Article(id=1297571050955493723, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1297570992835023717, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260241, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1774281600000, receivedDateStr=2026-03-24, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1778169600000, acceptedDateStr=2026-05-08, onlineDate=1787294646252, onlineDateStr=2026-08-21, pubDate=1785772800000, pubDateStr=2026-08-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1787294646252, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-08-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1787294646252, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1787294646252, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1297570992835023717, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2026', volume='66', issue='8', pageStart='3681', pageEnd='4288', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1785772800000', pubDateStr='2026-08-04', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1787294632395, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1787294931551, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1297572247670124783, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1297570992835023717, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1297572247670124784, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1297570992835023717, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=4076, endPage=4096, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1297571051190374748, articleId=1297571050955493723, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Inflammatory signaling and pyroptosis mediate the mucosal adjuvant effect of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin subunits, columnId=1192149543992045670, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Research Article, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

[Objective] The heat-labile enterotoxin (LT) is widely recognized as a potent mucosal immunoadjuvant. However, the mechanisms underlying its interaction with host epithelial cells remain incompletely understood, which makes it difficult to separate its toxicity from its adjuvant activity. This limitation has severely hampered its clinical application. Therefore, this study aims to elucidate the differential regulatory effects of LT and its A (LTA) and B (LTB) subunits on epithelial cells, as well as the mechanism underlying the initiation of their initial adjuvant activity. [Methods] The biologically active LTB, LTA, and its mutant LTA(R192G) were prepared via prokaryotic expression. Using the human small intestinal epithelial cell line FHs 74 Int and a mouse jejunal ex vivo intestinal segment model, we examined cell viability and apoptosis, analyzed inflammatory cytokine expression, and investigated changes in the NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways. [Results] The three prepared proteins all possessed biological activity and could be effectively internalized by cells. LTB primarily induced early apoptosis, significantly up-regulated the expression of IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, and TNF-α, and activated the NF-κB pathway. LTA triggered significant pyroptosis, specifically up-regulated the expression of IL-18 and IL-1β, and activated the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. The mutant LTA(R192G) exerted weakened effects but could still activate the NLRP3 pathway. [Conclusion] The adjuvant activity of LT stems from its subunits activating immune responses in epithelial cells through different mechanisms: LTB primarily promotes pro-inflammatory cytokine production via the NF-κB pathway, while LTA mainly relies on the NLRP3 pathway to induce IL-1β/IL-18 secretion and pyroptosis. This discovery not only reveals the initial molecular events of LT-initiated mucosal immunity, but more importantly, lays a solid theoretical foundation for developing novel, safe, and efficient mucosal vaccine adjuvants through targeted modification of LTA and LTB subunits.

, authors=Di LIU1, 2, Qiancheng WANG1, Hongping QIAO1, 2, Xiaoying WU1, 2, authorsList=Di LIU, Qiancheng WANG, Hongping QIAO, Xiaoying WU, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Di LIU, Xiaoying WU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
E-mail: LIU Di, ;
WU Xiaoying,
, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1297571052373168487, articleId=1297571050955493723, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=CN, title=炎症信号通路激活与细胞焦亡介导大肠杆菌热不稳定肠毒素亚基黏膜佐剂效应, columnId=1192149544164012138, journalTitle=微生物学报, columnName=研究报告, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

【目的】 热不稳定肠毒素(heat-labile enterotoxin, LT)是公认的强效黏膜免疫佐剂,但其与宿主上皮细胞的相互作用机制尚不明确,导致毒性与佐剂性难以拆分,严重限制了其临床应用。本研究致力于阐明LT及其LTA、LTB亚基对人上皮细胞的差异性调控,旨在揭示其初始佐剂活性的引发机制。 【方法】 通过原核表达技术制备具有生物活性的LTB、LTA及其突变体LTA(R192G)。以人小肠上皮细胞系FHs 74 Int和小鼠空肠离体肠段为研究模型,检测细胞活力与凋亡水平,分析炎性因子的表达差异,并探究NF-κB及NLRP3炎症小体通路的变化。 【结果】 本研究制备的3种蛋白均具备生物活性,可被细胞有效内化。LTB主要诱导早期凋亡,显著上调IL-6、IL-8、IL-1β、TNF-α的表达,并激活NF-κB通路。LTA则显著引发细胞焦亡,特异性上调IL-18、IL-1β,并激活NLRP3炎症小体通路。突变体LTA(R192G)作用减弱,但仍可激活NLRP3通路。 【结论】 LT的佐剂活性源于其亚基经差异化通路激活上皮细胞免疫应答,LTB主要经由NF-κB通路诱导促炎因子产生;LTA则主要依赖NLRP3通路诱导IL-1β/18分泌及细胞焦亡。该发现不仅揭示了LT启动黏膜免疫的初始分子事件,更为定向改造LTA与LTB亚基,研发新一代安全、高效的黏膜疫苗佐剂奠定了坚实的理论基础。

, authors=刘地1, 2, 王前程1, 乔宏萍1, 2, 武晓英1, 2, authorsList=刘地, 王前程, 乔宏萍, 武晓英, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=刘地, 武晓英, authorNote=

