Article(id=1242175001722454526, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242175008705966230, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240512, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1723996800000, receivedDateStr=2024-08-19, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1728835200000, acceptedDateStr=2024-10-14, onlineDate=1774087198906, onlineDateStr=2026-03-21, pubDate=1735920000000, pubDateStr=2025-01-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1774087198906, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1774087198906, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774087198906, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1242175008705966230, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2025', volume='65', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='415', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1774087200568, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774087310368, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1242175469299270453, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242175008705966230, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1242175469299270454, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242175008705966230, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=38, endPage=51, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1242175002242548226, articleId=1242175001722454526, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Structural basis and catalytic mechanism of bacterial ADP-ribosyl hydrolases, columnId=1239895164987175635, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Adenosine diphosphate-ribosylation (ADPr) is a reversible post-translational modification that is catalyzed by adenosine diphosphate-ribosyltransferases (ARTs) and adenosine diphosphate- ribosylhydrolases (ARHs), and it widely occurs in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. ARHs are a class of key enzymes that can reverse ADPr modification of specific amino acid residues or specific sites/sequences of DNA and RNA. They can regulate the physiological metabolism, signal transduction, gene expression, and other key life processes in bacteria or hosts, playing an important role in the inter/intraspecific competition, stress responses, and pathogenicity of bacteria. This article reviews the classification, structural characteristics, and catalytic mechanisms of bacterial ARHs, aiming to enrich our understanding about the catalytic mechanisms and biological functions of ARHs in bacterial life.

, correspAuthors=Hongxin GUAN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*GUAN Hongxin, E-mail:
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ADP-核糖基化(adenosine diphosphate-ribosylation, ADPr)修饰是由ADP-核糖基转移酶(adenosine diphosphate-ribosyltransferases, ARTs)和ADP-核糖基水解酶(adenosine diphosphate- ribosylhydrolases, ARHs)共同催化的可逆化翻译后修饰,广泛地分布于真核生物和原核生物中。ARHs是一类能够逆转特定氨基酸残基或DNA、RNA特定位点/序列ADPr修饰的关键酶,通过调控细菌或宿主的生理代谢、信号传导和基因表达调控等关键生命过程,在细菌物种间/种内的竞争、应激反应和致病性中发挥重要作用。鉴于细菌ARHs相关研究领域近期取得了一定的进展,本综述从其分类、结构特点以及催化机制角度对其进行系统总结,以期为深入理解细菌ARHs的作用机理及其在细菌生命过程的重要生物学功能提供帮助。

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The core domain of ARHs is shown as a cartoon in magenta, and the N-terminal 3-helical bundle region of SAV0325 is shown as a cartoon in orange. The "ribose cap" of TcPARG and DrPARG as well as the NTE of Tri1 are shown in wheat. Key residues involved in the catalytic reaction are shown as sticks in yellow, ADPr as sticks in cyan, and Zn2+ and Mn2+ as spheres in blue and purple, respectively. A−J show Macrodomain family ARHs. A−C: MacroD-like ARHs; D, E: PARGs; F−H: ALC1-like ARHs; I, J: newly reported Macrodomain family ARHs in Legionella pneumophila, Larg1, and MavL, respectively. K−L: DraG family ARHs, DraG, and Tri1., figureFileSmall=dlaFSgXsNV0ErGImoPM2xA==, figureFileBig=UJxIS3YEwCYCz/hFLecmNQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243300007957345058, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242175001722454526, language=CN, label=图1, caption=不同细菌ARHs的结构、催化核心结构域和催化基序。

ARHs核心结构域用洋红色飘带方式显示,其他特殊结构部分:SAV0325的N端3-helix bundle区域用橙色显示;TcPARG和DrPARG的“核糖帽”结构以及Tri1的NTE结构部分都用麦芽色显示。涉及催化反应的关键氨基酸用黄色棍棒模型显示,ADPr用青色棍棒模型显示,Zn2+和Mn2+分别用蓝色和紫色球体显示。A−J:Macrodomain家族ARHs,其中A−C图为MacroD样ARHs,D和E图为PARGs,F−H图为ALC1样ARHs,I和J图分别为嗜肺军团菌中新报道的Macrodomain家族ARHs,Larg1和MavL;K−L:DraG家族ARHs、DraG和Tri1。

, figureFileSmall=dlaFSgXsNV0ErGImoPM2xA==, figureFileBig=UJxIS3YEwCYCz/hFLecmNQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243300008116728623, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242175001722454526, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Classification, substrates, and motify of ADP-ribosylhydrolases

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
ClassificationARHsPDB/UniProtSubstratesMotify/Catalatic aaReferences
PDB:Protein Date Bank;下划线标注:关键氨基酸催化残基;*:2016年后文献报道;−:暂无文献报道。
PDB refers to Protein Date Bank; Underline refers to the key catalytic residues; * refers to the literature report after 2016; − means no literature report.
