
近年来,随着材料科学与生物医学的交叉融合,基于真黑素或其衍生物构建的纳米治疗体系成为研究热点。真黑素纳米颗粒具有良好的生物相容性、可负载药物及成像分子,并兼具光热和抗氧化功能,在肿瘤光热治疗、联合治疗及生物成像等方面呈现应用价值[60-62]
微生物真黑素生产已取得显著进展,但仍面临多重挑战。天然菌株通常依赖外加酪氨酸或DOPA,培养周期长、产量低,且下游回收困难。在工程化微生物中,经过代谢路径的改造已经实现在不外源添加酪氨酸的情况下合成真黑素。酪氨酸成本约为200 USD/kg,Zou等[25]以葡萄糖为底物,使生产每克真黑素的成本比传统方法降低了73.33%,提高了其工业化潜力。改造代谢路径过程中需要在芳香族氨基酸前体供给与细胞生长之间取得平衡,否则过度分流会抑制细胞增殖,降低整体真黑素产量。采用代谢途径动态调控技术可实现细胞生长和目的产物合成的平衡。例如,Liu等[63]使用基于CRISPR interference (CRISPRi)的温度响应多组分抑制系统,动态调控关键基因(pykFaroE)表达,实现细胞生长与3-脱氢莽草酸生产之间的平衡,使其滴度提高了30倍。同时,异源酪氨酸酶活性和稳定性有限,部分催化步骤效率低,造成前体转化不完全。通过定向进化、蛋白质工程等策略可对酶的活性中心、结构稳定性及金属离子结合能力进行系统改造,增强酪氨酸酶活性。例如,Han等[64]构建了酪氨酸酶C端截短突变体,显著提高了酶活性。进一步采用远端设计策略,靶向远离催化中心的残基并结合计算模拟构建组合突变体,使酶的催化活性、热稳定性及催化效率均得到提升。
在真黑素的工业化发酵过程中存在多项挑战。一方面,作为次级代谢产物,许多菌株合成真黑素的发酵周期较长、产物生成多集中在稳态阶段,这降低了发酵罐的生产效率,增加了能耗与污染风险。另一方面,真黑素的高分子聚合特性与发酵培养基成分存在复杂的相互作用,使得下游提取与纯化过程变得更为困难。此外,真黑素产量对pH、溶氧和前体供给等发酵条件高度敏感,需要精细化控制策略才能实现稳定的高产。例如,Kurpejović等[22]在6 L发酵罐放大生产中发现,用于控制泡沫的消泡剂会降低氧转移速率,从而导致真黑素滴度降低。这些因素综合影响了其在工业化生产中的可行性与经济性。
在真黑素功能的定向设计与优化方面,靶向修饰真黑素可拓展其应用范围[65]。例如,Ren等[66]使用过表达酪氨酸酶的底盘细胞,以磷酸化三肽作为底物,合成了磷酸化黑色素;它在保持真黑素样聚合骨架的基础上引入了磷酸官能团,从而显著增强了其对重金属离子的结合能力,并进一步提高了宿主微生物的重金属耐受性。此外,真黑素的功能还取决于DHI与DHICA的相对含量,其比例会显著影响真黑素的光学吸收、抗氧化能力和顺磁特性等功能性质[67]。Micillo等[68]研究表明,与DHI为主的真黑素相比,DHICA含量高的真黑素具有更强的抗氧化性能,但在可见光区域的吸收系数显著较低,顺磁响应相对减弱;这种差异主要源于DHICA中的羧基修饰改变了聚合物的π-π堆积与电子离域,从而影响聚合结构与自由基分布。因此,通过调控DHI与DHICA的含量可以调节真黑素结构与功能,这为合成生物学功能化真黑素的定向设计提供理论依据。在动物体系中,TRP-2是催化DQ向DHICA转化的关键酶;在微生物体系中,酪氨酸酶不能催化DQ向DHICA的转化,关于DHI/DHICA比例与功能关系的定量研究仍非常有限,未来可通过异源表达TRP-2来调控DHI/DHICA的比例。
真黑素凭借其多功能特性与天然来源优势,在抗菌、防护、能源及生物医学等领域展现出广阔的应用前景。微生物真黑素生产虽已取得进展,但天然菌株产量低、周期长,工程菌则面临前体分流与生长平衡、酪氨酸酶活性有限及催化效率低等挑战。未来可通过合成生物学、代谢工程与发酵工艺优化实现真黑素前体内源高效供给、酶活性提升,最终推动真黑素实现规模化、低成本、功能可控的绿色生物制造。

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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260054
  • 接收时间:2026-01-20
  • 首发时间:2026-08-21
  • 出版时间:2026-08-04
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  • 收稿日期:2026-01-20
  • 录用日期:2026-03-29
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    1.郑州大学 化工学院,河南 郑州
    2.北京理工大学 生命学院,北京

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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