作者贡献声明

刘地:研究构思、设计、论文撰写和修改;王前程:数据收集和处理;乔宏萍:论文撰写和修改;武晓英:实验设施与经费支持。

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Science Signaling, 2024, 17(818): eadh1641., articleTitle=The NF-κB signaling system in the immunopathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1297571058786259393, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2023, volume=48, issue=4, pageStart=331, pageEnd=344, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[36], rfOrder=35, authorNames=Xu J, Núñez G, journalName=Trends in Biochemical Sciences, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Xu J, Núñez G. The NLRP3 inflammasome: activation and regulation[J]. Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 2023, 48(4): 331-344., articleTitle=The NLRP3 inflammasome: activation and regulation, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1297571058857562562, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=1999, volume=97, issue=4, pageStart=706, pageEnd=713, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[37], rfOrder=36, authorNames=De HA, Holtrop, Verweij, Agsteribbe, Wilschut, journalName=Immunology, refType=null, unstructuredReference=De HA, Holtrop, Verweij, Agsteribbe, Wilschut. Mucosal immunogenicity and adjuvant activity of the recombinant A subunit of the Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin[J]. Immunology, 1999, 97(4): 706-713., articleTitle=Mucosal immunogenicity and adjuvant activity of the recombinant A subunit of the Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1297571055762166170, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, awardId=20210302123317, language=EN, fundingSource=Fundamental Research Program of Shanxi Province(20210302123317), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1297571055833469339, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, awardId=20210302123317, language=CN, fundingSource=山西省基础研究计划(20210302123317), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1297571055896383900, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, awardId=2025CYJSTX18, language=EN, fundingSource=Earmarked Fund for Modern Agro-industry Technology Research System of Shanxi Province(2025CYJSTX18), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1297571055959298461, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, awardId=2025CYJSTX18, language=CN, fundingSource=山西省现代农业产业技术研究体系专项资金(2025CYJSTX18), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1297571052926816616, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, xref=1., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1297571052935205225, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, companyId=1297571052926816616, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.Center for Veterinary Medicine, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Taiyuan Normal University, Jinzhong, Shanxi, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1297571052947788138, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, companyId=1297571052926816616, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.太原师范学院 生物科学与技术学院,天然生物活性成分创制兽药工程中心,山西 晋中)]), AuthorCompany(id=1297571053040062827, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, xref=2., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1297571053048451436, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, companyId=1297571053040062827, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine Technology Innovation Center of Shanxi Province, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1297571053056840045, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, companyId=1297571053040062827, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.山西省中兽药技术创新中心,山西 太原)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1297571054784893326, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=EN, label=Figure 1, caption=Purification and bioactivity characterization of LT subunit proteins. A: SDS-PAGE analysis of purified LTA, LTA(R192G), and LTB proteins [Lane M: Protein molecular weight marker; Lanes 1, 2: LTA protein; Lanes 3, 4: LTA(R192G) protein; Lanes 5, 6: LTB protein]; B: Native-PAGE analysis of LTB protein (Lane 1: Protein under non-denaturing conditions; Lane 2: Protein under heat-denaturing conditions); C: ELISA results for the binding of LTB protein to the GM1 receptor; D: Changes in intracellular cAMP levels after treatment of cells with LTA, LTA(R192G), and LTB proteins; E: Statistical analysis of mean intracellular fluorescence intensity; F: Cellular uptake of fluorescently labeled LTA, LTA(R192G), and LTB proteins (magnification: 200×). Data are presented as mean±SD, and significance is determined relative to the control group. *: P<0.05; ***: P<0.001., figureFileSmall=8Fc7DnE/Ut9IfCL2v0YBew==, figureFileBig=2G4aFaQZZPMeAdo9VNFYMw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571054852002191, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=CN, label=图1, caption=LT亚基蛋白的纯化与生物活性表征, figureFileSmall=8Fc7DnE/Ut9IfCL2v0YBew==, figureFileBig=2G4aFaQZZPMeAdo9VNFYMw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571055019774352, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=EN, label=Figure 2, caption=Effects of LT subunit protein treatment on cell morphology, viability, and apoptosis. A: Effects of LT subunit protein treatment on cell morphology (magnification: 200×); B: Effects of LT subunit protein treatment on cell viability; C: Effects of LT subunit protein treatment on cell apoptosis; D: Statistical analysis of apoptosis rate (Sum of early and late apoptosis; Yellow boxes indicate the percentage of early apoptosis); E: Western blotting analysis of GSDMD‑related proteins in apoptosis; F: Statistical analysis of Western blotting band gray values. Data are presented as mean±SD, and significance is determined relative to the control group. *: P<0.05; **: P<0.01; ***: P<0.001., figureFileSmall=itOYT1tSV9/F1kKTeIUiXg==, figureFileBig=KGEtA77wCe8FpW6Z91MPng==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571055091077521, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=CN, label=图2, caption=LT亚基蛋白处理对细胞形态、活力及凋亡的影响, figureFileSmall=itOYT1tSV9/F1kKTeIUiXg==, figureFileBig=KGEtA77wCe8FpW6Z91MPng==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571055162380690, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=Effects of LT subunit proteins on the expression of intracellular inflammatory cytokines and related signaling pathways. A: mRNA expression levels of inflammatory cytokine genes after treatment with LT subunit proteins; B: Changes in intracellular IL-1β content after treatment with LT subunit proteins; C: Changes in intracellular IL-18 content after treatment with LTA and LTA(R192G) proteins; D-F: Changes in intracellular IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α content after treatment with LTB protein; G: Western blotting detection of key proteins in the signaling pathway after treatment with the subunit protein; H: Statistical analysis of band gray values for Figure G; I: Western blotting detection of key proteins in the signaling pathway after inhibitor treatment; J: Statistical analysis of band gray values for Figure I; K: Western blotting detection of key proteins in the signaling pathway after swapping the proteins; L: Statistical analysis of band gray values for Figure K. Data are presented as mean±SD. In significance analysis, Figure J represents comparisons among experimental groups, while all other comparisons are relative to the blank control group. *: P<0.05; **: P<0.01; ***: P<0.001; -: No target protein; +: Low amount; ++: High amount., figureFileSmall=f9GTl82HnmFmQvbS5ptEMw==, figureFileBig=0VRNkX3WRQ7SVu4fyTHp8g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571055229489555, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=CN, label=图3, caption=LT亚基蛋白处理对细胞内炎症因子表达及相关信号通路的影响, figureFileSmall=f9GTl82HnmFmQvbS5ptEMw==, figureFileBig=0VRNkX3WRQ7SVu4fyTHp8g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571055321764244, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=EN, label=Figure 4, caption=Effects of LT subunit protein treatment on jejunal tissue morphology and inflammatory cytokine secretion in mice. A: Schematic diagram of the experimental protocol for the mouse ex vivo intestinal loop ligation model and LT subunit protein treatment; B: HE staining of jejunal tissue sections (magnification: 200×); C: TUNEL staining of jejunal tissue sections (magnification: 200×); D-H: Changes in IL-1β, IL-18, IL-8, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in jejunal tissue following LT subunit protein treatment. Data are presented as mean±SD, and significance is determined relative to the control group. *: P<0.05, ***: P<0.001., figureFileSmall=/YL0QLNT6GlTY7WtL+Ms9A==, figureFileBig=DmMUGYahd8MRNtlEPUwSWw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571055388873109, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=CN, label=图4, caption=LT亚基蛋白处理对小鼠空肠组织形态及炎症因子分泌的影响, figureFileSmall=/YL0QLNT6GlTY7WtL+Ms9A==, figureFileBig=DmMUGYahd8MRNtlEPUwSWw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571055464370582, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=EN, label=Figure 5, caption=Schematic diagram of the mechanism by which LTA and LTB subunits regulate epithelial cell immunity. In the epithelial immune response, the LTB subunit functions by modulating the NF-κB signaling pathway, while the LTA subunit acts through the regulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway., figureFileSmall=lZ2a28nULF02igJAVnlssA==, figureFileBig=433CUVRJakogo3dZ5C7zRg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571055514702231, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=CN, label=图5, caption=LTALTB亚基调节上皮细胞免疫作用的机制示意图, figureFileSmall=lZ2a28nULF02igJAVnlssA==, figureFileBig=433CUVRJakogo3dZ5C7zRg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1297571055606976920, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Fluorescence quantitative PCR primer sequences for inflammatory factors

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
GenePrimerSequence (5′→3′)Amplification length/bpReferences
IL-1βFAGGCTGCTCTGGGATTCTCT236[15]
RCCCTTGCTGTAGTGGTGGTC
IL-6FGTGTGAAAGCAGCAAAGAGGC234[16]
RTGCAGGAACTGGATCAGGACT
IL-8FCTGCGCCAACACAGAAATTA234[15]
RCATCTGGCAACCCTACAACA
IL-18FCAAGGAAATCGGCCTCTATT255[17]
RTCCTGGGACACTTCTCTGAA
TNF-αFATGAGCACTGAAAGCATGATCC217[18]
RGAGGGCTGATTAGAGAGAGGTC
β-actinFCATGTACGTTGCTATCCAGGC250[19]
RCTCCTTAATGTCACGCACGAT
), ArticleFig(id=1297571055678280089, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1297571050955493723, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