Macrodomain familyMacroD-like
YmdB5CB3OAADPr
Protein-ADPr
NAANPSLMGGGGVDGAIH------AISTGVYGYPR[10]
OiMacroD5L9QOAADPr
Protein-ADPr
NAANGSLLGGGGVDGAIH------SISTGVYGYPI[20]
SAV03255KIV[11]
SCO6450Q9ZBG3Protein-ADPr
ADPr-5′P-dsDNA
dsDNA-3′P-ADPr
ADPr-5′P-RNA
NAANSSLLGGGGVDGAIH------AISTGVYRWP[21-24]
PARGs
TCPARG3SIGProtein-PARASAEHPGGGFLSGAHAQEEGLARSS[25]
DrPARG5ZDBProtein-PARASAKNPGGGFLGGAQAQEEDLCRGS[26]
ALC1-like
FmTARG1C3WDV1OAADPr
Protein-ADPr
Protein-PAR
FNLITKEKYW------MPKIGCGLDRLSW[27]
DarG*5M3EssDNA-T-ADPrFNFPTKKHWR------LPPLGAGNGGLPW[9, 28-30]
SCO67355E3BProtein-ADPr[31]
Others
Larg1*7W3SANTs-ADPrPSDAFALTGNEWGYGSVESMIGNNS[15, 32-33]
MavL*8IPWADPr-UbAWDHFSWPGNDYWGGARQTDDGV[16, 34-35]
DraG familyDraG2WOEProtein-R-ADPrATVEFMTK------QITDDTEM------PVDVGN[17]
Tri1*6DREProtein-R-ADPrTTLEFLPR------RCFDIGNT------DADSVA[8]
), ArticleFig(id=1243300008334832439, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242175001722454526, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

细菌ADP-核糖基水解酶分类、底物及催化基序

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
ClassificationARHsPDB/UniProtSubstratesMotify/Catalatic aaReferences
PDB:Protein Date Bank;下划线标注:关键氨基酸催化残基;*:2016年后文献报道;−:暂无文献报道。
PDB refers to Protein Date Bank; Underline refers to the key catalytic residues; * refers to the literature report after 2016; − means no literature report.
Macrodomain familyMacroD-like
YmdB5CB3OAADPr
Protein-ADPr
NAANPSLMGGGGVDGAIH------AISTGVYGYPR[10]
OiMacroD5L9QOAADPr
Protein-ADPr
NAANGSLLGGGGVDGAIH------SISTGVYGYPI[20]
SAV03255KIV[11]
SCO6450Q9ZBG3Protein-ADPr
ADPr-5′P-dsDNA
dsDNA-3′P-ADPr
ADPr-5′P-RNA
NAANSSLLGGGGVDGAIH------AISTGVYRWP[21-24]
PARGs
TCPARG3SIGProtein-PARASAEHPGGGFLSGAHAQEEGLARSS[25]
DrPARG5ZDBProtein-PARASAKNPGGGFLGGAQAQEEDLCRGS[26]
ALC1-like
FmTARG1C3WDV1OAADPr
Protein-ADPr
Protein-PAR
FNLITKEKYW------MPKIGCGLDRLSW[27]
DarG*5M3EssDNA-T-ADPrFNFPTKKHWR------LPPLGAGNGGLPW[9, 28-30]
SCO67355E3BProtein-ADPr[31]
Others
Larg1*7W3SANTs-ADPrPSDAFALTGNEWGYGSVESMIGNNS[15, 32-33]
MavL*8IPWADPr-UbAWDHFSWPGNDYWGGARQTDDGV[16, 34-35]
DraG familyDraG2WOEProtein-R-ADPrATVEFMTK------QITDDTEM------PVDVGN[17]
Tri1*6DREProtein-R-ADPrTTLEFLPR------RCFDIGNT------DADSVA[8]
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细菌ADP-核糖基水解酶的结构基础与催化机理
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焦引弟 1 , 张路豪 2 , 欧阳松应 1, 3 , 关洪鑫 1, *
微生物学报 | 综述 2025,65(1): 38-51
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微生物学报 | 综述 2025, 65(1): 38-51
细菌ADP-核糖基水解酶的结构基础与催化机理
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焦引弟1, 张路豪2, 欧阳松应1, 3, 关洪鑫1, *
作者信息
  • 1 福建师范大学 生命科学学院, 福建 福州 350117
  • 2 福建农林大学 动物科学学院, 福建 福州 350117
  • 3 福建师范大学, 南方生物医学研究中心, 福建 福州 350117
Structural basis and catalytic mechanism of bacterial ADP-ribosyl hydrolases
Yindi JIAO1, Luhao ZHANG2, Songying OUYANG1, 3, Hongxin GUAN1, *
Affiliations
  • 1 College of Life Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou 350117, Fujian, China
  • 2 College of Animal Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350117, Fujian, China
  • 3 FJNU Biomedical Research Center of South China, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou 350117, Fujian, China
出版时间: 2025-01-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240512
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ADP-核糖基化(adenosine diphosphate-ribosylation, ADPr)修饰是由ADP-核糖基转移酶(adenosine diphosphate-ribosyltransferases, ARTs)和ADP-核糖基水解酶(adenosine diphosphate- ribosylhydrolases, ARHs)共同催化的可逆化翻译后修饰,广泛地分布于真核生物和原核生物中。ARHs是一类能够逆转特定氨基酸残基或DNA、RNA特定位点/序列ADPr修饰的关键酶,通过调控细菌或宿主的生理代谢、信号传导和基因表达调控等关键生命过程,在细菌物种间/种内的竞争、应激反应和致病性中发挥重要作用。鉴于细菌ARHs相关研究领域近期取得了一定的进展,本综述从其分类、结构特点以及催化机制角度对其进行系统总结,以期为深入理解细菌ARHs的作用机理及其在细菌生命过程的重要生物学功能提供帮助。

ADP-核糖基水解酶  /  结构基础  /  催化机理

Adenosine diphosphate-ribosylation (ADPr) is a reversible post-translational modification that is catalyzed by adenosine diphosphate-ribosyltransferases (ARTs) and adenosine diphosphate- ribosylhydrolases (ARHs), and it widely occurs in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. ARHs are a class of key enzymes that can reverse ADPr modification of specific amino acid residues or specific sites/sequences of DNA and RNA. They can regulate the physiological metabolism, signal transduction, gene expression, and other key life processes in bacteria or hosts, playing an important role in the inter/intraspecific competition, stress responses, and pathogenicity of bacteria. This article reviews the classification, structural characteristics, and catalytic mechanisms of bacterial ARHs, aiming to enrich our understanding about the catalytic mechanisms and biological functions of ARHs in bacterial life.