炎症因子荧光定量PCR引物序列

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
GenePrimerSequence (5′→3′)Amplification length/bpReferences
IL-1βFAGGCTGCTCTGGGATTCTCT236[15]
RCCCTTGCTGTAGTGGTGGTC
IL-6FGTGTGAAAGCAGCAAAGAGGC234[16]
RTGCAGGAACTGGATCAGGACT
IL-8FCTGCGCCAACACAGAAATTA234[15]
RCATCTGGCAACCCTACAACA
IL-18FCAAGGAAATCGGCCTCTATT255[17]
RTCCTGGGACACTTCTCTGAA
TNF-αFATGAGCACTGAAAGCATGATCC217[18]
RGAGGGCTGATTAGAGAGAGGTC
β-actinFCATGTACGTTGCTATCCAGGC250[19]
RCTCCTTAATGTCACGCACGAT
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炎症信号通路激活与细胞焦亡介导大肠杆菌热不稳定肠毒素亚基黏膜佐剂效应
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刘地 1, 2 , 王前程 1 , 乔宏萍 1, 2 , 武晓英 1, 2
微生物学报 | 研究报告 2026,66(8): 4076-4096
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微生物学报 |研究报告 2026 , 66 (8) : 4076 -4096
炎症信号通路激活与细胞焦亡介导大肠杆菌热不稳定肠毒素亚基黏膜佐剂效应
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刘地1, 2 , 王前程1, 乔宏萍1, 2, 武晓英1, 2
作者信息
  • 1.太原师范学院 生物科学与技术学院,天然生物活性成分创制兽药工程中心,山西 晋中
  • 2.山西省中兽药技术创新中心,山西 太原
通讯作者:
刘地, 武晓英
作者简介:

作者贡献声明

刘地:研究构思、设计、论文撰写和修改;王前程:数据收集和处理;乔宏萍:论文撰写和修改;武晓英:实验设施与经费支持。

Inflammatory signaling and pyroptosis mediate the mucosal adjuvant effect of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin subunits
Di LIU1, 2 , Qiancheng WANG1, Hongping QIAO1, 2, Xiaoying WU1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1.Center for Veterinary Medicine, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Taiyuan Normal University, Jinzhong, Shanxi, China
  • 2.Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine Technology Innovation Center of Shanxi Province, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
  • Corresponding Author:
    E-mail: LIU Di, ;
    WU Xiaoying,
出版时间: 2026-08-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260241
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【目的】 热不稳定肠毒素(heat-labile enterotoxin, LT)是公认的强效黏膜免疫佐剂,但其与宿主上皮细胞的相互作用机制尚不明确,导致毒性与佐剂性难以拆分,严重限制了其临床应用。本研究致力于阐明LT及其LTA、LTB亚基对人上皮细胞的差异性调控,旨在揭示其初始佐剂活性的引发机制。 【方法】 通过原核表达技术制备具有生物活性的LTB、LTA及其突变体LTA(R192G)。以人小肠上皮细胞系FHs 74 Int和小鼠空肠离体肠段为研究模型,检测细胞活力与凋亡水平,分析炎性因子的表达差异,并探究NF-κB及NLRP3炎症小体通路的变化。 【结果】 本研究制备的3种蛋白均具备生物活性,可被细胞有效内化。LTB主要诱导早期凋亡,显著上调IL-6、IL-8、IL-1β、TNF-α的表达,并激活NF-κB通路。LTA则显著引发细胞焦亡,特异性上调IL-18、IL-1β,并激活NLRP3炎症小体通路。突变体LTA(R192G)作用减弱,但仍可激活NLRP3通路。 【结论】 LT的佐剂活性源于其亚基经差异化通路激活上皮细胞免疫应答,LTB主要经由NF-κB通路诱导促炎因子产生;LTA则主要依赖NLRP3通路诱导IL-1β/18分泌及细胞焦亡。该发现不仅揭示了LT启动黏膜免疫的初始分子事件,更为定向改造LTA与LTB亚基,研发新一代安全、高效的黏膜疫苗佐剂奠定了坚实的理论基础。

热不稳定肠毒素  /  上皮细胞  /  炎症信号通路  /  细胞焦亡

[Objective] The heat-labile enterotoxin (LT) is widely recognized as a potent mucosal immunoadjuvant. However, the mechanisms underlying its interaction with host epithelial cells remain incompletely understood, which makes it difficult to separate its toxicity from its adjuvant activity. This limitation has severely hampered its clinical application. Therefore, this study aims to elucidate the differential regulatory effects of LT and its A (LTA) and B (LTB) subunits on epithelial cells, as well as the mechanism underlying the initiation of their initial adjuvant activity. [Methods] The biologically active LTB, LTA, and its mutant LTA(R192G) were prepared via prokaryotic expression. Using the human small intestinal epithelial cell line FHs 74 Int and a mouse jejunal ex vivo intestinal segment model, we examined cell viability and apoptosis, analyzed inflammatory cytokine expression, and investigated changes in the NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways. [Results] The three prepared proteins all possessed biological activity and could be effectively internalized by cells. LTB primarily induced early apoptosis, significantly up-regulated the expression of IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, and TNF-α, and activated the NF-κB pathway. LTA triggered significant pyroptosis, specifically up-regulated the expression of IL-18 and IL-1β, and activated the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. The mutant LTA(R192G) exerted weakened effects but could still activate the NLRP3 pathway. [Conclusion] The adjuvant activity of LT stems from its subunits activating immune responses in epithelial cells through different mechanisms: LTB primarily promotes pro-inflammatory cytokine production via the NF-κB pathway, while LTA mainly relies on the NLRP3 pathway to induce IL-1β/IL-18 secretion and pyroptosis. This discovery not only reveals the initial molecular events of LT-initiated mucosal immunity, but more importantly, lays a solid theoretical foundation for developing novel, safe, and efficient mucosal vaccine adjuvants through targeted modification of LTA and LTB subunits.