ADP-ribosylhydrolases  /  structural basis  /  catalytic mechanism
焦引弟, 张路豪, 欧阳松应, 关洪鑫. 细菌ADP-核糖基水解酶的结构基础与催化机理. 微生物学报, 2025 , 65 (1) : 38 -51 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240512
Yindi JIAO, Luhao ZHANG, Songying OUYANG, Hongxin GUAN. Structural basis and catalytic mechanism of bacterial ADP-ribosyl hydrolases[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2025 , 65 (1) : 38 -51 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240512
ADP-核糖基化(adenosine diphosphate- ribosylation, ADPr)修饰是一种普遍存在于原核和真核生物中的蛋白质翻译后修饰(post- translational modifications, PTMs),广泛参与DNA损伤修复、细胞应激、衰老过程、肿瘤代谢、信号转导和病原体感染等重要的生命过程[1-2]。该修饰是一种复杂的动态可逆化PTM,依赖于ADP-核糖基转移酶(adenosine diphosphate- ribosyltransferases, ARTs)和宏结构域(macrodomain)蛋白家族或ADP-核糖基水解酶(adenosine diphosphate-ribosylhydrolases, ARHs),共同完成对蛋白、核酸或其他小分子的修饰及去修饰过程[1-3]。在此过程中,ARTs将β-烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotidem, NAD+)水解成ADPr和烟酰胺(nicotinamide, NAM),然后将ADPr以O-糖苷键、N-糖苷键或S-糖苷键的方式与氨基酸侧链、核酸或其他代谢产物的核糖相连,完成ADPr修饰;该修饰可以分为聚ADPr修饰和单ADPr修饰2种形式,细菌中主要以单ADPr修饰为主,并在细菌物种间/种内的竞争、应激反应和致病性中发挥重要作用[4]。ADPr连接的形式、长度和复杂性可以显著影响PTMs的半衰期、下游事件发生的顺序,以及逆转它所需的酶[5]。负责水解ADPr修饰的蛋白在进化上主要分为Macrodomain家族和ADPr水解酶家族2个家族[4]。前者既可以单独识别ADPr基团/链,也可以将其水解,在真核生物中可以分为MacroD样水解酶(包括MacroD1和MacroD2两个分支)、ALC1样水解酶(hTARG1)以及聚ADPr水解酶(poly ADP-ribosyl glycohydrolases, PARGs)样水解酶(hPARGs)[6];PARGs在真核生物中又可以分为ARH1、ARH2和ARH3三个分支。在细菌中也广泛存在着这两大类可以水解ADPr基团/链的水解酶[4, 6-7]
近年来,随着分子生物学技术的不断发展,对细菌ARHs的研究也逐渐深入,越来越多研究表明,由其参与的ADPr修饰在细菌种间竞争、响应外界环境刺激和DNA损伤、生物膜形成、抗生素代谢调节、氧化应激防御以及致病过程中发挥重要作用[8-11]。因此,本文系统地总结了近期细菌ARHs的研究进展,以期为相关领域的研究提供参考。
ADPr修饰作为一个动态过程,其ADPr的催化连接和清除之间保持动态平衡,这种平衡对于细菌内实现该反应可逆性和ADPr底物循环利用至关重要[1]。细菌ARHs由Macrodomain家族和dinitrogenase reductase-activating glycohydrolase (DraG)家族2种进化和结构上不同的家族组成[4]。Macrodomain家族ARHs具有保守的核心结构域,由α螺旋-β折叠-α螺旋构成“三明治”样结构,中间部分的7个β折叠形成β片层结构被5个α螺旋包围,并形成一个“催化口袋”以结合ADPr基团[6]。其中ADPr的腺苷部分与保守的芳香族氨基酸通过π-π堆积相互作用,并且芳香族氨基酸残基的第6位氮原子还会与天冬氨酸残基形成配位键[12];“催化口袋”区域相关氨基酸通过其侧链/主链与焦磷酸形成氢键网络来稳定ADPr的结合[13]。Macrodomain家族蛋白都具备一个保守的α螺旋-loop结构,该结构参与构成“催化口袋”,许多该家族蛋白参与构成催化中心的关键氨基酸也都位于其上;此外,该结构还通过与ADPr远端核糖基团及水分子形成氢键网络,共同维持ADPr处于合适的催化位置和角度,为下一步催化反应的发生提供条件[12]。细菌Macrodomain家族ARHs主要包括MacroD样ADPr水解酶、PARG、amplified in liver cancer 1 (ALC1)样ADPr水解酶,其中后者又可以分为terminal ADPr glycohydrolase 1 (TARG1)样ADPr水解酶和TARG1、DarG样ADPr水解酶,以及SCO6735样ADPr水解酶[6, 14]。