heat-labile enterotoxin  /  epithelial cell  /  inflammatory signaling pathway  /  pyroptosis
刘地, 王前程, 乔宏萍, 武晓英. 炎症信号通路激活与细胞焦亡介导大肠杆菌热不稳定肠毒素亚基黏膜佐剂效应. 微生物学报, 2026 , 66 (8) : 4076 -4096 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260241
Di LIU, Qiancheng WANG, Hongping QIAO, Xiaoying WU. Inflammatory signaling and pyroptosis mediate the mucosal adjuvant effect of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin subunits[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2026 , 66 (8) : 4076 -4096 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260241
热不稳定肠毒素(heat-labile enterotoxin, LT)是产肠毒素大肠杆菌(enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, ETEC)分泌的一种对热敏感的关键毒力因子,为引起婴幼儿腹泻、旅行者腹泻以及多种家畜腹泻的主要病原物质之一[1]。LT分子量约为87.0 kDa,呈典型六聚体结构,由1个具有催化活性的A亚基(LTA,约27.5 kDa)和1个负责受体结合的B亚基五聚体(LTB,每个单体约11.6 kDa)构成[2]。除具有毒性外,LT还表现出较强的免疫原性及优异的黏膜佐剂活性[3]。多年来,针对LT及其突变体佐剂机制的研究已积累丰富证据,表明LT及其衍生物具有广泛的免疫调节功能,可有效激活抗原呈递细胞,诱导机体产生抗原特异性黏膜免疫关键效应因子sIgA,以及系统性IgG1与IgG2抗体[4]。更重要的是,它们能够调控Th1、Th2、Th17以及调节性T细胞等多种免疫应答途径的平衡[5]。近期研究进一步揭示,LTA与LTB亚基各自拥有独特的免疫调节潜力,即便脱离完整毒素结构仍可独立发挥佐剂效应[6]。研究表明,单独的LTB亚基不能引起腹泻,其通过与细胞表面特异性糖脂类受体结合,一方面直接激活B细胞、巨噬细胞、CD4+ T细胞及CD8+ T细胞,并促进树突状细胞成熟;另一方面则可激活Th1和Th2辅助T细胞应答,诱导相应细胞因子的产生,从而间接调节免疫反应[7]。与LTB亚基不同,LT的毒性作用主要来源于LTA亚基;除毒性效应外,LTA亚基及其A1结构域在诱导机体产生特异性IgG及黏膜sIgA抗体的同时,还可激活Th17辅助T细胞途径,促进炎性细胞因子的生成[8]
目前,对LT佐剂机制的研究主要依赖动物模型,通过将其与特定模式抗原联合免疫,进而分析所诱导的特异性抗体谱、细胞因子谱,阐释其作用方式[9]。此外,部分研究集中于LT蛋白对专职抗原呈递细胞的直接调控作用[8]。然而,黏膜组织微环境的构成是一个关键却常被忽视的层面[10]。在黏膜表面,上皮细胞构成主要的物理与免疫屏障,而专职抗原呈递细胞数量相对稀少[11]。尤其值得注意的是,LTB五聚体与细胞表面受体的结合能力并不局限于抗原呈递细胞,其对上皮细胞同样具有高亲和力靶向作用[12]。因此,当LT作为佐剂经黏膜途径给药时,其与上皮细胞发生相互作用的几率显著高于与专职抗原呈递细胞的接触[5]。上皮细胞在摄取LT佐剂蛋白后如何参与后续黏膜免疫应答的诱导过程,其机制尚未得到充分解析。鉴于此,深入揭示上皮细胞内由LT亚基激活的关键分子事件及相关信号通路,对于阐明LT黏膜佐剂作用的核心机制具有决定性意义。
动物实验分析表明,LT可能通过诱导局部炎症发挥其佐剂作用。已有证据显示,NOD样受体热蛋白结构域相关蛋白3 (NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3, NLRP3)炎症小体的激活及其介导的细胞焦亡途径,以及核因子κB (nuclear factor-kappa B, NF-κB)信号通路,是最为重要的下游炎症信号传导路径[13]。在NLRP3炎症小体通路中,其活化可促使Pro-Caspase-1发生剪切,生成具有酶活性的Caspase-1,进而引发消皮素D (gasdermin D, GSDMD)蛋白裂解,并刺激白细胞介素-1β (interleukin-1β, IL-1β)和白细胞介素-18 (interleukin-18, IL-18)等促炎因子的释放,最终导致细胞焦亡[14]。在NF-κB通路中,细胞在感知外界刺激后可激活上游信号,引起κB抑制因子激酶(inhibitor of κB kinase, IKK)复合体的活化。活化的IKK能够磷酸化核因子κB抑制蛋白(inhibitor of NF-κB, IκB),促使IκB泛素化并降解,从而释放NF-κB二聚体。后者随后易位至细胞核内,启动多种炎症相关因子的转录表达[13]
本研究在现有LT佐剂研究框架下,从细胞与分子水平系统探讨LT及其亚基在黏膜界面发挥功能的作用机制。通过分析不同LT亚基单独刺激后上皮细胞炎症相关信号通路的活化状态,以及免疫应答相关效应分子表达的变化规律,系统阐释各亚基对上皮细胞固有免疫应答的差异化调控模式,旨在为开发基于LT亚基的新型、高效、安全黏膜疫苗佐剂奠定理论基础。
工程菌株大肠埃希氏菌(Escherichia coli) DH5α和BL21(DE3)购置于Invitrogen公司。人小肠上皮细胞系FHs 74 Int购自中国科学院典型培养物保藏委员会细胞库。表达载体pET24a(+)购置于Novagen公司。重组质粒pET24a(+)-eltA、pET24a(+)-eltAm和pET24a(+)-eltB由本实验室构建保存。
卡那霉素(kanamycin, Kan)、异硫氰酸荧光素(fluorescein isothiocyanate, FITC)、四甲基异硫氰酸罗丹明(tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate, TRITC)、GM1神经节苷脂,Sigma-Aldrich公司;LANCE cAMP 384 kit,Perkin Elmer公司;杜氏改良Eagle培养基(Dulbecco’s modified Eagle medium, DMEM)细胞培养基、胎牛血清、胰酶、青链霉素混合液,ThermoFisher Scientific公司;吡咯烷二硫代氨基甲酸铵(ammonium pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate, PDTC)、MCC950、细胞计数试剂盒(cell counting kit-8, CCK-8)、Annexin V-FITC凋亡检测试剂盒、末端标记法(TdT-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling, TUNEL)细胞凋亡检测试剂盒、人源和鼠源白细胞介素-6 (interleukin-6, IL-6)、白细胞介素-8 (interleukin-8, IL-8)、IL-18、IL-1β、肿瘤坏死因子α (tumor necrosis factor-alpha, TNF-α) ELISA检测试剂盒,上海碧云天生物技术股份有限公司;RNA提取试剂盒、定量PCR反转录试剂盒、嵌合荧光法定量检测试剂,TaKaRa公司;鼠源LTB、鼠抗人NLRP3、Caspase-1、Pro-IL-18、Pro-IL-1β、NF-κB、p65、p-p65、p-IκBα、IκBα、GSDMD、GSDMD-N段抗体、辣根过氧化物酶(horseradish peroxidase, HRP)标记羊抗鼠IgG二抗,Santa Cruz公司。
蛋白电泳系统、凝胶成像系统,Bio-Rad公司;多功能酶标仪,BioTek公司;研究级倒置荧光显微镜,Olympus公司;流式细胞仪,BD公司;荧光定量PCR仪,ABI公司。
将重组质粒转入E. coli BL21(DE3)中,从Kan抗性平板上挑取单克隆,接种到含抗生素的LB培养基试管中,37 ℃、200 r/min培养过夜。取1 mL过夜培养物转接至含100 mL LB培养基的锥形瓶中,37 ℃、200 r/min培养约2.5 h。菌液OD600达到约0.6时加入终浓度为0.5 mmol/L的IPTG诱导剂,30 ℃诱导表达10 h。诱导结束后,于4 ℃、8 000×g离心15 min收集菌体。采用PBS (pH 7.4)重悬菌体并进行超声裂解(冰水浴,功率300 W,超声3 s、间隔2 s,共10 min),表达的重组蛋白包涵体沉淀在含8.0 mol/L尿素的PBS缓冲液中溶解。通过Ni-NTA亲和介质纯化获得目标蛋白,将纯化的蛋白置于不含尿素的PBS缓冲液中4 ℃透析12 h,其间更换2-3次透析液,缓慢除去溶液中的尿素并完成蛋白复性,通过测定复性前后蛋白浓度计算蛋白复性效率。采用Bradford法测定可溶性蛋白的浓度,并通过SDS-PAGE与非变性聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳(native-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, Native-PAGE)分析蛋白表达水平及纯化效果。
将GM1神经节苷脂用包被缓冲液稀释至10 μg/mL,加入96孔酶标板中,每孔100 μL,4 ℃包被过夜。次日,弃去孔内液体,用磷酸盐吐温缓冲液(phosphate buffered saline with Tween-20, PBST)洗涤2次。向反应孔中加入300 μL封闭液,37 ℃恒温封闭2 h。弃去封闭液,PBST洗涤2次,向样品孔中加入梯度稀释的LTB蛋白溶液(0、0.062 5、0.125 0、0.250 0、0.500 0、1.000 0 μg/mL),每孔100 μL,设3个复孔;以PBS缓冲液代替蛋白作为对照孔,每个浓度设3个复孔,37 ℃恒温孵育2 h。弃去蛋白液,PBST洗涤3次。向反应孔中加入1:4 000稀释的鼠源LTB-IgG抗体100 μL,37 ℃恒温孵育1 h。弃去一抗溶液,PBST洗涤3次。每孔加入1:8 000稀释的羊抗鼠IgG-HRP抗体100 μL,37 ℃孵育1 h,弃去二抗溶液,PBST洗涤5次。每孔加入新鲜配制的邻苯二胺(O-phenylenediamine, OPD)底物显色液100 μL,37 ℃避光孵育20 min。随后加入100 μL终止液终止反应,立即于酶标仪上测定492 nm波长处的吸光度。
收集对数生长期的细胞,使用Versene溶液消化并制备单细胞悬液,经1 000×g离心10 min收集细胞。细胞用Hank’s平衡盐溶液(Hank’s balanced salt solution, HBSS)洗涤1次后,使用Stimulation buffer重悬细胞,调整细胞密度约为2×105个/100 μL。向细胞悬液中加入Alexa Fluor® 647标记的检测抗体1 μL,室温孵育60 min。取10 μL上述抗体标记的细胞悬液与10 μL待测LT亚基蛋白溶液依次加入96孔板中,设3个复孔,室温孵育60 min。随后加入Detection Mix混合液20 μL,室温避光孵育60 min,最后使用荧光酶标仪检测荧光信号强度,并根据标准曲线计算细胞内cAMP浓度。
分别使用FITC标记LTB蛋白,使用TRITC标记LTA和LTA(R192G)蛋白。称取0.5 mg荧光素溶于0.5 mL二甲基亚砜中,混匀使荧光素充分溶解,配制成1 mg/mL染料溶液。按照标记蛋白质与荧光素质量比为1 000 μg:150 μg的比例,将荧光素溶液缓慢加入蛋白质溶液中,吹打混匀,4 ℃条件下避光反应8 h。随后加入适量5 mol/L NH4Cl溶液至终浓度为50 mmol/L,继续于4 ℃避光反应2 h以终止标记反应。最后将交联产物在PBS溶液中透析3-4次,直至透析液澄清且几乎无色为止,-20 ℃避光保存。
将处于对数生长期的FHs 74 Int细胞经胰酶消化后,用完全培养基重悬并调整细胞浓度。按每孔1×104个细胞的密度均匀接种于6孔板中,37 ℃、5% CO2条件下培养24 h。加入荧光素标记的蛋白,终浓度为20 μg/mL,37 ℃孵育2 h。孵育结束后,弃去含蛋白的培养液,用PBS溶液洗涤细胞3次。随后在荧光显微镜下分别用蓝光(激发波长460-495 nm)和绿光(激发波长530-550 nm)激发,观察并记录细胞内荧光的分布情况,最后使用ImageJ软件(https://imagej.net/ij)分析细胞平均荧光强度。
将消化后的FHs 74 Int细胞,以每孔1×104个细胞的密度接种至96孔板,在37 ℃、5% CO2条件下培养24 h。向细胞中加入不同终浓度(0、5、10、20、40 μg/mL)的LTA、LTA(R192G)、LTB蛋白,每组设3个复孔,于37 ℃分别孵育12 h或24 h。孵育结束后,每孔加入10 μL CCK-8溶液,继续于37 ℃孵育1 h,使用酶标仪测定450 nm处各孔的吸光度值,评估细胞增殖活力。
细胞经目的蛋白处理后,用胰蛋白酶消化收集,制备单细胞悬液,1 000×g离心10 min收集细胞。使用PBS溶液洗涤细胞2次,弃去上清,加入结合缓冲液100 μL重悬细胞。向细胞悬液中加入Annexin V-FITC试剂5 µL,混合均匀,37 ℃避光孵育10 min。随后加入碘化丙啶(propidium iodide, PI)溶液5 µL,避光孵育5 min。最后,加入结合缓冲液400 µL稀释细胞,通过流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡情况,每组实验独立重复3次。
细胞经目的蛋白处理后,用胰蛋白酶消化收集,制备单细胞悬液,1 000×g离心10 min收集细胞,使用PBS溶液洗涤细胞2次。细胞沉淀中加入350 μL细胞裂解液,充分涡旋振荡以裂解细胞,用RNA提取试剂盒提取细胞总RNA。提取的总RNA立即使用反转录试剂盒合成cDNA。以cDNA为模板,按照表1的引物序列,使用嵌合荧光法定量检测试剂进行实时荧光定量PCR反应。反应体系(25 μL):cDNA模板1 μL,特异性上、下游引物(10 μmol/L)各0.5 μL,酶预混液12.5 μL,无RNase水10.5 μL。PCR扩增程序:95 ℃预变性5 min;95 ℃变性10 s,60 ℃退火30 s,72 ℃延伸10 s,共40个循环。实验独立重复3次,采用β-actin作为内参基因进行标准化,目标基因的相对mRNA表达量通过2-ΔΔCt方法计算。
收集蛋白处理后的细胞培养上清液,4 ℃、12 000×g离心10 min除去细胞碎片。取出预包被抗体的96孔板,室温平衡30 min。分别将不同浓度的标准品及待测样品加入相应孔中,每孔100 μL,设3个复孔,37 ℃孵育2 h。弃去上清液,每孔加入洗涤液300 μL,洗涤3次。随后加入生物素标记的检测抗体100 μL,37 ℃孵育1 h,洗涤3次。加入1:4 000稀释的HRP标记羊抗小鼠IgG抗体100 μL,避光37 ℃孵育1 h,弃去二抗溶液,洗涤3次。最后加入100 μL OPD显色液,37 ℃避光孵育20 min,加入100 μL终止液,于酶标仪上检测492 nm处的吸光度。