除此之外,近期在嗜肺军团菌(Legionella pneumophila)中也新报道了Larg1[15]和MavL[16] 2个具有ADPr水解酶活性的效应蛋白,它们具有Macrodomain家族的经典结构域,但关键催化氨基酸和催化机制则具有独特特征。另一大类是DraG样ARHs,以固氮菌中首次发现的DraG命名,主要由一个全部为α螺旋组成的核心结构域构成,其N端在不同的细菌中则存在明显不同,通常分为2种结构:约12个氨基酸组成的α螺旋结构,也被称为N terminal helix (NTH)和约60个氨基酸组成的α螺旋-loop结构,称为N terminal extension (NTE)[17-18]。该类ARHs与人类基因组中编码的3种ARHs具有相似的核心结构域(ARH1−3)[19]。此外,在变形斑沙雷氏菌(Serratia proteamaculans)和单核增生李斯特氏菌(Listeria monocytogenes)中鉴定到的type Ⅵ secretion ADP-ribosyltransferase immunity 1 (Tri1)[8]和Esx secretion ADP-ribosyltransferase immunity 1 (Eri1)也属于该家族成员(表1)。
ARHs对底物具有专一性,能高效识别并水解特定位点的ADPr修饰;与真核生物中的PARGs类似,细菌中的PARGs也能水解聚ADPr (poly ADP-ribose, PAR)中重复的糖苷核糖-核糖键,将PAR聚合物链切割成单个ADPr,但其对短PAR聚合物上的加工能力有限,并且不能够清除单ADPr修饰[36-38]。MacroD1、MacroD2和TARG1则可以水解天冬氨酸、谷氨酸和O-酰基-ADPr (O-acyl-ADP-ribose, OAADPr)的O-糖苷键,催化末端ADPr核糖部分的切割[6]。DarG可特异性水解DNA单链上胸腺嘧啶或者鸟嘌呤上的ADPr基团[39-40]。嗜肺军团菌的效应蛋白MavL和Larg1可以特异性的切除蛋白质精氨酸的单ADPr基团,从而恢复靶蛋白的功能[15-16]。此外,细菌DraG样ARHs,如DraG、Tri1和Eri1同样可以特异性的将底物蛋白精氨酸上的ADPr基团切除,从而逆转其对应的ARTs的修饰,并恢复底物蛋白的活性[8, 17]
MacroD样ARHs普遍存在于各种生命体中,如人类中的MacroD1,也被称为白血病相关蛋白16 (leukaemia-related protein 16, LPR16)和MacroD2[41-42];布氏锥虫(Trypanosoma brucei gambiense)中的Trypanosoma brucei MacroD-like protein (TbMDO);病毒中,如冠状病毒科(Coronaviridae)、披膜病毒科(Togaviridae)和肝病毒科(Hepeviridae)中的非结构蛋白nsp3 (non-structural protein 3, nsp3)[43-45],以及大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli)中的YmdB[10]和伊平海脊大洋芽孢杆菌(Oceanobacillus iheyensis)中的OiMacroD[20]。它们都是单ADPr水解酶,不仅对蛋白质底物中酸性氨基酸的ADPr修饰具有酶切活性,还可以水解Sirtuins脱乙酰基反应过程中产生的OAADPr,并进一步通过去乙酰化反应将其水解为游离的乙酸和ADPr[46]
通常情况下,MacroD样ARHs的催化反应需要天冬酰胺(β3-α1环)、天冬氨酸(α1螺旋)和酪氨酸(β6-α4环) 3个保守的氨基酸[47]。对于OiMacroD,对应的3个氨基酸分别为N30、D40和Y134。其中N30 (β3-α1环)主要负责结合并稳定亲核水分子,Y134 (β6-α4环)负责稳定远端核糖并使其处于正确的位置和方向,D40 (螺旋α1)激活负责亲核攻击的水分子并使其去质子化,此外,N27 (β3)和H44 (α1)在协同D40激活水分子的去质子化过程中具有重要作用;在底物识别并结合的过程中,催化环β6-α4会发生底物诱导的构象变化,“催化口袋”由“开放”状态转变为“关闭”状态,这一构象变化导致催化环上的主链酰胺基团与ADPr焦磷酸基团相互作用并将其被封闭于“催化口袋”中,同时使Y134转向合适位置并参与远端的核糖基团的旋转和固定(图1A);D40存在2种旋转异构体,Ⅰ型D40旋转异构体可与远端核糖的2′-OH相互作用,在与特异性底物的结合和催化中发挥重要作用,EcYmdb (PDB: 5CB3)和hMacroD2 (PDB: 41QY)中也存在这种D40旋转异构体[10, 47]。Ⅱ型D40旋转异构体则与G36的主链形成氢键,此种情况主要存在于未结合ADPr的OiMacroD-MES (PDB: 5FUD)、N30A (PDB: 5LBP)突变体和EcYmdb (PDB: 1SPV)结构中;D40A的突变导致D40和G36间无法形成氢键,从而导致β3-α1环产生4 Å的位移,占据远端核糖结合的位置,这也表明D40除了激活水分子参与亲和攻击,还参与维持β3-α1环的合适构象,并为ADPr或OAADPr的结合提供合适的空间;除了这些关键氨基酸,还有6个水分子也参与了底物的结合及催化,其中5个水分子主要参与底物的结合,3个负责腺苷的结合,2个负责与焦磷酸结合,而最后1个水分子则主要参与催化,当其被Pα激活后,可以参与对核糖基部分C1′′的亲核攻击,最终催化1′-OAADPr的去乙酰化反应或者单ADPr修饰蛋白的ADPr水解反应[10, 20]
对于YmdB,其N25和D35通过与ADPr远端核糖基团的2′-OH形成氢键,帮助YmdB选择性识别2′-OAADPr而非3′-OAADPr或1′-OAADPr,Y126则通过稳定远端核糖方向也在一定程度上为底物特异性识别提供帮助。G32通过与2′-OAADPr乙酰基之间的氢键相互作用,协助催化反应的顺利进行[10, 48] (图1B)。
在金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)和酿脓链球菌(Streptococcus pyogenes)等致病菌中存在一类特殊的NAD+依赖的组蛋白去乙酰化酶(sirtuins),即SirTM,它们在结构上与Sir2相似,但两者序列相似性只有10.6%;这类sirtuins的操纵子中含有编码特定MacroD样ARH的基因,编码的ARH可逆转sirtuins催化的ADPr修饰,因此,被硫辛酸连接酶A硫辛酰化修饰的甘氨酸切割系统H蛋白的功能可通过ADPr可逆修饰进行动态调控,最终帮助病原菌应对宿主的氧化应激反应[46]。对来自金黄色葡萄球菌的MacroD样ARH即SAV0325的研究表明,尽管Macrodomain核心结构域的整体结构具有明显的保守性,但其包含一个独特的C-H-C型Zn2+结合位点,该位点可能与ADPr的结合有关;此外,其N端则由3个额外的反向平行的α螺旋束折叠组成,该折叠对C-H-C构象的稳定起了一定的支撑作用(图1C);SAV0325还具有一个具有明显的疏水腔,该腔可能通过结合硫辛酰化底物蛋白的硫辛酸基团来识别并结合底物,这也为下一步的ADPr切除提供了基础[11, 31]
PAR修饰作为一种重要的PTM,在维持细胞基因组稳定性,如DNA修复、染色质结构维持、有丝分裂和细胞凋亡等方面发挥重要作用[25, 49]。尽管之前学界认为原核生物缺乏PAR代谢,但是随后在一些细菌中的确发现了与真核生物PAPR1同源的PARPs,以及可能催化去PAR修饰的蛋白(由DUF2263基因编码)[25, 50]。2011年,Slade等[25]以弯曲高温单孢菌(Thermomonospora curvata)中DUF2263基因编码的蛋白(命名为TcPARG)为研究对象,确认了该蛋白的确具有去PAR酶活,这也是首次在细菌中确认存在PARG;此后Cho等[26]又在耐辐射奇异球菌(Deinococcus radiodurans)中发现了另外一个PARG,命名为DcPARG。DcPARG基因的敲除可以导致接收辐射照射的耐辐射球菌中积累PAR,进一步表明,细菌中的确存在PAR代谢[26]
典型的真核生物如人的PARGs,除了C末端负责催化的Mcrodomian外,其还包括N端调节结构域(regulatory and targeting domain, RT-domian)和中间附属结构域(accessory domain, AD)[25]。与经典的真核生物PARGs不同,TcPARG只包含一个典型的Macrodomain结构,但它们的ADPr结合“口袋”都位于α螺旋和β折叠形成的裂隙中,主要由位于一侧的二磷酸结合环和另一侧的催化螺旋-环构成;其中催化螺旋-环结构在PARGs中具有明显的序列同源性,主要由GGG-X6-8-QEE模序构成,它们在结构上也具有明显的相似性;TcPARG的结构生物学研究表明,在结合ADPr的过程中,其构象发生了一定变化,其中V226和F227会轻微重排,使F227侧链与ADPr的核糖部分能够紧密接触,以保证ADPr处于“催化口袋”中合适位置,然而由于C末端“核糖帽”这一特殊结构的存在,尤其是一个芳香族氨基酸(W260)的存在,空间位阻导致其“催化口袋”中结合的ADPr只能是PAR长链中最末端的一个,并决定TcPARG是一个核糖外切酶(图1D);这与在真核生物PARGs的现象相同,例如hPARG中该氨基酸为F902,它的存在导致hPARG对PAR聚合链内糖苷键的结合能力较低,使其主要发挥核糖外切酶活性[51]。尽管TcPARG只有聚ADP-核糖外切酶活性,但是其催化机制与经典的PARGs高度相似,都是由谷氨酸(E115)和水分子共同介导亲核攻击以断裂糖苷键[25, 38, 52]