将亚基蛋白组(20、40 μg/mL)或亚基蛋白(40 μg/mL)与抑制剂预处理组(PDTC 50 μmol/L,MCC950 10 μmol/L)作用后的细胞用PBS清洗3次,加入适量细胞裂解液并于冰上裂解30 min,4 ℃、12 000×g离心15 min,收集上清液。通过SDS-PAGE分离蛋白样品,随后将蛋白转印至聚偏氟乙烯(polyvinylidene fluoride, PVDF)膜上。转印后的PVDF膜置于5%脱脂奶粉溶液中,室温封闭1 h。封闭后,加入稀释好的一抗工作液,4 ℃孵育过夜。孵育结束后,取出PVDF膜,使用Tris盐吐温缓冲液(Tris-buffered saline with Tween, TBST)漂洗3次。随后将膜转移至稀释后的二抗溶液中,室温孵育1 h。最后用TBST缓冲液漂洗膜3次,加入ECL试剂,暗处避光孵育5 min,使用凝胶成像系统进行显影与成像分析。
参照文献[20]所述方法,采用6-8周龄雌性BALB/c小鼠构建离体肠段结扎模型。实验方案如图4A所示,随机分为4组,每组5只小鼠。小鼠经麻醉后,打开腹腔,显露从十二指肠至远端结肠的整个肠道,随后对空肠进行结扎,每组小鼠结扎肠腔内分别注射含25 μg LTB、25 μg LTA、25 μg LTA(R192G)的蛋白溶液或对照试剂。小鼠在麻醉状态下维持3 h,之后通过颈椎脱臼法实施安乐死,收集各结扎肠段并测量其长度。将肠段纵向剪开,用无菌PBS冲洗后,置于含1 mL细胞培养液的24孔板中培养。24 h后,收集细胞培养上清液,采用鼠源细胞因子ELISA试剂盒检测相关细胞因子水平。空肠组织以4%多聚甲醛固定,石蜡包埋,所有检测结果均按肠段长度进行标准化处理。研究涉及的动物实验方案已获得生物科学与技术学院动物伦理委员会的批准,审批号为TYNU-SKY-2026-001。
将石蜡包埋的空肠组织样本切成4 μm厚的切片,经二甲苯脱蜡和梯度乙醇水化后,进行苏木精-伊红(hematoxylin-eosin, HE)染色5-10 min。水洗后,经1%盐酸乙醇分化、流水蓝化,随后用伊红复染1-3 min。染色切片经梯度乙醇脱水、二甲苯透明后封片。显微镜下观察,细胞核呈蓝色,细胞质呈红色。
石蜡包埋的组织切片经二甲苯脱蜡、梯度乙醇水化后,置于柠檬酸盐缓冲液中进行微波抗原修复,自然冷却至室温。用含3% H2O2的甲醇溶液室温孵育10 min以灭活内源性过氧化物酶,PBS洗涤后,滴加含0.1% Triton X-100的透化液冰上孵育2 min。随后,使用TUNEL细胞凋亡检测试剂盒染色,37 ℃湿盒避光孵育60 min。反应终止后,PBS洗涤,封片后于荧光显微镜下观察并采集图像。
采用SPSS统计软件(v25.0)进行实验数据分析。数据以均数±标准差(mean±SD)表示,每个实验结果独立重复3次。检测数据是否符合正态分布,对于符合正态分布且方差齐性的数据采用单因素方差分析(one-way ANOVA)。统计显著性水平设定为P<0.05,差异具有统计学意义。
在30 ℃条件下,经IPTG诱导10 h后3种目标蛋白均实现了高效表达,并主要以包涵体形式存在于细胞破碎后的沉淀中。通过包涵体洗涤、亲和纯化以及透析复性等一系列步骤成功获得了高纯度的目标蛋白,蛋白复性率约为40%,且几乎无杂蛋白残留。SDS-PAGE结果显示(图1A),所得蛋白分子量与预测值一致,具体为LTA (28.9 kDa)、LTA(R192G) (28.9 kDa)与LTB (12.9 kDa)。Native-PAGE分析进一步表明(图1B),LTB在复性过程中可自发组装,复性后主要以五聚体形式存在,仅观察到少量单体。
通过GM1结合实验与细胞内cAMP含量测定对LT亚基佐剂蛋白的生物学活性进行验证。GM1-ELISA结果显示,随着LTB浓度升高底物吸光度相应增强,呈现明显的浓度依赖性(图1C),说明纯化复性后的LTB仍具备与神经节苷脂GM1结合的能力。cAMP含量测定结果(图1D)显示,经佐剂蛋白处理3 h后LTB未引起细胞内cAMP水平的显著变化(P>0.05)。相比之下,具备ADP-核糖基化酶活性及ARF结合能力的LTA则能够显著提高细胞内cAMP含量(P<0.001),达到(86.20±6.88) pmol/mL。突变体LTA(R192G)也能引起细胞内cAMP的轻度升高(30.40±5.42) pmol/mL,与对照组相比差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。
经3 h佐剂蛋白处理后,明视野观察显示各实验组细胞形态与对照组相比均未见显著改变,在暗视野下所有蛋白处理组细胞内均可见明显的荧光信号(图1F)。具体而言,FITC标记的LTB蛋白激发后呈黄绿色荧光,而TRITC标记的LTA与LTA(R192G)蛋白激发后显示红色荧光。ImageJ软件分析结果表明(图1E),细胞内平均荧光强度分别为77.1、54.6、59.3,LTB蛋白的细胞内化效率略高于LTA与LTA(R192G)蛋白。上述结果表明,3种佐剂蛋白均能够被FHs 74 Int细胞有效摄取并进入胞内。
为评估佐剂蛋白对细胞形态的影响,以20 μg/mL无荧光素标记的LTB、LTA及LTA(R192G)蛋白处理FHs 74 Int细胞12 h。结果表明,与对照组相比,各实验组细胞形态均呈现不同程度的改变(图2A)。LTB处理组细胞边缘趋于平滑,形态由梭形转变为圆形或椭圆形;LTA处理组则表现为细胞膜向外延伸,边缘粗糙,并出现触角状结构;LTA(R192G)处理组细胞形态未见显著变化,仍维持正常的梭形结构。
CCK-8结果显示(图2B),LTB蛋白处理12 h后5-20 µg/mL实验组对细胞活力无显著影响(P>0.05);当浓度升高至40 µg/mL时细胞活力出现下降(P<0.05),但抑制幅度低于10.0%。处理24 h后,10 µg/mL及以上浓度均表现出明显的抑制作用,细胞活力分别降至对照组的88.1%、83.4%和77.5%,降幅均超过10.0%。LTA蛋白在12 h处理条件下低浓度(≤10 µg/mL)仅引起细胞活力的轻微抑制,而浓度>10 µg/mL时抑制效果显著增强(P<0.01),20 µg/mL与40 µg/mL组的细胞活力分别为86.3%和79.9%。延长处理时间至24 h后所有浓度组均呈现显著抑制作用(P<0.05),5-40 µg/mL各组的细胞活力依次为87.9%、80.6%、65.6%和55.8%,表明其抑制作用具有浓度与时间依赖性。LTA(R192G)蛋白在12 h处理时对各浓度组细胞活力均无显著影响;处理24 h后,仅在20 µg/mL和40 µg/mL浓度下出现轻度抑制(P<0.05),细胞活力下降幅度均未超过15.0%。
图2C2D所示,采用20 µg/mL佐剂蛋白分别处理FHs 74 Int细胞12 h和24 h后,各蛋白对细胞凋亡表现出明显不同的效应。与空白对照组相比,LTB蛋白主要诱发早期凋亡,处理12 h和24 h后早期凋亡率分别约为8%和15%,而晚期凋亡率始终维持在较低水平(低于2%)。LTA蛋白则同时显著诱导早期和晚期凋亡,处理12 h后,早期凋亡率约为15%,晚期凋亡率约为6%,总凋亡率约为20%;处理24 h后,早期凋亡率进一步上升至约35%,晚期凋亡率也超过10%,总凋亡率接近50%;相比之下,LTA(R192G)蛋白对细胞凋亡的诱导作用较弱,处理12 h后早期凋亡率低于3%,24 h后仅增至约6%,未引起显著的细胞凋亡(P>0.05)。Western blotting检测及灰度分析结果显示(图2E2F),LTB与LTA蛋白均可显著上调细胞内GSDMD蛋白的表达水平(P<0.01),而LTA(R192G)的作用弱于LTA,但仍可在一定程度上促进GSDMD表达(P<0.05)。GSDMD-N含量的变化更为明显,经LTB与LTA处理后,GSDMD-N含量分别提高了8.7倍和9.2倍,差异极显著(P<0.01);LTA(R192G)处理后也使GSDMD-N含量提高4.5倍,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。