相比于普通细菌,耐辐射球菌具有更强DNA辐射损伤修复能力,转录组学分析表明,其遭遇辐射后DrPARG的表达水平明显上调,暗示DrPARG可能参与DNA损伤修复,这也与之前报道的ADPr修饰参与真核细胞DNA损伤修复的研究相契合;结构生物学研究表明,DrPARG在空间结构上也是一个典型的Macrodomain折叠,并且具备典型的螺旋-环催化基序(-G100GGFLGGAQAQEE112-);在催化的过程中,DrPARG的“催化口袋”也需要经历一定的构象变化以更好地结合ADPr,并且结合方式和催化糖苷键断裂的机制与先前报道的细菌TcPARG以及经典的真核生物PARGs高度相似;与TcPARG不同的是,DrPARG的N端具有更高的柔性,并进一步为其催化环提供更高的可变性;此外,其催化环上的D113 (TcPARG中为G116)可与ADPr基团的碱基部分形成氢键以更好地结合并稳定ADPr,尽管都具有“核糖帽”结构,DrPARG在该区域的第267位氨基酸为苏氨酸(T267),而TcPARG在该位置则为具有大侧链且带正电荷的精氨酸(R268),“核糖帽”上这一精细差别也导致DrPARG “催化口袋”中结合核糖2′-OH的位置具有足以允许一个水分子进入的空间,从而为聚PAR的n+1位ADPr的结合提供空间;此外,“核糖帽”上的第259位氨基酸为亮氨酸(L259),相比于HsPARG和TcPARG的芳香族氨基酸F和W,具有更小的侧链基团,从而减少PAR聚合链结合的空间位阻(图1E)[25-26, 53]。总之,DrPARG催化环的结构柔性和“核糖帽”关键氨基酸的差异共同决定了其还具备核糖内切酶活性,这也为ADPr修饰在DNA损伤修复中提供了重要的结构基础[26, 54]
Ahel等[55]基于生物信息学分析发现,细菌ALC1样ARHs从进化上主要包括3个分支:TARG1样ARHs、SCO6735样ARHs和DarG样ARHs。TARG1样ARHs分布并不广泛,只占Macrodomain家族蛋白的1%,在搜索到的262个TARG1-like ARHs中,只有13%来自细菌,并且主要存在于厚壁菌门(Firmicutes)和梭菌门(Fusobacteria)中;其中死亡梭杆菌(Fusobacterium mortiferum) ATCC 9817是唯一一种对人类致病的细菌,其TARG1被命名为FmTARG1;酶活力测定表明,FmTARG1同样具备hTARG1的3种酶活,且酶活更高,不仅可以催化水解OAADPr,还可以催化切除/水解单ADPr和PAR基团;目前FmTARG1的结构尚未报道,其详细的催化机制也未完全阐明;根据AlphaFold3预测的结构显示,FmTARG1与TARG1的RMSD为0.635 Å,其中可能负责催化反应的2个关键氨基酸分别为K73和D115 (TARG1中对应为K84和D125),二者具有高度相似的催化机制,即K73/K84对核糖基团的C′′进行亲核攻击形成临时的K84-ADPr中间产物,从而释放底物蛋白被修饰的谷氨酸,D115/D125则进一步通过水解席夫碱并释放ADPr产物[27] (图1F)。此外,在天蓝色链霉菌(Streptomyces coelicolor)中也鉴定到了一个ALC1样蛋白——SCO6735,一级序列及高级结构比对显示,SCO6735并不存在TARG1样蛋白的2个关键催化氨基酸,但却可以在体外反应中切除谷氨酸残基上的单ADPr修饰,由于目前SCO6735与ADPr或其修饰底物的复合物结构尚未解析,其具体催化机制尚不清楚(图1G);SCO6735的表达受RecA非依赖性DNA损伤诱导启动子的控制,并在紫外诱导的DNA损伤时上调表达,因此推测SCO6735可能参与DNA损伤修复[56]。此外,SCO6735的破坏会增加放线菌素抗生素的产生,这表明其可能在抗生素代谢中也具有调节作用[31, 57]
DarG样ARHs是近些年报道的一类独特的ARH,它修饰的底物不是蛋白质,而是DNA,并且广泛地分布于结核分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mtb)、肺炎克雷伯氏菌(Klebsiella pneumoniae)和条件致病菌门门多萨假单胞菌(Pseudomonas mendocina)等致病菌,以及一些非致病菌如水生栖热菌(Thermus aquaticus, Taq)中[9]。DarG与DarT共同组成毒素-抗毒素(toxin-antitoxin,TA)系统,并在染色体复制的初期通过ADPr修饰DNA调控细菌的生长[9, 58-59]。其中DarT具有ART活性,可以对DNA中的胸腺嘧啶或鸟嘌呤进行特异性修饰,而DarG则具有ARH活性,可以将ADPr基团从被修饰的胸腺嘧啶或鸟嘌呤上切除;MtbDarG和TaqDarG的结构比对表明,二者具有典型的Macrodomain家族蛋白的空间折叠,RMSD高达0.89 Å[9],并且与TARG1具有最高的结构相似性[60] (图1H)。DarG催化去ADP-核糖基化修饰的关键氨基酸和催化机制与TARG1也相似,例如,TaqDarG的K80也通过亲核攻击与ADPr形成赖氨酰-ADPr中间产物[9]。此外,DarG可以与RecA、RecB和RecF等DNA修复因子相互作用,表明这些蛋白质可以与DarG一起被募集到DNA的ADPr修饰位点,介导DNA的损伤修复[61]。研究表明,DarTG TA系统可能提高细菌对外界环境压力和抗生素影响的适应性,这些因素可以刺激DarT的表达,并进一步诱导细菌进入休眠状态,当环境压力和抗生素浓度降低后,DarG的分泌能有效帮助菌体恢复正常活性[28, 62]。近期有报道表明,该系统还参与了细菌的抗噬菌体反应,并将该系统分为DarTG1和DarTG2两个进化分支[29-30]。在未感染噬菌体的情况下,DarG结合并中和DarT的毒性保护细菌自身免受毒性杀伤,而当RB69或T5噬菌体感染细菌后,某些因素触发激活了该系统,并释放DarT1/2毒素对噬菌体DNA进行ADPr修饰,抑制其基因组的复制,从而阻止成熟病毒的产生,最终为细菌提供强有力的抗噬菌体能力[30]
嗜肺军团菌效应蛋白Lpg0081 (Larg1)也是近期报道的一个MacroD样ARH;在嗜肺军团菌感染宿主细胞的前期,ADP-核糖基转移酶Lpg0080 (Ceg3)通过对线粒体上的腺苷酸转运体(adenine nucleotide translocator, ANT)进行ADPr修饰,抑制ANTs对ADP/ATP的跨内膜运输,进而抑制宿主细胞线粒体的能量转运[32-33]。感染中后期,Larg1通过其ARH活性将ANTs的ADPr基团切除,以恢复其ADP/ATP转运能力[32]。Larg1的整体结构与其他典型的Macrodomain家族ARHs类似,由9个β折叠片和6个α螺旋组成“三明治”样结构,其催化环位于“催化口袋”中,由19个残基(-S371DAFALTGNEWGYGS VES388-)组成,尽管该催化环的氨基酸序列与Macrodomain家族其他ARHs有较低的同源性,但可以形成特定的α螺旋-环结构,位于该结构上的D372-E380-E387共同组成了Larg1的催化中心,其中E380负责攻击ANT1的R236和ADPr之间的N-糖苷键,并最终催化其断裂;构成“催化口袋”的一些关键氨基酸通过氢键与ADPr基团的不同区域相互作用,进而将其固定在合适的催化位置,这些氨基酸突变后都会一定程度地影响Larg1的ARH活性,此外,Y134和F282在“催化口袋”的上方形成一个“盖子”样结构,为稳定ADPr提供帮助(图1I)[15]
Lpg2526 (MavL)是最近报道的另外一个具有ARH活性的嗜肺军团菌效应蛋白[16]。在嗜肺军团菌感染的过程中,SidE家族蛋白首先通过其ART结构域对泛素(ubiquitin, Ub)的R42进行ADPr修饰,然后通过其PDE结构域将ADPr基团转变成PR并连接到底物蛋白上,完成对底物蛋白的非经典泛素化修饰[34-35, 63]。效应蛋白DupA/DupB通过去泛素化反应将PR-Ub从底物上切除,随后Lpg2527 (LnaB)以ATP作为配体,在宿主肌动蛋白的激活下催化单磷酸腺苷酸化反应将游离的PR-Ub转化成ADPr-Ub,MavL则进一步发挥ARH活性,将ADPr基团从Ub上切除,恢复Ub分子的“自由”,使其能够回归宿主的泛素化通路,继而解除ADPr-Ub和PR-Ub的宿主细胞毒性[35]。MavL、MavL-ADPr和MavL-Ub-ADPr的相关结构都已经获得解析,结构分析表明,MavL具备Macrodomain家族ARHs的核心结构和由螺旋-环构成的关键催化元件,其中D315、D323和D333共同组成了MavL的催化中心(图1J);在识别底物(ADPr-Ub)的过程中,MavL需要发生构象变化将其“催化口袋”打开,然后Ub的R42上修饰的ADPr插入该“催化口袋”中,并与周围氨基酸形成复杂的氢键相互作用网络,其中D323的侧链朝向ADPr的1′-OH和R42的-NH2之间的糖苷键,在水分子的协助下发生亲核攻击,最终催化完成ADPr的切除[16, 35]
与Macrodomain家族ARHs的“三明治”样结构不同,典型的DraG样ARHs全部由α螺旋组成其核心结构,其中“催化口袋”位于该结构底物的裂隙中;此外,H3和H13含有一个高度保守的天冬酰胺和苏氨酸残基,这2个氨基酸残基对锰离子结合至关重要,锰离子对DraG样ARHs酶活中心水分子的结合和定位,以及进一步激活对ADPr基团的亲核攻击中发挥关键作用[18]
深红红小螺菌(Rhodospirillum rubrum)的DraG是第一个报道的DraG-like家族ARH,它与dinitrogenase reductase ADP-ribosyltransferase (DraT)通过ADPr修饰/去修饰共同调控细菌的固氮过程[64]。DraT的活性随着环境的刺激(如黑暗和过量的固定氮源)而增加,并对二氮酶还原酶的R101进行ADPr修饰使其失活,从而使其停止固氮反应;而当细菌暴露于光照或者氮源耗尽时,DraG通过其ARH活性将R101位点的ADPr基团切除以恢复二氮酶还原酶的活性;DraG的核心结构域全部由α-螺旋构成(共16个),其催化中心位于其底部形成的“口袋”中,由多个环结构(loop)构成,其中E28-D60-D97与1个水分子以及2个Mn2+共同组成了DraG的催化反应核心,并通过亲核攻击发挥ADP-核糖基水解酶活性(图1K);结构比对表明,DraG与ARH3具有最高的结构相似性,不同的是后者的催化中心可以结合2个Mg2+,并且主要催化PAR的水解[17, 21]
最近,在变形斑沙雷氏菌(Serratia proteamaculans)中新报道了一个DraG-like家族ARHs——Tri1。