荧光定量PCR结果显示(图3A),LTB蛋白处理后细胞内IL-6IL-8IL-1βTNF-α的基因表达水平均出现显著上调(P<0.001),分别为对照组的(2.70±0.25)倍、(4.10±0.33)倍、(5.90±0.27)倍和(4.60±0.29)倍。相比之下,LTA与LTA(R192G)蛋白仅能诱导IL-18IL-1β的基因表达上调。LTA蛋白作用后细胞内IL-18IL-1β基因表达量分别提升至原来的(6.90±0.41)倍和(8.20±0.67)倍,上调幅度均达到统计学显著水平(P<0.001)。LTA(R192G)蛋白虽也可促进IL-18IL-1β的基因表达,但其诱导能力相对较弱,2种细胞因子的表达量分别为对照组的(3.50±0.48)倍和(4.00±0.31)倍。
ELISA检测结果(图3B-3F)显示,佐剂蛋白处理后在细胞培养上清中均可检测到相应的炎性细胞因子,其蛋白水平变化与基因表达趋势一致。在20 µg/mL LTB蛋白刺激下,IL-6、IL-8和TNF-α的含量分别上升至(380.6±41.9)、(348.8±58.7)、(587.8±52.7) pg/mL,差异具有显著性(P<0.01)。当浓度提高至40 µg/mL时上述细胞因子的释放进一步增加,分别达到(565.3±70.4)、(726.8±64.8)、(736.6±66.5) pg/mL,效果极为显著(P<0.001)。LTA与LTA(R192G)蛋白均能诱导细胞产生IL-18。20 µg/mL和40 µg/mL LTA蛋白处理组中,IL-18的分泌量分别为(908.3±77.9)、(1 243.6±89.4) pg/mL,效应极为显著(P<0.001)。LTA(R192G)蛋白也表现出诱导能力,2个浓度下IL-18分泌量分别为(366.6±40.5) pg/mL和(453.9±56.3) pg/mL,均具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。值得注意的是,3种佐剂蛋白均能够引起IL-1β的分泌。在20 µg/mL浓度下,LTB、LTA及LTA(R192G)诱导的IL-1β含量分别为(801.9±115.2)、(919.7±138.8)、(767.7±105.1) pg/mL;浓度增至40 µg/mL时,其含量进一步升高至(962.1±120.6)、(1 321.8±163.1)、(940.4±63.3) pg/mL,各实验组均呈现极显著诱导效果(P<0.001)。
Western blotting检测及灰度分析结果显示(图3G-3L),LTB蛋白能够显著促进细胞内IκBα蛋白的降解(P<0.001),同时提高p-IκBα和p-p65蛋白的表达水平(P<0.001);而使用PDTC抑制剂可有效逆转由LTB诱导的p-IκBα与p-p65表达上调(P<0.001)。与之相比,相同浓度的LTA亚基未引起p-IκBα及p-p65水平的显著变化(P>0.05)。上述结果表明,LTB能够激活NF-κB信号通路。另一方面,LTA蛋白则显著上调NLRP3炎症小体通路关键蛋白NLRP3和Caspase-1的表达(P<0.001),并促进前体炎症因子pro-IL-18和pro-IL-1β的生成(P<0.01或P<0.001)。MCC950抑制剂能有效阻断LTA所诱导的NLRP3与Caspase-1的产生(P<0.01或P<0.05),而相同浓度的LTB亚基则未引起上述蛋白含量的显著变化(P>0.05),说明LTA主要激活NLRP3炎症小体通路。此外,LTA(R192G)蛋白虽作用弱于LTA,但也显著提升NLRP3和Caspase-1蛋白表达(P<0.05或P<0.01),并诱导pro-IL-18和pro-IL-1β的产生(P<0.01或P<0.001),表明该突变体同样具备激活NLRP3炎症小体通路的能力。
HE染色组织切片结果显示(图4B),与空白对照组相比,佐剂蛋白处理后空肠组织中小肠绒毛形态未见明显改变。TUNEL染色结果显示(图4C),3种佐剂蛋白处理后小肠绒毛中均出现绿色亮斑,表明细胞核DNA断裂及细胞凋亡;其中,LTA与LTB蛋白诱导的阳性细胞数量显著多于LTA(R192G)蛋白。ELISA检测结果显示(图4D-4H),佐剂蛋白处理后的空肠组织培养上清中均检测到相应炎性细胞因子。在25 µg LTB蛋白作用后,IL-1β、IL-6、IL-8和TNF-α的含量分别上升至(994.9±185.2)、(1 406.8±134.2)、(1 180.1±105.8)、(746.9±145.2) pg/mL,差异极显著(P<0.001)。LTA与LTA(R192G)蛋白均能诱导细胞产生IL-18和IL-1β;25 µg蛋白处理后,IL-1β的分泌量分别为(1 347.1±228.8) pg/mL和(832.2±160.6) pg/mL,差异显著(P<0.001);IL-18的分泌量分别为(1 047.1±188.8) pg/mL和(517.6±123.5) pg/mL,差异均具有统计学意义(P<0.001或P<0.05)。
当前广泛应用于人或动物的大部分佐剂通常是经验性的,其细胞与分子水平的作用机制尚未得到系统阐明,LT类佐剂也存在同样的问题[21]。由于不同研究采用的抗原类型及黏膜给药途径存在差异,导致诸多研究结果难以统一,不仅阻碍了对佐剂作用机制的全面解析,也为其临床转化带来潜在风险[22]。典型案例为Berna公司开发的LT佐剂鼻喷流感疫苗Nasalflu,虽曾在瑞士获批上市,却在应用过程中引发贝尔麻痹(Bell’s palsy)等不良反应,该事件严重制约了LT佐剂的进一步应用[23]。因此,深入揭示其分子机制对于明确其适用条件、降低不良反应、支撑基础研究与临床应用具有重要意义。
上皮细胞作为微生物与宿主互作的第一道防线,不仅是关键的物理屏障,还积极参与免疫识别与应答的启动。它们通过细胞因子释放介导黏膜免疫调节,并与固有免疫细胞进行信号沟通,协调后续免疫分子与细胞的募集与活化[24]。研究表明,上皮细胞可响应微生物信号,分泌包括IL-6、IL-8、IL-18、IL-1β以及TNF-α和TNF-β在内的多种炎性细胞因子,进而激活免疫细胞,参与抗感染免疫过程[25-26]。此外,上皮细胞具备多途径抗原呈递能力:通过分泌巨噬细胞炎性蛋白3α招募树突细胞至炎症部位,使其穿越上皮摄取抗原[26];借助MHC-Ⅰ与MHC-Ⅱ分子加工可溶性抗原,并通过外泌体以接触依赖方式呈递抗原[27];由特化的M细胞通过胞吞作用摄取抗原并转运至邻近树突状细胞或B细胞,从而高效启动免疫应答[28]
本研究从细胞与离体组织水平出发,探讨了LT亚基佐剂蛋白对正常肠上皮细胞的作用,重点分析了LT亚基蛋白与上皮细胞相互作用后引发的细胞变化及初始佐剂活性的触发机制,并进一步在分子层面揭示了LT蛋白佐剂活性的作用机理。已有文献表明,完整LT毒素或其突变体的佐剂效果通常强于单独的LTA或LTB亚基,且在抗体产生与细胞因子分泌方面略高于2种亚基联合使用的效果[29],表明亚基联合应用确实存在协同佐剂效应。值得注意的是,完整LT在极低浓度下即可对多种细胞系产生显著的细胞毒性,导致细胞活力大幅下降;而LTA与LTB亚基组合在相同浓度下几乎不表现直接细胞毒性,因此更易通过疫苗佐剂的安全性评估。此外,相较于完整毒素,LTA和LTB亚基更易于重组表达与纯化,在实际生产中具备明显优势。鉴于LTA与LTB 2种亚基功能不同,可能具有差异化的佐剂作用机制,且突变型LTA亚基同样具备佐剂活性[29],因此有必要分别研究每种亚基的独立作用。此前关于LTA亚基A2结构域介导穿膜机制的发现也为LTA与LTB可能拥有独立的佐剂作用途径提供了理论依据[30]
本研究通过基因工程手段成功制备了高纯度的LTB、LTA及其酶活缺失突变体LTA(R192G),其中LTB以五聚体形式存在。体外实验证实了LTB的GM1结合能力及LTA对cAMP水平的调控作用,表明工程化的LTB、LTA具备相应的生物活性。荧光素标记实验验证了3种蛋白均能够进入细胞,其中LTB亚基以五聚体形式与细胞表面的GM1神经节苷脂结合形成膜小泡,通过细胞膜翻转进入细胞;而LTA与LTA(R192G)蛋白的摄入则通过A2结构域介导的穿膜途径进入细胞内[31]。蛋白长时间作用于细胞后,LTA与LTB蛋白会对细胞形态产生肉眼可见的影响,细胞活力检测与凋亡结果佐证了这一现象。高浓度LTB蛋白长时间作用会对细胞活力产生一定的抑制作用,同时引发细胞早期凋亡。LTA蛋白对细胞活力有明显的抑制作用,同时引发细胞显著的早期及晚期凋亡。对LTA(R192G)蛋白而言,192位的氨基酸由Arg替换为Gly后,LTA亚基无法被蛋白酶识别并切割为A1和A2 2个片段;构象的改变导致A1结构域无法有效发挥其催化功能,从而使其毒性显著降低[32]。因此其对细胞活力影响较弱,未能诱导显著的细胞凋亡,细胞形态学观察结果与上述结论一致。荧光定量PCR和细胞因子ELISA测定结果相互佐证:LTB蛋白主要诱导上皮细胞IL-6IL-8IL-1βTNF-α炎性因子基因表达,并产生相应的炎症因子;LTA与LTA(R192G)蛋白主要诱导肠上皮细胞IL-18IL-1β炎性因子的基因表达,并产生相应的炎症因子。离体空肠组织模型中的炎症因子分泌趋势与细胞水平结果一致。然而,在组织水平未观察到明显的细胞形态变化,这可能是因为相较于细胞水平中因接触抑制而呈松散排列的细胞,组织中的细胞排列紧密,有限的空间限制了其形态改变。TUNEL染色结果进一步证实,佐剂蛋白已诱导细胞发生凋亡。虽然突变体LTA(R192G)的毒性显著降低,但其佐剂活性仍得到较好保留。体外实验与动物模型研究均表明,该突变体能够有效诱导Th1和Th2型细胞因子的产生,并促进特异性抗体应答[33],这也是其仍能激活炎症信号通路的原因。炎性因子是信号通路终端的表达产物,对应着不同的信号通路[34]。Western blotting分析显示,LTB蛋白促进IκBα蛋白的降解,以及p-IκBα和p-p65蛋白表达增加,而NF-κB通路抑制剂PDTC能有效阻断这些变化,表明NF-κB信号通路被激活[35]。此外,LTA和LTA(R192G)蛋白通过上调NLRP3、Caspase-1蛋白的表达,诱导炎症因子前体pro-IL-18、pro-IL-1β的产生,进而激活NLRP3炎症小体信号通路[36],而NLRP3抑制剂MCC950可有效阻断该激活作用。已有文献表明,LTA亚基的佐剂活性并不依赖于其ADP-核糖基转移酶活性[37]。单氨基酸突变对LTA蛋白的整体构象影响微弱,因此LTA(R192G)仍保留了通过A2结构域介导的膜插入或膜成孔能力。这一能力可诱导细胞内钾离子外流或溶酶体损伤,而这2个信号均为NLRP3炎症小体激活的经典上游事件。因此,LTA(R192G)突变体仍能在特定细胞类型中触发NLRP3活化。此外,野生型LTA的佐剂效果通常强于LTA(R192G)突变体,这是因为野生型LTA除通过膜成孔作用激活NLRP3外,其完整的ADP-核糖基转移酶活性还能引起更严重的细胞损伤并释放更多损伤相关分子,从而进一步增强免疫应答的强度与广度。
基于炎症因子ELISA与信号通路Western blotting实验数据,本研究绘制了LTA和LTB亚基调控上皮细胞免疫应答的机制示意图(图5)。结合细胞凋亡、炎症因子ELISA及信号通路Western blotting结果,LT亚基佐剂蛋白所引发的细胞死亡并非单纯的细胞凋亡,而是伴随大量炎症因子释放的细胞焦亡。随着这些细胞逐步发生焦亡,其释放的IL-6、IL-8、IL-18、IL-1β及TNF-α等多种炎性细胞因子可激活免疫细胞,该过程与LT亚基的佐剂效应密切相关。其中,经LTB亚基诱导产生的IL-6能够促进B细胞分化为浆细胞,并促进T细胞增殖和分化;而LTA亚基诱导产生的IL-18则主要诱导Th1细胞和自然杀伤细胞产生干扰素-γ,增强细胞免疫应答,这反映了LT增强体液与细胞免疫应答的佐剂能力。此外,LTB亚基诱导产生的TNF-α可激活炎症细胞并诱导下游细胞因子的级联释放,IL-8趋化中性粒细胞迁移、介导炎性细胞浸润;LTA亚基诱导产生的IL-1β则介导炎症反应,促进炎性介质释放、协同刺激T细胞活化,并诱导其他细胞因子的产生。上述结果反映了LT在局部炎症环境中发挥关键作用,具备启动免疫微环境重塑的重要佐剂能力。通过LT亚基引发的局部炎症反应可有效招募M细胞、树突状细胞及B细胞等免疫细胞到达病灶区域,这些细胞能够处理并呈递与LT亚基共同给药的抗原物质,由此启动并增强初始免疫应答。
综上所述,LT及其亚基蛋白通过诱导上皮细胞的局部炎症反应分别激活NLRP3炎症信号通路与NF-κB炎症信号通路,诱导上皮细胞分泌炎症因子并引发细胞焦亡,从而发挥初始的佐剂活性。本研究为阐明LT及其衍生物的佐剂机制提供了理论依据,对推动其在呼吸道、消化道感染性疾病及大流行传染病黏膜疫苗的研发具有重要参考价值。
  • 山西省基础研究计划(20210302123317)
  • 山西省现代农业产业技术研究体系专项资金(2025CYJSTX18)
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2026年第66卷第8期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260241
  • 接收时间:2026-03-24
  • 首发时间:2026-08-21
  • 出版时间:2026-08-04
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  • 收稿日期:2026-03-24
  • 录用日期:2026-05-08
基金
Fundamental Research Program of Shanxi Province(20210302123317)
山西省基础研究计划(20210302123317)
Earmarked Fund for Modern Agro-industry Technology Research System of Shanxi Province(2025CYJSTX18)
山西省现代农业产业技术研究体系专项资金(2025CYJSTX18)
作者信息
    1.太原师范学院 生物科学与技术学院,天然生物活性成分创制兽药工程中心,山西 晋中
    2.山西省中兽药技术创新中心,山西 太原

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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genus
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species
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Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
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Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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