Tri1由T6SS分泌系统分泌,作为免疫蛋白与type Ⅵ secretion ADP- ribosyltransferase effector 1 (Tre1)共同组成一对effector-immunity protein pair (E-I pair),参与变形斑沙雷氏菌的种间竞争;Tre1通过T6SS进入竞争细菌内,对其FtsZ上保守R174进行ADPr修饰,进而抑制FtsZ高聚形成“纤维”结构导致细胞分裂异常,并最终对竞争细菌展现出细胞毒性;然而Tre1在变形斑沙雷菌表达的过程中,也会对自身产生毒性,为了避免对自身的杀伤作用,变形斑沙雷菌同时编码了Tri1,Tri1可以通过独特的双中和机制中和Tre1的细菌毒性;其中一种是通过Tri1的ADP-核糖基水解酶活性将自身被ADPr修饰的FtsZ恢复成活性形式而实现的;结构生物研究表明,Tri1与经典的DraG-like家族ARHs一样,具有一个全部由α-螺旋构成的核心结构域,催化中心同样位于底部环状结构形成的“口袋”中,其中E90-D161-D317组成了Tri1的催化中心,催化过程中需要镁离子协同参与催化反应(图1L);与经典的DraG-like家族ARHs不同的是,除了核心结构域,Tri1的N端还包含一个延伸的结构域,即N端延伸(N terminal extension, NTE);NTE由大约60个氨基酸组成,不仅在Tre1与Tri1的互作中发挥重要作用,更重要的是NTE覆盖于Tre1的酶活口袋之上,从而阻断其与底物的结合并抑制其酶活,最终还可以通过经典的“封闭”催化中心的形式发挥免疫蛋白的中和活性[8]
ADPr修饰作为一种重要的翻译后修饰,对其研究已经有60年的历史,期间取得了诸多重要的发现,尤其是对人类等哺乳动物的ADPr代谢的深入研究,为我们理解ADPr代谢在DNA复制、转录、损伤修复以及信号转导、细胞分裂、细胞应激和微生物感染反应等方面提供了重要支撑[3, 65-67]。ADPr修饰异常与多种人类疾病的发展相关,包括癌症、神经退行性疾病和免疫系统疾病等[68],对ADPr修饰的研究不仅有助于深入理解细胞生物学和病理过程,还为开发新的治疗策略提供了潜在靶点。例如,PARP抑制剂已被开发用于治疗某些类型的癌症,这些抑制剂通过抑制PARP的活性,阻断DNA修复途径,从而诱导癌细胞死亡[69]。科研人员也在原核生物中陆续鉴定到了ADPr代谢系统的存在,并对一些人或哺乳动物中存在的ARTs和ARHs的同源物进行了一定的研究,发现ADPr修饰对原核生物也同样重要,在细菌的物种间/种内竞争、应激反应和致病性中发挥重要作用,例如一些病原菌分泌的效应蛋白可以通过ADPr修饰/去修饰宿主蛋白质,动态地改变宿主细胞的信号通路,以协助病原菌的侵染和生存[1, 4]。然而,相较于对真核生物的ADPr修饰的研究,目前细菌的相关研究还相对欠缺,主要存在的问题包括:(1) 细菌或致病菌种类繁多,筛选鉴定ADPr修饰相关酶存在一定困难;(2) 在长时间的进化过程中,编码此类蛋白的基因会发生重组、缺失等情况,最终产生多个进化分支,其生物学功能也更复杂多样;(3) 对细菌此类酶的关注度不够,一些蛋白的研究尚停留在生物信息学分析层面,其底物以及催化机制尚不清楚。
总之,细菌ARHs是一类参与细菌代谢和生存的关键酶,涉及DNA修复、细胞信号传递和基因表达调控等多个生物学过程。研究这些酶的功能和调控机制对于理解细菌如何适应环境压力、逃避宿主免疫系统以及开发新的抗菌策略具有重要意义。此外,ADPr修饰在DNA损伤应答及癌症治疗中也扮演着重要角色,通过研究细菌ARHs的活性和调控机制也可能揭示了新的抗菌或抗癌靶点。在抗生素耐药性日益成为全球性健康问题的背景下,许多病原菌对现有抗生素的耐药性越来越强,因此,仍需更多深入了解细菌ADPr信号传导的分子机制,为设计用于治疗当前和未来传染病的新型抗菌策略提供理论依据。
  • 国家自然科学基金(82225028)
  • 国家自然科学基金(82172287)
  • 国家自然科学基金(31900879)
  • 国家自然科学基金(32171265)
  • 国家重点研发计划(2021YFC2301403)
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240512
  • 接收时间:2024-08-19
  • 首发时间:2026-03-21
  • 出版时间:2025-01-04
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  • 收稿日期:2024-08-19
  • 录用日期:2024-10-14
基金
National Natural Science Foundation of China(82225028)
国家自然科学基金(82225028)
National Natural Science Foundation of China(82172287)
国家自然科学基金(82172287)
National Natural Science Foundation of China(31900879)
国家自然科学基金(31900879)
National Natural Science Foundation of China(32171265)
国家自然科学基金(32171265)
National Key Research and Development Program of China(2021YFC2301403)
国家重点研发计划(2021YFC2301403)
作者信息
    1 福建师范大学 生命科学学院, 福建 福州 350117
    2 福建农林大学 动物科学学院, 福建 福州 350117
    3 福建师范大学, 南方生物医学研究中心, 福建 福州 350117

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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